Reciprocating Engine Operating Description

• Intermittent combustion

• Piston travels up/down in cylinder

(reciprocating motion)

• Ignition of fuel/air mix is timed to

piston’s position near TDC

• Burning fuel/air mixture increases

pressure in cylinder, drives piston down,
performing “work” transmitted into
crankshaft & propeller
 Reciprocating Engine Operating Principles

Internal combustion
• Fuel/air ignition occurs inside a
cylinder or combustion chamber

External combustion
• Steam engine

All internal combustion engines have the

following sequence of events in common:
 Reciprocating Engine Operating Principles

Intake - fuel and air taken into the

combustion chamber

Compression - fuel and air compressed

Ignition - mixture is ignited

Power - gases burn and expand

Exhaust - burnt gases expelled to clear

combustion chamber
 4 Stroke Reciprocating Engine
“Otto cycle” term used to describe events
August Otto – Developed principle of 4-stroke engine in Germany

• Two revolutions (720º) of the crankshaft complete one cycle (4 strokes)

In other words: 720 degrees crankshaft rotation between each ignition event.

• Intake and exhaust valves control the fuel/air mixture

• Ignition is timed to piston position - by number of degrees before top

center on the compression stroke

• Valve overlap: number of degrees of shaft rotation that both valves are open
- Occurs near end of Exhaust stroke at transition to Intake
-Takes advantage of the existing flow energy or inertia of the exhaust
gasses, assists in greater fuel charge forced into cylinder as Intake
opens.
 4 Stroke Reciprocating Engine

INTAKE COMPRESSION POWER EXHAUST

Pg. 30-31
The four strokes of the cycle are

• Intake
• Compression
• Power
• Exhaust

Each corresponds to one full stroke of the piston or 180 degrees crankshaft rotation.

Therefore the complete cycle from ignition event to ignition event requires two
revolutions of the crankshaft to complete.

How many degrees rotation is that?

Note: 4 strokes of travel for the piston - - But 5 events

• Ignition occurs between Compression and Power strokes

 4 Stroke Engine Example

Intake. During the intake stroke, the piston

moves downward, drawing a fresh charge of
vaporized fuel/air mixture.

The illustrated engine features a 'poppet'

intake valve which is drawn open by the
vacuum produced by the intake stroke.
Some early engines worked this way,
however most modern engines incorporate
an extra cam/lifter arrangement as seen on
the exhaust valve. The exhaust valve is held
shut by a spring (not illustrated here).
 4 Stroke Engine Example

Compression. As the piston rises, the

poppet valve is forced shut by increased
cylinder pressure. Flywheel momentum
drives the piston upward, compressing the
fuel/air mixture.
 4 Stroke Engine Example

Power. At the top of the compression stroke

the spark plug fires, igniting the compressed
fuel. As the fuel burns it expands, driving
the piston downward.
 4 Stroke Engine Example

Exhaust. At the bottom of the power stroke, the

exhaust valve is opened by the cam/lifter
mechanism. The upward stroke of the piston
drives the exhausted fuel out of the cylinder.

This illustration also shows simple

ignition system using breaker
points, coil, condenser, and battery.
We’ll discuss ignition systems with
Magnetos (same basic principles)
later.
Each stroke occurs as a chain of events, precisely timed.

Additional Video
 4 Stroke Reciprocating Engine
Terms:
• TDC - Top Dead Center (top of piston travel)
• BDC - Bottom Dead Center
• BTC - Before Top Center
• ATC - After Top Center
• BBC - Before Bottom Center
• ABC - After Bottom Center
• IO - Intake Opens
• IC - Intake Closes Pg. 44-45

• EO - Exhaust Opens
• EC - Exhaust Closes
Valve Timing Diagram

Valve
overlap =
30 degrees
 Formulas and Calculations for Engines
Cubic Inch Displacement

• CID = 3.14 x radius of cylinder squared x stroke

• Multiply by number of cylinders = total CID
• Example: bore = 5”
stroke = 6”
number of cylinders = 4
total CID = 471 cubic inches
• More cubic inches creates more power
• A “square” engine (bore=stroke) is considered to
be the most efficient
Formulas and Calculations for Engines
 Formulas and Calculations for Engines

Compression Ratio

Volume in the cylinder at the bottom of its travel as

compared to the top
• Expressed as a ratio 10:1, 7:1 (common)
• Higher compression ratios produce more power
• Compression ratio is limited by fuel octane and
engine/cylinder strength
• The higher the compression ratio, the more apt the
engine is to detonate or “knock” - - Why ???
 BDC

TDC
Compression Ratio
The more volume
of fuel/air
compressed =
greater force of
ignition = MORE
POWER...
 Octane Rating

So what do you know about octane ratings?

The OCTANE rating does NOT indicate how much
“POWER”, “ENERGY”, or “HEAT” the fuel has.
OCTANE is a measure of how much the fuel will resist
being compressed before it explodes.
Fuel is supposed to burn slowly not explode.
The harder you can squeeze a fuel in a piston combustion
chamber before it explodes the more pressure the resulting fuel
burn will produce.
So, 95 octane can be squeezed harder than 87 octane but both
produce the same amount of heat when they burn.
 Octane Rating

Engines are not made equal…

 Horsepower
Brake vs. Indicated vs. Friction HP
• Work accomplished over time
 Horsepower

• Brake horsepower: actual horsepower delivered by an engine to

the propeller. Used to compare aircraft engines and is the power
measured at the propeller shaft using a dynamometer (Prony brake)
 Horsepower

Dynamometer in Test Cell

 Horsepower

• BHP = F x L x 2 x 3.14 x RPM / 33,000

• F = force produced by the lever arm
• L = length of lever arm
• RPM = speed of engine measured at the crankshaft
Indicated horsepower: total power produced in the cylinders – a
theoretical number that does not include loss due to friction

Friction HP – part of the total HP necessary to overcome friction of

moving parts in the engine

Brake HP = ihp - fhp

 Volumetric Efficiency
Ratio of the amount of air the engine actually brings into the
cylinder to the total theoretical displacement of the cylinder (as
designed)

• The ratio will always be less than 100% in engines that are
not supercharged due to bends and restrictions in the
induction system

• VE = volume of fuel/air charge

piston displacement

• The fewer bends and restrictions in the induction system, the

higher the VE
i.e., “Silly-Straws” vs. straight straw
Volumetric Efficiency
 Factors Affecting Engine Performance

Detonation
Explosion of the fuel/air mixture instead of a steady burning
(approximately 35 ft/sec is normal desired “gas propagation” rate)

Detonation causes abrupt rise in cylinder temperatures and pressures that may
cause engine damage (knock)

Caused by:
• low octane fuel
• high cylinder temperatures
• high prop load (cylinder pressure)
• lean mixture (burns hotter – excessive or prolonged use can detonate)
• high compression ratios
 Factors Affecting Engine Performance

Preignition
Ignition of the fuel/air mixture before the properly timed spark
occurs (ping)
• Caused by:
-hot spots on the cylinder wall (damage or carbon piece)
-improper spark plug (too hot)
-carbon glowing hot in the combustion area

Preignition causes the temperature and pressure in combustion chamber to

rise and may lead quickly to detonation

Detonation: related to temperature

Pre-ignition: related first to timing, but can lead to detonation
 Factors Affecting Engine Performance

• Prevention of detonation and pre-ignition

– use fuel with the proper octane rating
– use correct spark plug
– operate engine according to pilot’s operating handbook
– do not lean the mixture during high power operations
 Engine Descriptions and Classifications
Cylinder arrangement is one method of identifying engines

Typical arrangements include:

• Inline (upright and inverted)
• “V” (upright and inverted)
• Opposed
• Radial (including multiple rows of cylinders)

Prefix letters
L - left hand rotation
V - vertical crankshaft helicopter
H - horizontal crankshaft helicopter
A - aerobatic
 Engine Descriptions and Classifications

Prefix letters
GTSIO - 520
T – turbocharged
• Gear reduced prop
I - fuel injected
• Turbocharged
G- gear reduced prop drive
• Fuel Injected
S - supercharged • Opposed cylinder
O- opposed • 520 cubic inch displacement

R – radial

The numbers are the cubic inch displacement

• Colors are Lycoming gray/blue or Continental gold
• Suffix letters vary by manufacturer and model and must be
deciphered by reference to the service manual
Engine Descriptions and Classifications
INLINE INVERTED
Engine Descriptions and Classifications
RADIAL
Engine Descriptions and Classifications
OPPOSED
Engine Descriptions and Classifications
“V”