Galvanic Corrosion: Printable Version

Galvanic Corrosion
Printable Version
Abstract:
Galvanic processes occur between different metals and between different areas of the same metal in the
water environment. Water is an electrolyte, a poorly conductive one at the low dissolved solids content of
fresh waters, and a highly conductive one at the high dissolved solids content of sea water.
When two different metals are immersed in an electrolyte and connected through a metallic path, current
will flow. Oxidation occurs at the anode and reduction (normally oxygen reduction) occurs at the cathode.
Galvanic processes occur between different metals and between different areas of
the same metal in the water environment. Water is an electrolyte, a poorly
conductive one at the low dissolved solids content of fresh waters, and a highly
conductive one at the high dissolved solids content of sea water.
When two different metals are immersed in an electrolyte and connected through a
metallic path, current will flow. Oxidation occurs at the anode and reduction (normally
oxygen reduction) occurs at the cathode. These reactions and the hydrogen reduction
reaction that occurs in deaerated waters are represented in the usual form below.
Oxidation (corrosion) M → M+ + 2e
O2 (dissolved) + 2H2O + 4e →
Reduction (deaerated waters)
4(OH-)
Reduction (deaerated waters) 2H+ + 2e → 2e
The electrons flow through the metal path from the anode to the cathode. The circuit is
completed by transport (migration) of the ionic species (OH) from the vicinity of the
cathode to the vicinity of the anode. In the absence of other species, the rate at which
these reactions occur, and consequently the rate at which the anode corrodes, is
controlled by the rate at which oxygen can be reduced at the cathode.
The rate of reduction of oxygen at the cathode in turn is determined primarily by the
resistance to electron flow in the circuit, the cathodic surface area available for oxygen
reduction and the amount of oxygen available at the cathodic area. The galvanic current
(corrosion) is directly proportional to the cathodic area when the cell is under cathodic
control as it normally is in water.
Conductivity plays a major role by limiting galvanic corrosion to the immediate area of
contact in low conductivity fresh water and by spreading the galvanic effect over rather
large areas in highly conductive waters such as seawater.
Painting the anode requires all of the anodic corrosion to occur in the very small areas
where coating breakdown at scratches, welds, etc. occurs and exposes the steel. Painting
the cathode reduces the area available for the rate-controlling oxygen reduction reaction
and the amount of oxidation (corrosion) that can occur at the anode. Stainless steels are
positioned towards the cathodic end of the galvanic series in seawater.
The potential range shown for each alloy should be interpreted as the range within which
the metal to sea water potential is likely to vary for each alloy, not as an indication that
alloys close to each other in the series are likely to change position. This rarely happens.
The second more anodic potential band for stainless steels should be interpreted as the
potential that develops in a shielded area where crevice corrosion has initiated.
Lee and Tuthill have developed quantitative guidelines for the amount of carbon steel or
Ni-Resist required suppressing crevice corrosion of types 304 and 316 stainless steels in
seawater.
These data indicate that carbon steel is very effective in suppressing crevice corrosion of
304 and 316 stainless steel in up to 100:1 SS to CS area ratios at 14°C (57°F) in seawater.
At 28°C there is complete protection at 10:1 and a tenfold reduction in the percentage of
sites where initiation occurs at 50:1 SS: CS area ratios. Ni-Resist (NR) is found to
provide full protection for 316 and substantial protection for 304 at 50:1 SS: NR area
ratios at temperatures up to 28°C.
The position of the copper alloys in the galvanic series suggests that copper alloys will
not suppress crevice corrosion in stainless steels and, in fact, may accelerate crevice
attack once it has started. Experience indicates copper alloys provide no useful galvanic
protection for stainless steels.
Type 304 is the least noble of the nickel stainless steels and alloy 825 the most noble,
being separated by about 0.05 volt. The various nickel stainless steels are generally
coupled mechanically to each other and to nickel-base alloys without serious galvanic
effects. There are two major qualifications:
• Should type 316L inadvertently be welded with type 308L filler metal instead
of 316L, the weld metal will suffer severe localized corrosion. Hard facing
overlays for rotating seal faces and weld overlay of tail shafts are other
applications where close attention must be given to the position of individual
alloys with respect to each other in the galvanic series in order to avoid costly
failures.
• Both type 303 and 303Se suffer extraordinarily severe corrosion in seawater.
The high density of manganese sulfide or selenide inclusion in these free-
machining alloys creates a surface with numerous built in austenite-to-
inclusion galvanic cells.
Carbon is 0.2-0.3 volts or more positive than the nickel stainless steels. Carbon in
the form of graphite; containing gaskets, packing and lubricants has been
responsible for serious galvanic corrosion of stainless steels in seawater. Graphite in
any form should never be used in contact with stainless steels in brackish or
seawater.
Carbon filled rubber O-rings and gaskets are widely used in contact with stainless steels
in seawater. The corrosion that occurs under O-rings and black rubber gaskets is normally
crevice corrosion. However, in some instances acids used for chemical cleaning have
softened these carbon-filled rubbers sufficiently to release carbon and set up adverse
galvanic cell action, greatly accelerating the crevice attack that occurs in these rubber-to-
stainless crevices.
Galvanic corrosion is a two way street and the effect on the other material coupled to
stainless steels must always be considered. Investigating why copper alloy tube sheets
were being so severely corroded when copper alloy condensers were re-tubed with
stainless steel and titanium tubes, Gehring, Kuester and Maurer found that the whole
inside surface area of the tube of the more noble alloys became effective as a cathode in
copper alloy to stainless steel or titanium couples.
The more noble materials are so easily polarized that the cathodic area available for the
reduction reaction (the rate controlling process) is multiplied far beyond the old two or
four diameters rule of thumb, which was based on copper alloy behavior. Later work by
Gehring and Kyle indicated that the intensity of the galvanic effect decreased with
salinity. The increasing resistance of the lower salinity waters limits the effective
cathodic area.
Galvanic corrosion can occur between different constituents of the same metal as well as
between different metals. Iron embedded in the surface of stainless steel, manganese
sulfide stringers and less highly alloyed weld metal are common examples.
Summary of galvanic corrosion of nickel stainless steels
• Galvanic corrosion occurs between weld metal and base metal, between
different areas of the same metal and between different metals in water.
• The intensity of galvanic corrosion is determined by the conductivity, oxygen
content and the effective anode-to-cathode area ratio.
• Galvanic effects are spread over a large area in brackish and seawater; are
confined to the immediate area of the junction in fresh water; and are often
negligible in deaerated brines.
• Steel, Ni-Resist, zinc and aluminum are very effective in suppressing crevice
corrosion on stainless steels except types 303 and 303Se.
• Carbon, graphite-lubricated gaskets, packing, greases etc. are very effective
in initiating severe corrosion of stainless steels.
• Galvanic effects can be significantly reduced by removing coatings from the
anode and by coating the more noble (cathodic) material.
• Stainless steel (or titanium) tubing increases copper alloy tube sheet attack to
the point where impressed current cathodic protection is normally required to
control tube sheet corrosion.
• Galvanic corrosion between different grades of nickel stainless steels
mechanically joined is rare, but can be severe when welded. Caution and
exposure tests are suggested.
• Avoid use of types 303 and 303Se.
Crevices and Corrosion
A crevice is a narrow gap between a piece of metal and another piece of metal or
tightly adhering material like plastic or a film of bacterial growth.
Many metals and alloys are susceptible to crevice corrosion, but in stainless
steel, crevices are the first and most common place for corrosive attack to begin.
With a little understanding, crevice corrosion can either be avoided or minimized.
Crevices can be:
• The space under a washer or bolt head.

• The gap between plates bolted together.
• The gap between components intermittently welded.
• The space under a sticky label.
• The space between a gasket and the metal in a flange (especially if the
gasket is absorbent).
• Any other tight gap.
Crevices can be designed into the structure; they can be created during
fabrication or can occur during service.
Prevention measures should therefore also aim at design, fabrication and

service.
Why crevices can corrode
To work at its best, stainless needs free access to

oxygen. Crevices are wide enough to permit entry of
moisture, but narrow enough to prevent free
circulation.
The result is that the oxygen in the moisture is used

up. In addition, if chlorides are present they will
concentrate in the stagnant conditions and, by a
combination of reactions, the moisture can become
acidic.
These are all conditions that can lead to the

breakdown of the passive film on the stainless. Attack can then progress rapidly.
Crevices can create conditions much more aggressive than on adjacent surfaces.
Having crevices builds in weak spots where attack can begin and begin in much
less severe conditions than anticipated for the remainder of the structure.
Table one shows laboratory measurements of critical temperatures needed to

cause pitting on an open surface (CPT) and crevice (CCT) attack of a metal plate
beneath a PTFE washer in a 10% ferric chloride solution.
The CCT is at least 20 degrees C lower than the
temperature to cause pitting corrosion in this
aggressive liquid. (Ferric chloride solution is an
aggressive co rodent and is used because it is similar
to the liquid in a pit when it is actively corroding.)
Factors influencing crevices:
Crevice Shape
The geometry of the crevice will influence its

susceptibility to attack and the speed of progress.
The narrower and deeper (relative to its width) a
crevice is the worse attack will be.
Metal to flexible plastic crevices tend to be narrower than rigid metal to metal
gaps so metal to plastic joints provide more aggressive crevices.
Environment
The more aggressive the liquid outside the crevice, the more likely it is that the
crevice will be attacked.
This is why crevice attack can be a problem in a salty swimming pool but not in a
fresh water tank.
In the atmosphere, crevices beside the sea give more problems than in rural
environments. If the liquid outside the crevice is very oxidizing, e.g. with bleach,
hydrogen peroxide or ozone, then crevice attack will tend to be more severe.
Temperature
Once the CCT is exceeded, then as with pitting

corrosion, higher temperatures mean corrosion
is more rapid. The rule of thumb is that a 10
degrees C rise in temperature wills double the
corrosion rate.
This means that when comparing Far North Queensland to Tasmania, not only
are crevices more likely to start corroding but also that once they do, they will
corrode faster because the temperature is consistently higher.
Alloy Resistance
Using a more corrosion resistant alloy gives less crevice attack. For example, in
seawater at ambient temperature, crevices will form on 304 if there is a 0.9mm
gap, on 316 if there is a 0.4mm gap and on 904L (similar corrosion resistance to
2205) if there is a 0.15mm gap.
Minimizing the risk of crevice corrosion
Good design, fabrication and operating practices

will anticipate and hence minimize crevice
corrosion.
Design
Design to minimize the occurrence of crevices. If a crevice is a necessary part of

a component's design - can it be made wider?
Full penetration butt welds are best for joints. Seal lap joints and avoid gaps
between pipes and fittings.
Minimize use of bolted connections and other fasteners. Where crevices can't be
avoided use steel grade resistant to crevice corrosion in the operating
environment. It is also possible to seal the crevices to keep out corrosive liquids,
but care must be taken that the seal is permanent.
Be careful that the sealant 'wets' the surface. If it doesn't it may form its own
crevice. Sealants that dry and shrink can form their own crevices.
Gaskets between flanges will probably form a slight crevice, but if the gasket
does not absorb the liquid and is compressed between the surfaces (and not
bulging around the flange), then the crevice is usually shallow enough so that
crevice corrosion is not a problem.
Fabrication
Ensure full root penetration of welded joints

with smooth weld bead. Avoid under cut and
cracks in welding. Use of sticky labels or
markers of various kinds (such as crayons)
should be avoided, as should smears of
grease or oil.
'Smooth and clean' at all times. ASSDA

Accredited Fabricators are assessed on their
knowledge of crevice corrosion.
Operation
Sediment and scale can both result in crevices. If the problem can't be designed
out, routine maintenance will minimize risk. Crevice corrosion under bacteria film
can occur. Maintaining circulation reduces the risk that debris will collect and
form crevices in dead legs or low flow areas.
Further Reading
The Nickel Institute's free publication #11021 'High Performance Stainless

Steels' contains much of the information used in this article.
This publication and a mathematical model useful for assessing crevice corrosion
risk can be downloaded from the Nickel Institute website -
www.nickelinstitute.org.
If more detailed corrosion mechanism information is required, then 'Corrosion of

Stainless Steel' by A. John Sedriks is a good intermediate point.
Credits
The Australian Stainless Steel Development Association (ASSDA) would like to

acknowledge the contribution of the following Technical Committee members for
their contribution to the production of this article.
• Richard Matheson - Executive Director, ASSDA

• Graham Sussex - Technical Specialist, ASSDA
• Peter Moore - Technical Services Manager, Atlas Specialty Metals
This article featured in Australian Stainless magazine - Issue 29, September

2004.
Corrosion Control - Galvanic Table

Lee Erb
Originally published August 1997
Listed below is the latest galvanic table from MIL-STD-889. I have numbered the
materials for future discussion of characteristics. However, for any combination of
dissimilar metals, the metal with the lower number will act as an anode and will corrode
preferentially.
The table is the galvanic series of metals in sea water from Army Missile Command
Report RS-TR-67-11, "Practical Galvanic Series."
The Galvanic Table
Active (Anodic)
1. Magnesium
2. Mg alloy AZ-31B
3. Mg alloy HK-31A
4. Zinc (hot-dip, die cast, or plated)
5. Beryllium (hot pressed)
6. Al 7072 clad on 7075
7. Al 2014-T3
8. Al 1160-H14
9. Al 7079-T6
10. Cadmium (plated)
11. Uranium
12. Al 218 (die cast)
13. Al 5052-0
14. Al 5052-H12
15. Al 5456-0, H353
16. Al 5052-H32
17. Al 1100-0
18. Al 3003-H25
19. Al 6061-T6
20. Al A360 (die cast)
21. Al 7075-T6
22. Al 6061-0
23. Indium
24. Al 2014-0
25. Al 2024-T4
26. Al 5052-H16
27. Tin (plated)
28. Stainless steel 430 (active)
29. Lead
30. Steel 1010
31. Iron (cast)
33. Copper (plated, cast, or wrought)
34. Nickel (plated)
35. Chromium (Plated)
36. Tantalum
37. AM350 (active)
43. Stainless steel 17-7PH (active)
44. Tungsten
45. Niobium (columbium) 1% Zr
46. Brass, Yellow, 268
47. Uranium 8% Mo.
48. Brass, Naval, 464
49. Yellow Brass
50. Muntz Metal 280
51. Brass (plated)
52. Nickel-silver (18% Ni)
53. Stainless steel 316L (active)
54. Bronze 220
55. Copper 110
56. Red Brass
58. Molybdenum, Commercial pure
59. Copper-nickel 715
60. Admiralty brass
62. Bronze, Phosphor 534 (B-1)
63. Monel 400
65. Carpenter 20 (active)
69. Stainless steel 17-7PH (passive)
70. Silicone Bronze 655
71. Stainless steel 304 (passive)
76. Stainless steel 316L (passive)
77. AM355 (active)
79. Carpenter 20 (passive)
80. AM355 (passive)
81. A286 (passive)
82. Titanium 5A1, 2.5 Sn
83. Titanium 13V, 11Cr, 3Al (annealed)
84. Titanium 6Al, 4V (solution treated and aged)
85. Titanium 6Al, 4V (anneal)
86. Titanium 8Mn
87. Titanium 13V, 11Cr 3Al (solution heat treated and aged)
88. Titanium 75A
89. AM350 (passive)
90. Silver
91. Gold
92. Graphite
End - Noble (Less Active, Cathodic)
Notes
AC43.13, starting at Par 247, briefly covers several types of corrosion and corrosion
protection. The grouping of materials is an early method of MS33586 which was
superseded in 1969 by MIL-STD-889.
More on Galvanic Table (Almost straight from MIL-STD-

889)
General
The Galvanic Table lists metals in the order of their relative activity in sea water
environment. The list begins with the more active (anodic) metal and proceeds down the
to the least active (cathodic) metal of the galvanic series.
A "galvanic series" applies to a particular electrolyte solution; hence for each specific
solution which is expected to be encountered for actual use, a different order or series
will ensue. The sea water galvanic series is the most complete series that I know and I
have not seen another series published by either the Army, Navy, or Air Force. Civilian
aircraft encounter moisture and a salt of some kind.
Galvanic series relationships are useful as a guide for selecting metals to be joined, will
help the selection of metals having minimal tendency to interact galvanic ally, or will
indicate the need or degree of protection to be applied to lessen the expected potential
interactions.
Generally, the closer one metal is to another in the series, the more compatible they will
be, i.e., the galvanic effects will be minimal. Conversely, the farther one metal is from
another, the greater the corrosion will be.
Notice that graphite is at the bottom of the table. Think of the corrosion potential if you
put a big hunk of graphite on a small piece of magnesium.
In a galvanic couple, the metal higher in the series (or the smaller the number I have
given it) represents the anode, and will corrode preferentially in the environment.
Types of Protection
Metals widely separated in the galvanic series must be protected if they are to be joined.
Appropriate measures should be taken to avoid contact. This can be accomplished by
several methods:
1. Sacrificial - by applying to the cathodic member a sacrificial coating having a

potential similar to or near that of the anodic member. If you are designing for a
sacrificial element, the sacrificial element should be on the anodic side and
smaller. Cadmium plate (No. 10) on steel bolts (No. 81) holding 2024-T4 (No.
25) plates will sacrifice the cadmium instead of corroding the Aluminum. This is
one reason for using new bolts that have the Cad plate intact. (Don't use Cad
plate with Titanium (No. 82 through 88). But that's another story.)
2. Sealing - by sealing to insure that faying surfaces are water-tight. (We have
"talked" about this before.)
3. Resistance - by painting or coating all surfaces to increase the resistance of the
electrical circuit. (We have "talked" about this only in terms of primer and sealant
on fayed surfaces. There is still more that can be done by design selection.)
The (Non-Aerodynamic) Area Rule

To avoid corrosion, avoid a small anodic area relative to the cathodic area.
Corollary I - Use LARGE ANODE AREA.
Corollary II - The larger the relative anode area, the lower the galvanic current density on
the anode, the lesser the attack.
Corollary III - The amount of galvanic corrosion may be considered as proportional to the
Cathode/Anode area ratio.
Corollary IV - Design for a SMALL Cathodic/Anodic Ratio (CAR). (When designing,

remember your small CAR.)
Corollary V - The same metal or more noble (cathodic, higher number in the table)
metals should be used for small fasteners and bolts.
Sea Water Environments

Metals exposed to sea water environments shall be corrosion and stress corrosion
resistant or shall be processed to resist corrosion and stress-corrosion. Irrespective of
metals involved, all exposed edges should be sealed with a suitable sealant material
conforming to MIL-S-8802. When non-compatible materials are joined, an interposing
material compatible with each shall be used.
Non-Metallic Materials
Material other than true metals, i.e., non-metallic materials which must be considered as
metallic materials, unless there is supporting evidence to the contrary. If these material
are essentially free of corrosive agents (salts), free of acid or alkaline materials (neutral
pH), and free of carbon or metallic particles, not subject to biodeterioration or will not
support fungal growth, and do not absorb or wick water, then these may be considered
non-metallic suitable for joining to metals.
Many materials classed non-metallic will initiate corrosion of metals to which they are
joined, e.g., celluloid reinforced plastics, carbon or metal loaded resin materials,
asbestos-cement composites.
More Precautions for Joining
Where it becomes necessary that relatively incompatible metals must be assembled, the
following precautions and joining methods are provided for alleviation of galvanic
corrosion.
For Electrical Connection - Select materials which are indicated to be more compatible
in accordance with the galvanic series.
Design metal couples so that the area of the cathode is smaller (appreciably) than the area
of the anodic metal. For example, bolts or screws of stainless steel for fastening
aluminum sheet, but not reverse.
Interpose a compatible metallic gasket or washer between the dissimilar metals prior to
fastening.
Plate the cathodic member with a metal compatible to the anode.
Select a electrically conductive sealant. (More on these later.)
Not For Electrical Conductors - Interpose a non-absorbing, inert gasket material or

washer between the dissimilar materials prior to connecting them.
Other Approaches
Seal all faying edges to preclude the entrance of liquids.
Apply corrosion-inhibiting pastes or compounds under heads of screws or bolts inserted

into dissimilar metal surfaces whether or not the fasteners had been previously plated or
otherwise treated. In some instances, it may be feasible to apply an organic coating to the
faying surfaces prior to assembly. This would be applicable to joints which are not
required to be electrically conductive.
Where practicable or where it will not interfere with the proposed use of the assembly,
the external joint should be coated externally with an effective paint system.
Galvanic/Dissimilar Metal Corrosion
Contact between dissimilar metals occurs frequently but is often not a problem.
The aluminum head on a cast iron block, the solder on a copper pipe, galvanizing
on a steel purlin and the steel fastener in an aluminium sheet are common
examples.
What causes galvanic corrosion?
For galvanic or dissimilar or electrolytic corrosion to occur, three conditions must

be met:
• the metal join must be wet with a conductive liquid
• there must be metal to metal contact
• the metals must have sufficiently different potentials
Wetting the join
The conductive liquid or electrolyte could be rainwater or even water from

condensation. The greater the conductivity the more severe the galvanic effects.
Salt or industrial pollution significantly increases the conductivity of water so
galvanic effects are normally more severe near the coast or in heavy industrial
areas. Low conductivity, pure rainwater will only cause slight galvanic effects.
One complication is that during evaporation, water films become more
conductive so initially benign water may cause quite active galvanic effects as
the liquid in the crevice under a bolt or clamp becomes more concentrated.
Water may be excluded by design or the use of adhesive sealants.
Metal to metal contact
Galvanic corrosion can only occur if the dissimilar metals are in electrical contact.
The contact may be direct or by an external pipe or wire or bolt. If the dissimilar
metals are insulated from each other by suitable plastic strips, washers or
sleeves then galvanic corrosion cannot occur. Paint is not a reliable separator
from direct contact although painting all of the noble metal is quite effective.
Painting the active metal causes drill holes at coating defects.
Potential differences
All metals dissolve to some extent when they are wetted with a conductive
liquid. The degree of dissolution is greatest with active or sacrificial metals such
as magnesium and zinc and they have the most negative potential. In contrast,
noble or passive metals such as gold or graphite are relatively inert and have a
more positive potential. Stainless steel is in the middle although it is nobler than
carbon steel. The potential can be measured with a reference electrode and used
to construct a galvanic series as shown in the table below (ASTM Standard G82).
When two metals are connected and in contact with a conducting liquid, the
more active metal will corrode and protect the noble metal. Zinc is more
negative than steel and so the zinc coating of galvanized steel will corrode to
protect the steel at scratches or cut edges. The stainless steels, including 304
and 316, are more positive than zinc and steel, so when stainless steel is in
contact with galvanized steel and is wet, the zinc will corrode first, followed by
the steel, while the stainless steel will be protected by this galvanic activity and
will not corrode. The rate of galvanic attack is governed by the size of the
potential difference.
As a rule of thumb, if the potential difference is less than 0.1 volt, then it is
unlikely that galvanic corrosion will be significant.
If all three conditions are met then galvanic corrosion is probable and the rate of
corrosion will be influenced by the relative area and the current density delivered
by the noble metal.
Relative wetted surface area
If a noble metal like stainless steel has a large surface area in contact with the
electrolyte while the sacrificial metal (such as galvanized steel) has a very small
surface area in contact with the electrolyte, then the stainless steel will generate
a large corrosion current which will be concentrated on a small area of sacrificial
metal. The galvanized steel will corrode quickly? First the zinc then the
underlying steel? and so galvanized fasteners in stainless steel are not
acceptable.
However, a stainless screw in galvanized steel is frequently used although a

mound of zinc corrosion product will accumulate around the fastener. This is
because the ratio of wetted noble fastener in an active metal might change from
a 1:50 ratio to 1:1 during drying after a rainstorm. If contaminants are
significant this means that avoiding dissimilar metal pairs may be a preferred
option to prevent galvanic attack.
As a rule of thumb, if the wetted area of the corroding metal is 10 times the
wetted area of the noble metal, then galvanic effects are not serious although
the larger the ratio the less the effect.
Available current density
Stainless steel has an effective passive film so the available corrosion current is
quite low. If the behavior of a copper/steel and a stainless steel/steel couple is
compared, the copper/steel coupling is a more significant galvanic problem
despite the similar potential separation of 0.35 volts.
Examples of acceptable galvanic pairs include:
Galvanized steel pipe hangers are used to hang stainless steel piping externally
around chemical plants. The surface area ratio is bad with large area of stainless
steel to small area of active zinc/steel but the rainwater is usually of quite low
conductivity and 20 year service life is normal.
In the water industries, galling between stainless steel threads and nuts has
been avoided by using aluminium bronze nuts on stainless steel studs or bolts.
Although aluminium bronze is more active than stainless steel, the conductivity
of the water, and hence the corrosion rate, is generally quite low. The nuts will
require replacement but only at times of major overhaul.
One unacceptable case was a gasket with a carbon black loading so high it was
conductive and caused severe galvanic attack of a 316 stainless lug. Graphite
gaskets have caused similar problems.
Important Disclaimer
The technical recommendations contained in this publication are necessarily of a

general nature and should not be relied on for specific applications without first
securing competent advice. Whilst ASSDA has taken all
reasonable steps to ensure the information contained herein
is accurate and current, ASSDA does not warrant the
accuracy or completeness of the information and does not accept liability for
errors or omissions.
Grade Selection
Stainless steels have diverse properties which provide viable and cost-effective
solutions to a vast range of applications. In practice, development of a hierarchy
of required properties reduces the range to a manageable number of highly
versatile materials (ASSDA's Reference Manual lists about 30 grades commonly
available in Australia), enabling users to choose the most appropriate grade for
the particular application.
The family of stainless steels can be divided into five basic alloy groups (see
Table 1):
Table 1: Family of Stainless Steels

Alloy Group Common Grades
UNS No. S30100 S30400 S3403 S31600 S31603
Commonly 301 304 304L 316 316L
Austenitic UNS No. S32100 S31000 S30815 N08904 S31254
253MATM or
Commonly 321 310 904L 254SMOé
2111HTRTM
UNS No. S40900 S43000 * S44400 S44600
Ferritic DIN 1.4003
Commonly 409 430 3CR12TM or 444 446
5CR12TM
UNS No. S41000 S42000 S43100 S44004
Martens tic
Commonly 410 420 431 440C
UNS No. S32304 S31803 S32750 S32550 S32760
Duplex Ferrallium
Commonly 2304 2205 2507 Zeron 100TM
255TM
UNS No. S17400 S17700 S15500
Precipitation
Hardening 17-4PH 17-7PH
Commonly 15-5PH
or 630 or 631
* UNS No. not yet allocated
Note: UNS Numbers are used throughout this article for consistency
Grade S30400 Stainless Steel
S30400 is the most specified grade - it accounts for more than 50% of stainless
steel produced in the world and services a wide range of applications. It
withstands ordinary rusting in architecture, is resistant to most food processing
environments, and resists organic chemicals, dye stuffs and a wide variety of
inorganic chemicals. It is used extensively in consumer
products and appliances, and equipment for domestic and
commercial kitchens, hospitals, transportation and waste
water treatment. S30400 is also available in virtually all
product forms and finishes.
When selecting a stainless steel, first consider the fundamental "competitive

advantage" properties required. These basic properties can initially be viewed
according to the five basic alloy groups (see Table 2).
For corrosive environments, take advantage of past experience. Even small

amounts of some impurities and/or changes in temperature of flow conditions
can have a significant effect on corrosion resistance. Specialist suppliers and
other independent experts, who often provide advice at no cost, are contactable
through ASSDA for assistance with a recommendation.
For resistance to environments such as strong acids, where uniform general

corrosion is the controlling mechanism, refer to published tables of
recommended grades and Iso-corrosion curves (usually comparing several
grades) that indicate the rate at which the stainless can be expected to corrode.
It is again stressed that minor differences between apparently similar
environments, e.g. presence of chloride, can significantly alter the corrosion
rates. Local corrosion, such as the related mechanisms of pitting and crevice
corrosion, is largely controlled by the presence of chlorides in the environment
and exacerbated by elevated temperature and surface deposits. Keeping a
stainless steel surface clean is an important way of minimizing corrosion. Surface
roughness can also help in initiating corrosion, so the smoother the surface, the
better. A grade's resistance to pitting and crevice corrosion is indicated by its
Pitting Resistance Equivalent number (PRE = %Cr + [3.3 x %Mo] + [16 x %N])
(see Table 3).
Grades with high levels of each element are more resistant. Hence, S31600 (2%
Mo) is standard for marine fittings. Grade S31803 (3% Mo and 0.15% N) is more
resistant to higher temperature chloride environments and the "super duplex"
(e.g. S32750 and S32760) and "super austenitic" (e.g. S31254) grades have
very high levels of each element and can withstand high chloride environments
up to nearly boiling point.
Common austenitic grades (e.g. S30400 and S31600) may suffer from stress
corrosion cracking (SCC) in chloride-containing environments, particularly in
temperatures above about 50C and when a tensile stress is present in the steel.
The Ferritic and duplex grades are highly resistant, though not immune, and
should be selected if SCC is a possibility.
Selection for Mechanical and Physical Properties
Martens tic (e.g. S43100) and precipitation hardening (e.g. S17400) grades are
often preferred materials for products requiring high strength, e.g. shafts and
valve spindles.
Often, a grade is selected for the required corrosion resistance, and the
mechanical and physical properties of the grade are only considered in the
subsequent design process. However, these properties are fundamental and
should be considered as early as possible in the selection process. For example,
while a duplex grade like S31803 is highly corrosion resistant, it may also be
more cost-effective in the long term for a given application due to its high
strength.
Selection for Fabric ability:
Fabric ability should be considered early in the grade selection process - it

greatly influences the cost of the product. Table 4 lists some common grades
and compares their relative fabric ability on a scale of 1 to 10, with 10 indicating
excellent fabric ability by this method:
A compromise between desirable properties of certain grades may be necessary.
For example, grade S30300 (austenitic steel known as 303) has excellent
machinability, but the high sulphur content which dramatically increases the
cutting speed also substantially reduces the grade's weldability, formability and
corrosion resistance (its PRE is wrong because the negative effect of sulphur is
omitted, making it totally inappropriate for applications where there is a
likelihood of corrosive conditions of even a mild nature).
Conclusion
Before selecting a grade of stainless steel, it is essential to consider the required

properties such as corrosion resistance, but it is also important to consider the
secondary qualities such as physical and mechanical properties and fabric ability
of any competing grade. The appropriate choice will ultimately provide both
short- and long-term benefits: cost-effective fabrication and installation and a
long, trouble-free life.
Specifiers of stainless steel can obtain experienced help from independent and
supplier/fabricator sources, often at no cost. Corrosion performance, physical
and mechanical properties, surface finishes and a range of information
comparing stainless steels are available in ASSDA's Reference Manual. Call
ASSDA for the right help for your needs.
References
ASM International (1989) Corrosion Data.
ASM International (1994) ASM Specialty Handbook - Stainless Steels.
Sedriks, A.J. (1996) Corrosion of Stainless Steels. John Wiley & Sons.
304: the place to start
UNS S30400 (grade 304) is the greatest stainless success story. It accounts for
more than 50% of all stainless steel produced, represents between 50 and 60%
of Australia's consumption of stainless materials and finds applications in almost
every industry.
304 is not the only stainless steel and is not appropriate in every
application. However, an understanding of the attributes of 304 provides
an excellent base for comparing members of the austenitic family of
stainless steels and a practical base for determining the appropriateness of
stainless steel in a given application.
You already have substantial experience of 304 and its properties on which to
draw. Chances are some of your cutlery (look for the telltale 18/8 or 18/10
designation), your saucepans, your sink or, even, the shutter on your floppy disk
are 304 stainless.
Composition
Grade 304L (see Table 1) is a low carbon 304 often used to avoid possible
sensitization corrosion in welded components. Grade 304H (see Table 1) has a
higher carbon content than 304L, which increases the strength (particularly at
temperatures above about 500oC). This grade is not designed for applications
where sensitization corrosion could be expected.
Table 1: Composition of 304 and related grades

Grade C% Si% Mn% P% S% Cr% Ni%
UNS S30400 304 0.08 1.00 2.00 0.045 0.03 18.0-20.0 8.0-10.5
Related Grades
UNS S30403 304L 0.03 1.00 2.00 0.045 0.03 18.0-20.0 8.0-12.0
UNS S30409 304H 0.04-0.10 1.00 2.00 0.045 0.03 18.0-20.0 8.0-12.0
1. Single values are maximum specification limits.
2. These limits are specified in ASTM A240 for plate, sheet and strip. Specifications for some other
products may vary slightly from these vales.
Both 304L and 304H are available in plate and pipe, but 304H is less readily
available ex-stock. 304L and 304H are sometimes stocked as standard 304 (test
certificates will confirm compliance with the 'L' or 'H' specification).
Corrosion resistance
Grade 304 has excellent corrosion resistance in a wide range of media. It resists
ordinary rusting in most architectural applications. It is also resistant to most
food processing environments, can be readily cleaned, and resists organic
chemicals, dye stuffs and a wide variety of inorganic chemicals.
In warm chloride environments, 304 is subject to pitting and crevice corrosion

and to stress corrosion cracking when subjected to tensile stresses beyond about
50oC. However, it can be successful in warm chloride environments where
exposure is intermittent and cleaning is a regular event (such as saucepans and
some yacht fittings). Descriptions of these mechanisms may be found in ASSDA's
Reference Manual.
Heat resistance
304 has good oxidation resistance in intermittent service to 870oC and in
continuous service to 925oC. Continuous use of 304 in the 425-860oC range is
not recommended if subsequent exposure to room temperature aqueous
environments is anticipated, but it often performs well in temperatures
fluctuating above and below this range. Grade 304L is more resistant to carbide
precipitation and can be used in the above temperature range. Where high
temperature strength is important, higher carbon values are required. For
example, AS1210 Pressure Vessels Code limits the operating temperature of
304L to 425oC and restricts the use of 304 to carbon values of 0.04% or higher
for temperatures above 550oC.
304 has excellent toughness down to temperatures of liquefied gases and finds
application at these temperatures.
Physical and mechanical properties (see Tables 2 and 3)
Table 2: Mechanical properties of grade Table 3: Physical properties of

304 (annealed condition) given in ASTM grade 304 (typical values in
A240M annealed condition)
Tensile strength 515MPa min Density 8,000kg/m 3
0.2% proof stress 205MPa min Elastic modulus 193GPa
Mean coefficient of thermal
Elongation 40% min
expansion
Brinell hardness 201HB max 0-100oC 17.2µm/m/ oC
Rockwell hardness 92HRB max 0-315oC 17.8µm/m/ oC
Vickers hardness 210HV max 0-538oC 18.4µm/m/ oC
Note: Slightly different properties are given in other
specifications.
Thermal conductivity
at 100oC 16.2W/m.K
at 500oC 21.5W/m.K
Specific heat 0-
o 500J/kg.K
100 C
Electrical
720nOhms.m
conductivity
Like other austenitic grades, 304 in the annealed condition is virtually non-
magnetic (i.e very low magnetic permeability). After being cold worked,
however, it can become significantly attracted to a magnet (reversible by
annealing).
Like other austenitic steels, 304 can only be hardened by cold working. Ultimate
tensile strength in excess of 1,000MPa can be achieved and, depending on
quantity and product form required, it may be possible to order to a specific
cold-worked strength (see ASTM A666 or EN10088-2).
Annealing is the main heat treatment carried out on grade 304. This is
accomplished by heating to 1,010-1,120oC and rapidly cooling - usually by water
quenching.
Fabric ability:
Grade 304 has excellent forming characteristics. It can be deep drawn without
intermediate heat softening - a characteristic that has made this grade dominant
in the manufacture of drawn stainless parts, such as sinks and saucepans. It is
readily brake or roll formed into a variety of other parts for application in the
industrial, architectural and transportation fields.
Grade 304 has outstanding weldability and all standard welding techniques can
be used (although oxyacetylene is not normally used). Post-weld annealing is
often not required to restore 304's corrosion resistance, although appropriate
post-weld clean-up is recommended. 304L does not require post-weld annealing
and finds extensive use in heavy gauge fabrication.
Machinability of 304 is lower than most carbon steels. The standard austenitic
grades like 304 can be readily machined, provided that slower speeds and heavy
feeds are used, tools are rigid and sharp, and cutting fluids are used. An
'improved machinability' version of 304 also exists.
Cost comparisons
'First cost' cost comparisons can only be approximate, but the guidelines in
Table 4 are suggested for sheet material in a standard mill finish suitable for
construction projects. Lifecycle cost parameters will, in many applications,
dramatically increase the appeal of stainless over its first cost competitors.
Table 4: First cost comparisons

Approximate
Material
Price ($/kg)
Glass (clear ann.) 0.2
Mild steel 1.0-1.5
Hot dipped galvanized
1.5-2.5
steel
304 stainless 4.0-5.0
Aluminium alloy
4.0-5.5
(extruded)
Copper 8.0
Brass 8.5
Bronze 10.0
Source: Facet Consulting Engineers, Brisbane
Forms available
Grade 304 is available in virtually all stainless product forms, including coil,
sheet, plate, strip, tube, pipe, fittings, bars, angles, wire, fasteners, castings and
some others. 304 is also available with virtually all surface finishes produced on
stainless steel, from standard to special finishes.
Applications
Alternative grades to 304 should be considered in certain environments and

applications, including marine conditions, environments with temperatures above
50-60oC and with chlorides present, and applications requiring heavy section
welding, substantial machining, high strength or hardness, or strip with very
high cold-rolled strength.
However, typical applications for 304 include holloware, architecture, food and
beverage processing, equipment and utensils, commercial and domestic kitchen
construction, sinks, and plant for chemical, petrochemical, mineral processing
and other industries.
With this breadth of application, grade 304 has become a fundamental alloy in
modern industry and is certainly worth committing to your materials knowledge
base.
Table 5: Some approximate equivalent designations

Wrought product
Standard UNS ASTM British German Swedish Japanese
BS 304S15 W. No 1.4301
Specification S30400 304 SS 2332 JIS SUS 304
En 58E DIN X5CrNi 18 9
Cast product
Standard UNS ASTM BS3100 German AS2074
STD No. 4308
Specification J92600 A743 CF-8 304C15 H5A
DIN G-X6CrNi 18 9
Note: For fasteners manufactured to ISO3506, 304 is included in the 'A2' designation.
316: the first step up
If a job requires greater corrosion resistance than grade 304 can provide, grade
316 is the 'next step up'. Grade 316 has virtually the same mechanical, physical
and fabrication characteristics as 304 with better corrosion resistance,
particularly to pitting corrosion in chloride environments.
Grade 316 (UNS S31600) is the second most popular grade in the stainless steel
family. It accounts for about 20% of all stainless steel produced.
Composition
Table 1 compares three related grades - 316, 316L and

316H.
Grade 316L is a low carbon 316 often used to avoid

possible sensitization corrosion in welded components.
Grade 316H has a higher carbon content than 316L, which

increases the strength (particularly at temperatures above about 500oC), but
should not be used for applications where sensitization corrosion could be
expected.
Table 1 - Composition on 316 and related grades

Grade C% Mn% Si% P% S% Cr% Ni% Mo% N%
16.0- 10.0-
UNS 31600 316 0.08 2.0 0.75 0.045 0.03 2.0-3.0 0.10
18.0 14.0
Related Grades
UNS 16.0- 10.0-
316L 0.03 2.0 0.75 0.045 0.03 2.0-3.0 0.10
S31603 18.0 14.0
UNS 0.04- 16.0- 10.0-
316H 2.0 0.75 0.045 0.03 2.0-3.0 -
S31609 0.10 18.0 14.0
Both 316L and 316H are available in plate and pipe, but 316H is less readily available ex-stock. 316L
and 316H are sometimes stocked as standard 316 (test certificates will confirm compliance with the 'L'
or 'H' specification).
Corrosion resistance
Grade 316 has excellent corrosion resistance in a wide range of media. Its main
advantage over grade 304 is its increased ability to resist pitting and crevice
corrosion in warm chloride environments. It resists ordinary rusting in virtually
all architectural applications, and is often chosen for more aggressive
environments such as sea-front buildings and fittings on wharves and piers. It is
also resistant to most food processing environments, can be readily cleaned, and
resists organic chemicals, dye stuffs and a wide variety of inorganic chemicals.
In hot chloride environments, grade 316 is subject to pitting and crevice

corrosion and to stress corrosion cracking when subjected to tensile stresses
beyond about 50oC. In these severe environments duplex grades such as 2205
(UNS S31803) or higher alloy austenitic grades including 6% molybdenum (UNS
S31254) grades are more appropriate choices.
The corrosion resistances of the high and low carbon versions of 316 (316L and
316H) are the same as standard 316. They are mostly chosen to give better
resistance to sensitization in welding (316L) or for superior high temperature
strength (316H).
Descriptions of these corrosion mechanisms are in ASSDA's Reference Manual.
Heat resistance
Like grade 304, 316 has good oxidation resistance in

intermittent service to 870oC and in continuous service to
925oC. Continuous use of 316 in the 425-860oC range is
not recommended if subsequent exposure to room
temperature aqueous environments is anticipated, but it
often performs well in temperatures fluctuating above and
below this range.
Grade 316L is more resistant to carbide precipitation than standard 316 and
316H and can be used in the above temperature range. However, where high
temperature strength is important, higher carbon values are required. For
example, AS1210 Pressure Vessels Code limits the operating temperature of
316L to 450oC and restricts the use of 316 to carbon values of 0.04% or higher
for temperatures above 550oC. 316H or the titanium-containing version 316Ti
can be specified for higher temperature applications.
Like other austenitic stainless steels 316 has excellent toughness down to
temperatures of liquefied gases and has application at these temperatures,
although lower cost grades such as 304 are more usually selected for cryogenic
vessels.
Physical and mechanical properties (see Tables 2 and 3)
Table 2: Mechanical properties of Table 3: Physical properties of grade

grade 316 (annealed condition) given 316 typical values in annealed
in ASTM A240M condition)
Tensile strength 515MPa min Density 8,027kg/m3
0.2% proof stress 205MPa min Elastic modulus 193GPa
Elongation 40% min Mean coefficient of thermal expansion
Brinell hardness 217HB max 0 - 100oC 15.9µm/m/oC
Rockwell hardness 95HRB max 0 - 315oC 16.2µm/m/oC
Note: Slightly different properties are given in
other specifications
0 - 538oC 17.5µm/m/ oC
0 - 649oC 18.6µm/m/ oC
0 - 815oC 20.0µm/m/ oC
Thermal conductivity
at 100oC 16.3W/m.K
o
at 500 C 21.5W/m.K
o
Specific heat 0 - 100 C 500J/kg.G
Electrical resistivity
740 nOhm.m
20oC
Like other austenitic grades, 316 in the annealed

condition is virtually non magnetic (ie very low
magnetic permeability). While 304 can become
significantly attracted to a magnet after being cold
worked, grade 316 is almost always virtually totally
non-responsive. This may be a reason for selecting
grade 316 in some applications.
Another characteristic that 316 has in common with other austenitic steels is that
it can only be hardened by cold working. An ultimate tensile strength in excess
of 1,000MPa can be achieved and, depending on quantity and product form
required, it may be possible to order to a specific cold-worked strength (see
ASTM A666 or EN10088-2).
Annealing (also referred to as solution treating) is the main heat treatment
carried out on grade 316. This is done by heating to 1,010 1,120oC and rapidly
cooling - usually by water quenching.
Fabric ability:
Like other austenitic stainless steels, grade 316 has excellent forming
characteristics. It can be deep drawn without intermediate heat softening
enabling it to be used in the manufacture of drawn stainless parts, such as sinks
and saucepans. However, for normal domestic articles the extra corrosion
resistance of grade 316 is not necessary. 316 is readily brake or roll formed into
a variety of other parts for application in the industrial and architectural fields.
Grade 316 has outstanding weldability and all standard welding techniques can
be used (although oxyacetylene is not normally used). Although post weld
annealing is often not required to restore 316's corrosion resistance, making it
suitable for heavy gauge fabrication, appropriate post-weld clean-up is
recommended.
Machinability of 316 is lower than most carbon steels. The standard austenitic
grades like 316 can be readily machined if slower speeds and heavy feeds are
used, tools are rigid and sharp, and cutting fluids are used. An 'improved
machinability' version of 316 also exists.
Cost comparisons
The guidelines in Table 4 are approximate 'first cost' comparisons for sheet
material in a standard mill finish suitable for construction projects. The appeal of
stainless over its first cost competitors dramatically increases when lifecycle
costs are considered.
Table 4: First cost comparisons

Approximate
Material
Price ($/kg)
Glass (clear annealed) 0.2
Mild steel 1.0-1.5
Hot dip galvanized steel 1.5-2.5
Aluminium alloy
4.0-5.5
(extruded)
Copper 8.0
Brass 8.5
Bronze 10.0
Source: Facet Consulting Engineers, Brisbane
Forms available
Grade 316 is available in virtually all stainless product forms including coil,
sheet, plate, strip, tube, pipe, fittings, bars, angles, wire, fasteners and castings.
316L is also widely available, particularly in heavier products such as plate, pipe
and bar. Most stainless steel surface finishes, from standard to special finishes,
are available.
Applications
Typical applications for 316 include boat fittings and

structural members; architectural components particularly in
marine, polluted or industrial environments; food and
beverage processing equipment; hot water systems; and
plant for chemical, petrochemical, mineral processing,
photographic and other industries.
Although 316 is often described as the 'marine grade', it is

also seen as the first step up from the basic 304 grade.
Alternatives
Alternative grades to 316 should be considered in certain environments and

applications including:
• strong reducing acids (alternatives might be 904L, 2205 or a super duplex

grade),
• environments with temperatures above 50-60oC and with chlorides
present (choose grades resistant to stress corrosion cracking and higher
pitting resistance such as 2205 or a super duplex or super austenitic), and
• applications requiring heavy section welding (316L), substantial machining
(an improved machinability version of 316), high strength or hardness
(perhaps a martens tic or precipitation hardening grade).
Specifications
Table 5: Some approximate equivalent designations

Wrought product
Standard UNS ASTM British German Swedish Jap
BS 316S16 W. No 1,4401
Specification S31600 316 SS 2347 JIS
En 58H, 58J DIN X5CrNiMo 18 10
Cast product
Standard UNS ASTM BS3100 German AS2074
A743 STD 1,4408
Specification J92900 316C16 H6B
CF-8M DIN G-X6CrNiMo 18 10
Note: For fasteners manufactured to ISO3506, 316 is included in the "A4" designation.
Grade 2205 for High Corrosion Resistance and Strength
Combining many of the beneficial properties of both Ferritic and austenitic steels, 2205 is the most widely used
duplex stainless steel grade. Its high chromium and molybdenum content gives the stainless steel excellent corrosion
resistance. The microstructure provides resistance to stress corrosion cracking and ensures high strength.
The grade is generally not suitable for use at temperatures above 300oC or below -50oC because of reduced
toughness outside this range.
You are most likely to encounter 2205 stainless steel being used in industrial environments such as petrochemical,
chemical, oil, gas and paper plants.
Alternative Grades
2205 has been available for several years - in general this complies with UNS grade
designation S31803. More recently, product has become available complying with the
higher corrosion resistant composition UNS S32205, as in table 1. Both these alternatives
are known as 2205.
Composition
Grade 2205 has a micro structure of roughly equal amounts of ferrite and austenite, hence the 'duplex' description.
The duplex structure of 2205 has the following properties:
• High strength.
• Lower thermal expansion coefficient than austenitic steels but greater than carbon steels.
• High resistances to corrosion, particularly stress corrosion cracking, corrosion fatigue and erosion.
The high content of chromium and molybdenum and the addition of nitrogen gives the steel further beneficial
characteristics:
• High general corrosion resistance.

• High pitting and crevice corrosion resistance.
• Good sulphide stress corrosion cracking resistance.
The addition of nitrogen gives a further increase in pitting and crevice corrosion resistance.
Table 1: Composition of 2205 and Alternative Grades (Single Values are Maximum)
Grade Common Name C% Mn% Si% P% S% Cr% Ni% Mo% N%
S31803 2205 0.030 2.00 1.00 0.030 0.020 21.0-23.0 4.5-6.5 2.5-3.5 0.08-0.20
S32205 2205 0.030 2.00 1.00 0.030 0.020 22.0-23.0 4.5-6.5 3.0-3.5 0.14-0.20
Corrosion Resistance
The grade has excellent corrosion resistance and is superior to grade 316, performing well in most environments
where standard austenitic grades may fail. 2205's low carbon content gives the grade a high resistance to
intergranular corrosion and has better resistance to uniform, pitting and crevice corrosion due to its high chromium
and molybdenum content.
As 2205 is a duplex stainless steel, the grade is also less sensitive to stress corrosion cracking in warm chloride
environments, unlike austenitic stainless steels. The grade also has good resistance to stress corrosion cracking
when exposed to hydrogen sulphide in chloride solutions.
High mechanical strength combined with excellent corrosion resistance gives 2205 high corrosion fatigue resistance.
Heat Resistance
Although 2205 has good high temperature oxidation resistance, this grade, like other
annealing treatment. 2205 is annealed at 1020-1100 oC followed by rapid cooling. This
treatment applies for both solution annealing and stress relieving.
Mechanical Properties
Mechanical properties for grade 2205 stainless steels are given in table 2.
Table 2: Mechanical Properties of 2205 Table 3: Physical Properties of Grade 2205 (Typical
(Annealed Condition) Values in Annealed Condition)
© Copyright ASSDA 2004. Priv
Tensile strength 620MPa min Density 7,805kg/m3
y
Yield strength 450MPa mi Elastic modulus 200GPa
Elongation 25% min Mean coefficient of thermal expansion
Questions293
ofHB
Carbon
Brinell hardness max 0-100oC 13.7µm/m/oC
Rockwell hardness 31 HR C max 0-315 C
o
The common austenitic grades of stainless steel, 304 and 316, are also available with controlled low
or high carbon contents, known as "L" and "H" variants, with particular applications.
Physical Properties
Low properties
Typical physical carbon orfor"L" grades
grade are usedsteels
2205 stainless to prevent
are givenor delay3.sensitization
in table of stainless
There are surprisingly steel at elevated
large variations
temperatures
in the values and the resulting
from different manufacturers lower identical
for notionally corrosion resistance. The problematic temperature zone is
materials.
450-850oC, encountered during welding or specific application environments. "L" grades are often
2205 has aavailable in thicker
microstructure selection
containing sizes, greater
approximately than about
50% ferrite 5mm in flat
in the annealed products.
condition, quenched from about
10500C. Higher annealing temperatures often result in an increase of ferrite content.
High carbon or "H" grades are used for higher strength.
Fabric ability:
Substitution between standard, "L" and "H" grades is often possible allowing many specifications to
Due to the high yield strength of 2205, greater forces are required for the cold forming of this duplex steel, and will
be met from existing stock.
require larger capacity equipment than would be required for austenitic steels.
What
Processes such "L" Grades
as stretch are
forming, used andand
deep-drawing why are they
spinning used?
are more difficult to perform.
The low carbon "L" grades are used where high temperature exposure will occur, including welding
Welding of of medium
2205 is good or heavy
by all sections.
standard Thehowever,
methods, low carbon is following
with the one wayrestrictions:
of delaying or preventing grain boundary
carbide precipitation (often referred to as sensitization) which can result in intergranular corrosion in
• Do corrosive
not pre-heatservice environments.
or post-heat As shown
the material, heat in be
input must thekept
time-temperature-sensitization
low. curve (below),
• there
Allow is an incubation
the material timepasses,
to cool between before the precipitation
preferably to below 150of
o
C. carbides at temperatures in the range of
• Useabout
correct450-850 o
filler grade C.2209.
The time for precipitation
Autogenous to be
welding should occur is highly dependent upon the amount of carbon
avoided.
present in the steel, so low carbon content increases resistance to this problem. Because of their
application area the "L" grades are most readily available in plate and pipe, but often also in round
Forms Available
bar. In the absence of heavy section welding, or of high temperature exposure, the corrosion
Grade 2205resistances
is available in
ofhot
therolled plate and
standard andstrip, cold rolled
"L" grades sheet,
are plateidentical.
usually and coil, forgings/bar, tube and pipe and
in threaded fittings and flanges.
What "H" Grades are used and why are they used?
Applications
"H" grades are higher carbon versions of standard grades and have increased strength, particularly
Grade 2205 is typically used in the construction of heat exchangers,opressure vessels, tanks, tubes and pipes for the
at elevated
following industry areas: temperatures (generally above 500 C). Long term creep strength is also higher. "H"
grades are primarily available in plate and pipe.
• Chemical processing, transport and storage. Applicable grades are most commonly 304H and
• Oil and gas exploration and processing equipment. 316H, but high carbon versions of 309, 310, 321,
• Marine and other high chloride environments. 347 and 348 are specified in ASTM A240/A240M.
• Pulp and paper digesters, liquor tanks and paper machines. These grades are susceptible to sensitizationo if
held in the temperature range of 450-850 C.
Specifications Once sensitized, impaired aqueous corrosion
resistance and some reduction in ambient
For many products grade 2205 is covered by the same specifications temperature ductility
that include the common and toughness
austenitic - ASTMwill result
(usually
A240M for flat rolled and ASTM A276 for bar. Duplex grades of tube have their ownirrelevant
specification -in
ASTMhigh
A789M andtemperature
A790M covers duplex grades of pipe. applications).
Credits
ASSDA would like to thank Peter Moore of Atlas Specialty Metals and Graham Sussex of ASSDA in the development
of this article.
What are the differences?
1. Composition limits for 304 and 304L are identical except for carbon content (304L does permit up
to 12.0%Ni, compared to 10.5% max for 304 - but given the cost of nickel it is usual for both
grades to have close to the minimum of 8.5%, so there is no practical difference). Neither grade has
a minimum carbon content specified. A carbon content of 0.02% for example complies with both
304 and 304L specifications.
2. 304H has the same composition specification as 304 except for the carbon range of 0.04-0.10%
(note the minimum limit for carbon) and that the 304H does not have the 0.10% nitrogen maximum
limit which applies to both standard and "L" grades. Also, all austenitic "H" grades must have a
grain size of ASTM No. 7 or coarser.
3. The relationship between 316, 316L and 316H is the same as that between the 304 series of
stainless steels. Only the carbon contents differentiate 316, 316L and 316H grades (and the
nitrogen and grain size limits mentioned above). Carbon contents are listed in Table 1 (from ASTM
A240/A240M). Specifications for some other products, particularly tube and pipe, have a carbon
limit of 0.035% or 0.040% maximum for 304L and 316L, but are otherwise the same.
4. Mechanical property specification differences are illustrated in Table 2 (from ASTM

A240/A240M). In practice, steel mills generally ensure that the "L" grade heats meet the strength
requirements of standard grades, ie all 304L will have yield/tensile properties above 205/515MPa,
so will meet both standard and "L" grade requirements.
5. Dimensional and other requirements are the same for standard, "L" and "H" grades.
6. Pressure Vessel codes (e.g. AS1210) and Pressure Piping codes (e.g. AS4041) give allowable
working pressures for each of the grades at nominated elevated temperatures. These codes allow
higher pressure ratings for standard grades than for "L" grades. The codes do not permit the use of
"L" grades above 525oC (AS4041) or 425oC (AS1210). Both codes include a clause stating that for
use above 550oC the standard grades must contain at least 0.04% carbon. 304 or 316 material with
0.02% carbon are therefore not permitted for these elevated temperatures, whether called "L" or
not. At temperatures from ambient up to this high temperature cut-off "L" grade heats with the
standard grade pressure ratings would be permitted, so long as the material was in full compliance
with the standard grade composition and mechanical property specifications. As discussed above, it
is normal practice for this condition to be met.
7. The pressure vessel codes give the same allowable pressure rating for "H" grades as for standard
grades - this is logical as the "H" grades are simply the standard grades with their carbon contents
controlled to the top half of the range, or slightly above.
Table 1: Carbon Content (ASTM A240/A240M)

Grade UNS Number Specified Carbon Content (%)
304 S30400 0.08 max
304L S30403 0.030 max
304H S30409 0.04-0.10
316 S31600 0.08 max
316L S31603 0.030 max
316H S31609 0.04-0.10
Table 2: Mechanical Property Specification Differences (ASTM A240/A240M)

UNS Tensile Yield Elongation Brinell
Grade Strength Strength (%) Hardness (HB) Hardness Rockwell
(MPa) min (MPa) min min max (HRB) max
304 S30400 515 205 40 201 92
304L S30403 485 170 40 201 92
304H S30409 515 205 40 201 92
316 S31600 515 205 40 217 95
316L S31603 485 170 40 217 95
316H S31609 515 205 40 217 95
Alternative Grade Usage
Because of availability issues it is sometimes desirable to use a product labeled as a standard grade
when an "L" or "H" grade has been specified, or vice versa. Substitution can be made under the
following conditions:
1. "L" grades can be used as standard grades so long as the mechanical properties (tensile and
yield) conform to the standard grade requirements and high temperature strength is not a
requirement. "L" grades usually comply with standard grade requirements, but Mills' test certificates
need to be checked on a case by case basis. It is common for steel mills to supply "L" heats when
standard grades have been ordered. The practice is legitimate and should not present problems to
fabricators or end users.
2. Standard grades can be used as "L" grades as long as their carbon content meets the "L" grade
maximum limits.
3. It is increasingly common for "dual certified" products to be stocked - particularly in plate, pipe
and bar. These materials fully comply with both 304 and 304L or 316/316L. Dual certified product is
deliberately intended to fulfill requirements for both standard and "L" grades, but cannot be used in
applications for "H" grade. If an application requires an "H" grade, this must be specified at time of
order. Standard grades can often be used in place of "H" grades so long as their carbon contents
meet the "H" limits (generally 0.04-0.10%). Grain size requirements may have to be satisfied by
extra testing. The product and its test certificate may describe it as a standard 304 or 316 unless it
was originally manufactured as an "H" grade. Details of the test certificate will confirm grade
compliance.
4. "H" grades can be used as standard grades so long as their carbon contents are 0.08%
maximum, and nitrogen 0.10% maximum. This is likely, but would need to be checked.
References for Further Reading
AS 1210: Pressure Vessels
AS 4041: Standard Specification for Pressure Piping
ASTM A240/A240M: Heat-resisting Chromium and Chromium-Nickel Stainless Steel Plate, Sheet and
Strip for Pressure Vessels
© Copyright ASSDA 2004. Privacy

Statement | Disclaimer
Low Nickel Austenitic Stainless Steels
The most common grades of stainless

steel are 304 and 316, which are
particularly popular because their
austenitic microstructure results in an
excellent combination of corrosion
resistance, mechanical and physical
properties and ease of fabrication.
The austenitic structure is the result of

the addition of approximately 8-10%
nickel. Nickel is not alone in being an
austenite former; other elements that
are used in this way are manganese,
nitrogen, carbon and copper.
The Cost of Nickel and Its Addition to Stainless Steel
The cost of the common stainless steels is substantially determined by the cost
of ingredients. The cost of the chromium that is the essential "stainless
ingredient" is not high, but additions of elements that improve the corrosion
resistance (especially molybdenum) or that modify the fabrication properties
(especially nickel) add very much to the cost.
Costs for nickel have fluctuated from US$5,000 or US$6,000 in 2001 to

US$15,000 per tonnes in 2004.
Similarly, molybdenum has dramatically increased from approximately US$8,000

per tonnes in 2001 to around US$50,000 per tonnes in 2004.
These costs impact directly on the two most common grades: 304 (18%Cr,
8%Ni) and 316 (17%Cr, 10%Ni, 2%Mo). The impact is most keenly felt in grade
316, which has suffered an increase to its cost premium above 304.
Other grades such as the duplex 2205 (22%Cr, 5%Ni, 3%Mo) and all more
highly alloyed stainless steels are also affected.
Relative costs of the ingredients are shown in Figure 1, but these do vary widely
and sometimes rapidly over time. These costs were correct in late 2004.
Alloying Additions - Manganese

Replacing Nickel
The point of the alloying elements is that

they achieve certain changes to the
corrosion resistance or to the
microstructure (which in turn influences
the mechanical and fabrication
properties).
Chromium is used to achieve corrosion resistance, and molybdenum adds to this.
A common evaluation of corrosion resistance of stainless steel grades is the

Pitting Resistance Equivalent (PRE), where this is usually evaluated as PRE =
%Cr + 3.3 x %Mo + 16 x %N. A neat equation, but unfortunately only a guide.
The PRE gives a guide to ranking of grades, but is not a predictor of resistance to
any particular corrosive environment. What is apparent is that pitting corrosion
resistance can be increased by molybdenum, but also by chromium or by
nitrogen additions. These are much cheaper than molybdenum. Despite its high
PRE factor, nitrogen has limited effect on corrosion resistance because of low
solubility, i.e. <0.2%.
The microstructure of the steel is largely determined by the balance between

austenite former elements and ferrite former elements.
On the austenite former side carbon, manganese, nitrogen and copper are all
possible alternatives to nickel. All these elements are lower cost than nickel.
As is the case for the PRE, the Ni-equivalence formulas are a guide but do not
tell the full story; each element acts in slightly different ways, and it is not
possible to fully remove nickel and replace it with, for example, copper or
nitrogen.
Manganese acts as an austenite former but is not as effective as nickel, and Cr-
Mn steels have higher work hardening rates than do apparently equivalent Cr-Ni
steels.
Carbon is a very powerful austenite former, but has only limited solubility in
austenite, so is of limited value in a steel intended to be fully austenitic.
Although not recognized by the PRE formula, nickel has positive effects on
resistance to some corrosive environments that manganese does not duplicate.
There can also be synergy between the elements. Addition of nitrogen has the
double effect of forming austenite and of increasing the pitting corrosion
resistance. And manganese is a strong austenite former in its own right, but also
has the effect of increasing the solubility of nitrogen.
The Rise of the "200 Series" Steels
Manganese is therefore a viable

alternative to nickel, ranging from a
minor addition to an almost complete
replacement.
The development of high manganese

austenitic grades first occurred about
fifty years ago, during one of the
(several) previous periods of high nickel
cost.
At that time some Cr-Mn-Ni grades were sufficiently developed to be allocated

AISI grade numbers Ü 201 (17%Cr, 4%Ni, 6%Mn) and 202 (18%Cr, 4%Ni,
8%Mn) are high Mn alternatives to the straight chromium-nickel grades 301 and
302, and are still included in ASTM specifications as standard grades.
Their consumption over the following decades has been low relative to their Cr-
Ni equivalents. The reasons for the poor take-up of these lower cost grades have
been:
• Very high work hardening rate (this can be an advantage in some

applications).
• Slightly inferior surface appearance Ü considered unacceptable for certain
applications.
• Additional production costs Ü higher refractory wear in melting in
particular.
• Corrosion resistance is lower in some environments, compared to Cr-Ni
grades.
An additional issue is that Cr-Ni and Cr-Mn-Ni austenitic scrap is all non-
magnetic, irrespective of nickel content, but scrap merchants evaluate scrap on
the basis of assumed nickel content.
This has the potential to destabilize scrap markets. The upshot is that the cost
reduction (due to lower ingredient cost) has been generally insufficient to move
applications from the traditional Cr-Ni grades.
Take-up has often been because of technical advantages of 200-series in niche

applications, not cost-driven.
Some New Contenders

The last decade has seen the rise of some new contenders in the Cr-Mn-Ni
austenitic group. The main development work has been in India and the principal
application has been kitchen ware Ü cooking utensils in particular.
The very high work hardening rate of the low nickel / high manganese grades
has been acceptable to a point in this application, but additions of copper have
also been made to reduce this problem.
India has been a fertile development and production venue for these grades
because of local economic factors.
Other Asian countries have also become strong markets and more recently also
producers. The Chinese market is particularly strong, and there is substantial
demand in China for the Cr-Mn-Ni grades, often referred to generically as ?200-
seriesî stainless steels.
Other centers of production are Taiwan, Brazil and Japan. Alloy development has
resulted in a range of austenitic grades with nickel contents ranging from 1% to
4% and up to over 9% manganese. None of these grades are included in ASTM
or other internationally recognized standards as yet.
The growth rate in production of these low-nickel austenitic grades has been
very rapid. The most recent data published by the International Stainless Steel
Forum (ISSF) shows that in 2003 as much as 1.5 million tonnes (7.5% of the
worlds stainless steel) was of this type. In China the proportion has been
estimated to be 25% in 2004.
Problems still exist however, and large-scale conversion of Cr-Ni applications to

Cr-Mn-Ni-(Cu) grades is not likely.
The principal issue is lack of control ‹ unscrupulous suppliers misrepresenting

low-nickel product as grade 304 with some resultant service corrosion failures,
and degradation of scrap due to contamination by low-nickel material.
As at the start of 2005 the future is unclear. Although it seems logical that there
should be a place for the low nickel austenitic grades, the practical issues may
mean that grade selectors will instead choose to either continue to use the
higher cost Cr-Ni grades, or to seek lower cost alternatives amongst the Ferritic
or duplex grades.
Credits
ASSDA would like to thank Mr. Peter Moore, Technical Services Manager of Atlas
Specialty Metals, for the contribution of this article.
This technical article was featured in Australian Stainless magazine # 32 -

Winter 2005 and is an extract from the Grade Selection section of the Australian
Stainless 2005 Reference Manual.
To order a copy of this essential technical resource for the stainless steel
industry, download an order form from the ASSDA website - www.assda.asn.au
or phone the ASSDA office on 07 3220 0722.
Properties of Stainless Steel

Mechanical Properties of Wrought Stainless Steel* (All Properties Specified,
usually Flat Products)
0.2% Rockwel
Tensile Brinell Vickers
Commo Proof l ASTM
UNS Conditio Strengt Tensile Hardnes Hardnes
n Strengt Hardnes Specificatio
No n h Elongation % s s
Type h s n
MPa HB HV Max
MPa HRB
≤1.2m >1.2m
[HRC]
m m
Min Min Max Max
Min Min
S2010
201 Annealed 310 655 40 40 217 100 240 A240
0
S2020
202 Annealed 260 620 40 40 241 - - A240
0
S3010
301 Annealed 205 515 40 40 217 95 210 A240
0
S3010
301 1/4 hard 515 860 25 25 - - - A666
0
S3010
301 1/2 hard 760 1035 15 18 - - - A666
0
S3010
301 3/4 hard 930 1205 10 12 - - - A666
0
S3010
301 Full hard 965 1275 8 9 - - - A666
0
S3020
302 Annealed 205 515 40 40 201 92 210 A240
0
S3043 605
302HQ Annealed - - - - - - A493
0 max
S3030
303 Annealed 240 585 50 50 - - - A582
0
S3040
304 Annealed 205 515 40 40 201 92 210 A240
0
S3040
304L Annealed 170 485 40 40 201 92 210 A240
3
S3050 585
305 Annealed - - - - - - A493
0 max
S3081
+ Annealed 310 600 40 40 217 95 - A240
5
S3090
309S Annealed 205 515 40 40 217 95 225 A240
8
S3100
310S Annealed 205 515 40 40 217 95 225 A240
8
S3160
316 Annealed 205 515 40 40 217 95 225 A240
0
S3160
316L Annealed 170 485 40 40 217 95 225 A240
3
S3163
316Ti Annealed 205 515 40 40 217 95 225 A240
5
317 S3170 Annealed 205 515 35 35 217 95 - A240
0
S3170
317L Annealed 205 515 40 40 217 95 - A240
3
S3210
321 Annealed 205 515 40 40 217 95 210 A240
0
S3470
347 Annealed 205 515 40 40 201 92 - A240
0
N0890
904L Annealed 215 490 35 35 - 90 - B625
4
S4090
409 Annealed 205 380 20 22 179 88 - A240
0
S4300
430 Annealed 205 450 20 22 183 88 210 A240
0
S4440
444 Annealed 275 415 20 20 217 96 200 A240
0
S4460
446 Annealed 280 480 20 - - - - A580
0
S4100
1.4003 Annealed 280 460 18 18 220 - - -
3
S3180
2205 Annealed 450 620 25 25 293 [31] - A240
3
S3230
+ Annealed 400 600 25 25 290 [32] - A240
4
S3275
+ Annealed 550 795 15 15 310 [32] - A240
0
S3276
+ Annealed 550 750 25 25 270 [28] - A240
0
S3255
+ Annealed 550 760 15 15 302 [32] - A240
0
S4100
410 Annealed 205 450 20 22 217 96 210 A240
0
S4160
416 Annealed 276 517 30 30 - - - A582
0
S4200 Cold
420 - 520 - 42 255 - - A276
0 Finished
S4310 Cold 965
431 - - - 285 - - A580
0 Finished max
S4400 Cold
440A - - - - 285 - - A580
2 Finished
S4400 Cold
440C - - - - 285 - - A580
4 Finished
S1740
17-4PH H1025 1000 1070 12 12 401 [42] - A564
0
+ Proprietary alloy names apply.
* Consult the relevant product standard for definitive values.
Typical Physical Properties - Annealed Condition

Mean Coefficient of Thermal
Thermal Expansion (b) Conductivity
Grade UNS No Density Elastic 0-100oC 0-315oC 0-538oC At At Specific Electrical
or type (kg/m3) Modulus µm/m/ µm/m/ µm/m/ 100oC 500oC Heat 0- Resistivity
(a) GPa oC o
C o
C W/m.K W/m.K 100oC nOhms.m
J/kg.K
201 S20100 7800 197 15.7 17.5 18.4 16.2 21.5 500 690
202 S20200 7800 - 17.5 18.4 19.2 16.2 21.6 500 690
301 S30100 8000 193 17.0 17.2 18.2 16.2 21.5 500 720
302 S30200 8000 193 17.2 17.8 18.4 16.2 21.5 500 720
302B S30215 8000 193 16.2 18.0 19.4 15.9 21.6 500 720
303 S30300 8000 193 17.2 17.8 18.4 16.2 21.5 500 720
304 S30400 8000 193 17.2 17.8 18.4 16.2 21.5 500 720
304L S30403 8000 193 17.2 17.8 18.4 16.3 21.5 500 720
302HQ S30430 8000 193 17.2 17.8 - 11.2 21.5 500 720
304N S30451 8000 196 17.2 17.8 18.4 16.3 21.5 500 720
305 S30500 8000 193 17.2 17.8 18.4 16.2 21.5 500 720
308 S30800 8000 193 17.2 17.8 18.4 15.2 21.6 500 720
309 S30900 8000 200 15.0 16.6 17.2 15.6 18.7 500 780
310 S31000 8000 200 15.9 16.2 17.0 14.2 18.7 500 780
314 S31400 7800 200 - 15.1 - 17.5 20.9 500 770
316 S31600 8000 193 15.9 16.2 17.5 16.2 21.5 500 740
316L S31603 8000 193 15.9 16.2 17.5 16.3 21.5 500 740
316N S31651 8000 196 15.9 16.2 17.5 14.4 - 500 740
317 S31700 8000 193 15.9 16.2 17.5 16.2 21.5 500 740
317L S31703 8000 200 16.5 - 18.1 14.4 - 500 790
321 S32100 8000 193 16.6 17.2 18.6 16.1 22.2 500 720
329 S32900 7800 186 10.1 11.5 - - - 460 750
330 N08330 8000 196 14.4 16.0 16.7 - - 460 1020
347 S34700 8000 193 16.6 17.2 18.6 16.1 22.2 500 730
384 S38400 8000 193 17.2 17.8 18.4 16.2 21.5 500 790
409 S40900 7800 200 11.7 12.0 12.4 24.9 - 460 -
410 S41000 7800 200 9.9 11.4 11.6 24.9 28.7 460 570
416 S41600 7800 200 9.9 11.0 11.6 24.9 28.7 460 570
420 S42000 7800 200 10.3 10.8 11.7 24.9 - 460 550
430 S43000 7800 200 10.4 11.0 11.4 26.1 26.3 460 600
430F S43020 7800 200 10.4 11.0 11.4 26.1 26.3 460 600
431 S43100 7800 200 10.2 12.1 - 20.2 - 460 720
434 S43400 7800 200 10.4 11.0 11.4 - 26.3 460 600
436 S43600 7800 200 9.3 - - 23.9 26.0 460 600
440C S44004 7800 200 10.2 - - 24.2 - 460 600
444 S44400 7800 200 10.0 10.6 11.4 26.8 - 420 620
446 S44600 7800 200 10.4 10.8 11.2 20.9 24.4 500 670
630 S17400 7500 196 10.8 11.6 - 18.3 23.0 460 800
631 S17700 7800 204 11.0 11.6 - 16.4 21.8 460 830
+ N08904 7900 195 16.0 17.5 - 14.0 - 500 950
+ S30815 7800 200 16.3 17.3 18.0 14.0 18.0 500 -
+ S31803 7800 200 13.7 14.7 - 19.0 - 480 850
+ S32304 7800 200 13.0 - - 16.0 - 470 850
+ S32750 7800 200 13.0 14.0 - 17.0 - 470 -
3CR12 S41003 7800 205 10.8 11.3 12.0 31.0 32.0 480 570
4565S S34565 8000 190 14.5 16.3 17.2 14.5 - 510 920
+ S32760 7600 190 12.8 13.8 - 14.4 - 480 850
(a) 1GPa = 1000MPa
(b) µm/m/oC = x 10-6/oC(c) 1% flow in 10,000 hours at 540oC
Magnetic permeability of all 300 series austenitic steels in the annealed condition is approximately 1.02
+ Proprietary alloy names apply
Surface Finishes
Surface finish is an important element in any specification or purchase order for

stainless steel regardless of the intended end use. For those applications in
which appearance is important, finish is a design element and must be specified.
For those applications where finish is not so important, it should still be specified
to avoid receiving a finish that is inappropriate for the application.
Particle Particle All product other than emery Emery
size size Grading system Comparable Polishing
inches microns Cloth
CAMI FEPA grit symbol paper
0.00026 6.5 1200 - - 4/0 -
0.00035 9.0 - - - - -
0.00036 9.2 1000 - - 3/0 -
0.00047 12.0 - - - - -
0.00048 12.2 800 - - - -
0.00059 15.0 - - - - -
0.00060 15.3 - P1200 - - -
0.00062 16.0 600 - - 2/0 -
0.00071 18.3 - P1000 - - -
0.00077 19.7 500 - - 0 -
0.00079 20.0 - - - - -
0.00085 21.8 - P800 - - -
0.00092 23.6 400 - 10/0 - -
0.00098 25.0 - - - - -
0.00100 25.75 - P600 - - -
0.00112 28.8 360 - - - -
0.00118 30.0 - P500 - - -
0.00137 35.0 - P400 - - -
0.00140 36.0 320 - 9/0 - -
0.001575 40.0 - - - - -
0.00158 40.5 - P360 - - -
0.00172 44.0 280 - 8/0 1 -
0.00177 45.0 - - - - -
0.00180 46.2 - P320 - - -
0.00197 50.0 - - - - -
0.00204 52.5 - P280 - - -
0.00209 53.5 240 - 7/0 - -
0.00217 55.0 - - - - -
0.00228 58.5 - P240 - - -
0.00230 60.0 - - - - -
0.00254 65.0 - P220 - - -
0.00257 66.0 220 - 6/0 2 -
0.00304 78.0 180 P180 5/0 3 -
0.00363 93.0 150 - 4/0 - Fine
0.00378 97.0 - P150 - - -
0.00452 116.0 120 - 3/0 - -
0.00495 127.0 - P120 - - -
0.00550 141.0 100 - 2/0 - Medium
0.00608 156.0 - P100 - - -
0.00749 192.0 80 - 0 - Coarse
0.00768 197.0 - P80 - - -
0.01014 260.0 - P60 - - -
0.01045 268.0 60 - 1/2 - -
0.01271 326.0 - P50 - - -
0.01369 351.0 50 - 1 - Ex. Coarse
0.01601 412.0 - P40 - - -
0.01669 428.0 40 - 1-1/2 - -
The purpose of this section is to help designers and specifiers achieve a better
understanding of stainless steel finishes. The text describes and illustrates
standard industry finishes and how finishes are applied to stainless steel.
Designers, specifiers and purchasing officials are also encouraged to contact

ASSDA, a local stainless steel service centre or fabricator concerning any surface
finish requirements.
Finish - A Design Element
There are several good reasons for paying close attention to the finish
designation. In architecture or other highly visible applications, the appearance
of stainless steel is a critical design element and a misunderstanding or the
wrong finish can alter the desired effect. In consumer products such as
appliances, cookware and automobiles, the gleam of well polished stainless steel
has strong sales appeal. In commercial equipment, such as used in institutional
kitchens, restaurants and hospitals, properly finished stainless steel helps to
emphasize the feeling of cleanliness.
In addition to the visual appeal of polished stainless steel, there are a number of
functionally important purposes served by properly prepared stainless steel
surfaces. In sanitary applications, polished stainless steel not only looks clean, it
is easy to clean and keep clean.
In aggressive environments, the smoother the surface, the better the corrosion
resistance. A smooth surface is less susceptible to an accumulation of deposits
which may become focal points for localized corrosion.
Finish and Fabrication
Some fabrication operations in manufacturing stainless steel products, such as

deep drawing, may yield better results if the metal surface has a slightly rough
texture to hold lubricants. Proper lubrication minimizes tool wear, and it helps to
reduce the severity of tool marks. In wire, the finish and coating serve to
facilitate further steps in manufacturing such as cold heading of fasteners.
There are also economic considerations in specifying finish. For example, a cold
rolled bright annealed finish might be specified instead of a more expensive No.
8 polished finish.
Relative comparison of grit size

Chemical Surface Treatments
Successfully using stainless steel depends on environment, grade selected, surface finish, the
expectations of the customer and the maintenance specified.
Stainless steels provide robust solutions, but in harsh or borderline environments with high
expectations for durability, surface finish will have a substantial impact on performance. Surface
finishes can be applied mechanically (usually with abrasives) and chemically.
Understanding how chemical and mechanical treatments will affect the characteristics of the surface
and will enable the best possible outcome for the client and the structure. Chemical treatment can
be used to improve the corrosion performance of the steel, and hence its appearance in service.
Stainless steels resist corrosion best if they are clean and smooth. Clean means being free of
contaminants on or in the surface that can either react with the steel (like carbon steel or salt) or
that create crevices or other initiation points where corrosion can start.
Smooth means having a low surface area at the 'micro' level. Mechanically abrading the surface can
roughen the steel's surface and may also embed unwanted particles.
The common feature of chemical treatments is that they all clean the surface of the steel. They may
also smooth or roughen the steel surface, or leave it unaffected depending on which process is
chosen. But if carried out properly, they all increase the corrosion resistance.
Corrosion resistance improves as you go to the right of this graph. The graph shows the relative
importance of the smoothness of the surface and chemical treatment of the surface. They can be
used together to get the best corrosion resistance. The study reported by G. Coates (Materials
Performance - August 1990) looked at the effect of various methods of treating an artificial welding
heat tint on grade 316, 2B surface.
Stainless Steel Products
During steel making, sulphur in the steel is controlled to very low levels. But even at these levels
sulphide particles are left in the steel, and can become points of corrosion attack. This 'achilles heel'
can be improved greatly by chemical surface treatment.
Most bar products will be slightly higher in sulphur when produced, so chemical treatment to
remove inclusions in the surface of these products becomes more important.
Generally mill finishes for flat products (sheet, plate and strip) will be smoother as their thickness
decreases.
FEPA - Federation of European Producers of Abrasives
CAMI - Coated Abrasive Manufacturers Institute (USA)
© Copyright ASSDA 2004. Privacy

Statement | Disclaimer
SUBJECT: Corrosion problems associated with stainless steel 4-1
The rotating equipment business uses a great deal of 300 series stainless steel, and as a
result we often experience corrosion that is described in a variety of technical terms that
include:
• General corrosion
• Galvanic corrosion
• Pitting
• Inter granular corrosion
• Stress corrosion cracking
• Erosion- corrosion
• Fretting
• Concentrated cell or crevice corrosion
• Selective leaching
• Micro organisms
The last page of this report is a list titled "The Galvanic Series Of Metals and alloys". I
will be referring to this chart during our discussion.
The basic resistance of stainless steel occurs because of its ability to form a protective
coating on the metal surface. This coating is a "passive" film which is resistant to further
"oxidation" or rusting. The formation of this film is instantaneous in an oxidizing
atmosphere such as air, water, or many other fluids that contain oxygen. Once the layer
has formed we say that the metal has become "passivated" and the oxidation or "rusting"
rate will slow down to less than 0.002" per year (0,05 mm. per year).
Unlike aluminum or silver this passive film is invisible in stainless steel. It is due to the
combining of oxygen with the chrome in the stainless to form chrome oxide which is
more commonly called "ceramic". This protective oxide or ceramic coating is common to
most corrosion resistant materials.
Halogen salts, especially chlorides easily penetrate this passive film and will allow
corrosive attack to occur. The halogens are easy to recognize because they end in the
letters "ine". Listed in order of their activity they are: fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine
and astatine. These are the same chemicals that will penetrate Teflon and cause trouble
with Teflon coated or encapsulated O-Rings and/ or similar coated materials. Chlorides
are one of the most common elements in nature and if that isn't bad enough they are also
soluble, active ions; the basis for good electrolytes, the best conditions for corrosion or
chemical attack.
GENERAL OR OVERALL CORROSION.
This type of corrosion occurs when there is an overall breakdown of the passive film
formed on the stainless steel. It is the easiest to recognize as the entire surface of the
metal shows a uniform "sponge like" appearance. The rate of attack is affected by the
fluid concentration, temperature, fluid velocity and stress in the metal parts subject to
attack. As a general rule the rate of attack will double with an eighteen degree Fahrenheit
rise in temperature (10° C.) of either the product or the metal part.
If the rotating portion of the seal is rubbing against some stationary component, such as a
protruding gasket or fitting the protective oxide layer will be polished off and the heat
generated will increase the corrosion as noted above. This explains why corrosion is often
limited to only one portion of the metal case.
There are many good publications available to help you select the proper metal for any
given mechanical seal application. As a general rule, if the wetted parts of the equipment
are manufactured from iron, steel, stainless steel or bronze, and they are showing no signs
of corrosion, grade 316 stainless is acceptable as long as you do not use stainless steel
springs. (see chloride stress corrosion)
GALVANIC CORROSION
If you put two dissimilar metals or alloys in a common electrolyte, and connect them with
a voltmeter, it will show an electric current flowing between the two. (This is how the
battery in your automobile works). When the current flows, material will be removed
from one of the metals or alloys (the ANODIC one) and dissolve into the electrolyte. The
other metal (the CATHODIC one) will be protected.
Now let's take a look at the Galvanic Series chart that is attached to this report. The
further apart the materials are located on this chart the more likely that the one on the
ANODIC end will corrode if they are both immersed in a common fluid considered to be
an electrolyte. water, containing chlorides, is one of the best.
Example #1.
A ship has lots of bronze fittings and a steel hull. Note that steel is located seven lines
from the ANODIC end, and bronze is listed at twenty seven rows from the same end. Sea
water is a perfect electrolyte so the bronze fittings would immediately attack the steel hull
unless something could be done to either protect the steel or give the bronze something
else to attack. The classic way to solve this problem is to attach sacrificial zinc pieces to
the hull and let the bronze go after them. Again, looking at the chart, you will note that
zinc is found on line three from the top of the chart. In other words the zinc is further
away from the bronze than the iron is, so the galvanic action takes place between the zinc
and the bronze, rather than between the steel and the bronze. Zinc paint is used for the
same reason in many applications.
Example #2
Nickel base tungsten carbide contains active nickel. When this face material is used in
dual seal it is common to circulate water or antifreeze containing water between the seals
(as mentioned in the beginning of this report, water can be an excellent electrolyte
because of the addition of chlorine and fluorine). You will note that active nickel is
located twenty one rows from the top of the chart. Passivated 316 stainless steel is
positioned nine rows from the bottom. This means that the stainless steel can attack the
nickel in the tungsten carbide causing it to corrode. Many of you have run into this
problem already.
The rate at which corrosion takes place is determined by:
• The distance separating the metals on the galvanic series chart

• The temperature and concentration of the electrolyte. The higher the temperature,
the faster it happens. Any stray electrical currents in the electrolyte will increase
the corrosion also.
• The relative size of the metal pieces. A large cross section piece will not be
affected as much as a smaller one.
• Many metal seal components are isolated from each other by the use of rubber O-
Rings or similar materials and designs. Shaft movement that causes fretting of the
316 stainless steel rubs off the passivated layer and exposes the active stainless to
the electrolyte until the metal part becomes passivated once more. This is one of
the reasons we see corrosion under O-rings, Teflon, and similar materials. In the
next paragraph I will be discussing another cause of corrosion under rubber parts.
PITTING
This is an accelerated form of chemical attack in which the rate of corrosion is greater in
some areas than others. It occurs when the corrosive environment penetrates the
passivated film in only a few areas as opposed to the overall surface. As stated earlier the
halogens will penetrate passivated stainless steel. Referring to the galvanic chart you will
note that passivated 316 stainless steel is located nine lines from the bottom and active
316 stainless steel is located thirteen lines from the top. Pit type corrosion is therefore
simple galvanic corrosion, as the small active area is being attacked by the large
passivated area. This difference in relative areas accelerates the corrosion causing the pits
to penetrate deeper. The electrolyte fills the pits and prevents the oxygen from
passivating the active metal so the problem gets even worse. This type of corrosion is
often called "concentrated cell corrosion". You will also see it under rubber parts that
tend to keep oxygen away from the active metal parts, retarding its ability to form the
passivated layer.
INTERGRANULAR CORROSION
All Austenitic stainless steels (the 300 series, the types that "work harden", is one of
them) contain a small amount of carbon in solution in the austenite. Carbon is
precipitated out at the grain boundaries, of the steel, in the temperature range of 1050° F.
(565° C) to 1600° F. (870° C.). This is a normal temperature range during the welding of
stainless steel.
This carbon combines with the chrome in the stainless steel to form chromium carbide
starving the adjacent areas of the chrome they need for corrosion protection. In the
presence of some strong corrosives an electrochemical action is initiated between the
chrome rich and chrome poor areas with the areas being low in chrome becoming
attacked. The grain boundaries are then dissolved and become non existent. There are
three ways to combat this:
• Anneal the stainless after it has been heated to this sensitive range. This means
bringing it up to the proper annealing temperature and then quickly cooling it
down through the sensitive temperature range to prevent the carbides from
forming.
• When possible use low carbon content stainless if you intend to do any welding
on it. A carbon content of less than 0.3% will not precipitate into a continuous
film of chrome carbide at the grain boundaries. 316L is as good example of a low
carbon stainless steel.
• Alloy the metal with a strong carbide former. The best is columbium, but
sometimes titanium is used. The carbon will now form columbium carbide rather
than going after the chrome to form chrome carbide. The material is now said to
be "stabilized"
CHLORIDE STRESS CORROSION.
If the metal piece is under tensile stress, either because of operation or residual stress left
during manufacture, the pits mentioned in a previous paragraph will deepen even more.
Since the piece is under tensile stress cracking will occur in the stressed piece. Usually
there will be more than one crack present that causes the pattern to resemble a spider's
web. Chloride stress cracking is a common problem in industry and not often recognized
by the people involved. In the seal business it is a serious problem if you use stainless
steel springs or stainless steel bellows material. This is the main reason that Hastelloy C
is recommended for spring material. Here are some additional thoughts about chloride
stress cracking that you will want to consider:
• Chlorides are the big problem when using the 300 series grades of stainless steel.
The 300 series is the one most commonly used in the process industry because of
its good corrosion resistant proprieties. Outside of water chlorides is the most
common chemical found in nature and remember that the most common water
treatment is the addition of chlorine.
• Beware of insulating or painting stainless steel pipe. Most insulation contains
plenty of chlorides and piping is frequently under tensile stress. The worst
condition would be insulated steam traced, stainless steel piping.
If it is necessary to insulate stainless steel pipe a special chloride free insulation can be
purchased or the pipe can be coated with a protective film prior to insulating.
• Stress cracking can be minimized by annealing the metal, after manufacture to

remove residual manufactured stresses.
• Never replace a carbon steel bolt with a stainless steel one unless you are sure
there are no chlorides present. Bolts can be under severe tensile stress.
• No one knows the threshold values for stress cracking to occur. We only know
that you need tensile stress, chlorides, temperature and the 300 series of stainless
steel. We do not know how much chloride, stress or temperature.
• Until I figured out what was happening I had trouble breaking stainless steel
fishing hooks in the warm water we have in Florida.
• Many cleaning solutions and solvents contain chlorinated hydrocarbons. Be
careful using them on or near stainless steel. Sodium hypochlorite, chlorethene.
methylene chloride and trichlorethane are just a few in common use. The most
common cleaner used with dye checking material is trichloroethane accounting
for the reason we sometimes experience cracks after we weld stainless steel and
die check it to check the quality of the weld.
EROSION CORROSION
This is an accelerated attack resulting from the combination of mechanical and chemical
wear. The liquid velocities in some pumps prevent the protective oxide passive layer
from forming on the metal surface. The suspended solids also remove some of the
passivated layer increasing the galvanic action. You see this type of corrosion very
frequently at the eye of the pump impeller.
FRETTING CORROSION
This type of corrosion is easily seen on the pump shaft or sleeve. You will see the
damage beneath:
• The grease or lip seal that is supposed to protect the bearings.

• The packing used to seal the fluid.
• The dynamic Teflon or elastomer used in most original equipment seals.
• The vibration damper used in rotating metal bellows seals.
• Under the rubber boot used in low cost seals, if they did not attach them selves to
the shaft properly.
As mentioned earlier, 300 series stainless steel passivates its self by forming a protective
chrome oxide layer when ever it is exposed to free oxygen. This oxide layer is very hard
and when it imbeds into a soft elastomer it will cut and damage the shaft or sleeve
rubbing against it. The mechanism works like this:
• Oxygen passivates the active stainless steel forming a protective ceramic layer.
• The seal or packing removes the oxide layer as the shaft or sleeve rubs against it.
• The ceramic sticks into the soft elastomer turning it into a "grinding surface".
• The oxide reforms when the active metal is exposed and the process starts all over
again.
• A visible groove is cut into the shaft or sleeve that will cause seal leakage and
"hang up".
CONCENTRATED CELL OR CREVICE CORROSION
This corrosion occurs any time liquid flow is kept away from the attacked surface. It is
common between nut and bolt surfaces, under O-rings and gaskets, and between the
clamps and stainless steel shafts we find in many split seal applications. Salt water
applications are the most severe problem because of the salt water low PH (8.0&endash;
9.0). Here is the mechanism:
• Chlorides pit the passivated stainless steel surface.

• The low PH salt water attacks the active layer that is exposed
• Because of the lack of fluid flow over the attacked surface oxygen is not available
to re passivate the stainless steel.
• Corrosion continues unhampered under the rubber and tight fitting clamp.
• The inside of the O-ring groove experiences the same corrosion as the shaft or
sleeve.
SELECTIVE LEACHING
The process fluid selectively removes elements from the piping or any other part that
might be exposed to the liquid flow. The mechanism is:
• Metals are removed from the liquid during a de-ionization or de-mineralizing

process.
• The liquid tries to replace the missing elements as it flows through the system.
• The un-dissolved metals often coat them selves on the mechanical seal faces or
the sliding components and cause a premature seal failure.
• Heat accelerates the process.
MICRO ORGANISMS
These organisms are commonly used in sewage treatment, oil spills and other cleaning
processes. Although there are many different uses for these "bugs", one common one is
for them to eat the carbon you find in waste and other hydrocarbons, and convert it to
carbon dioxide. The "bugs" fall into three categories:
• Aerobic, the kind that need oxygen.
• Anaerobic, the kind that do not need oxygen.
• Facultative, the type that goes both ways.
If the protective oxide layer is removed from stainless steel because of rubbing or
damage, the "bugs" can penetrate through the damaged area and attack the carbon in the
metal. Once in, the attack can continue on in a manner similar to that which happens
when rust starts to spread under the paint on an automobile.
CORROSION DOE-HDBK-1015/1-93 Corrosion CH-02 Rev. 0 Page 32 The most effective means for preventing
SCC are proper design, reducing stress, removing critical environmental contributors (for example,
hydroxides, chlorides, and oxygen), and avoiding stagnant areas and crevices in heat exchangers where
chlorides and hydroxides might become concentrated. Low alloy steels are less susceptible than high alloy
steels, but they are subject to SCC in water containing chloride ions. Nickel based alloys are not affected
by chloride or hydroxide ions. Two types of SCC are of major concern to a nuclear facility.
Chloride Stress Corrosion Cracking (Stainless Steels)
The three conditions that must be present for chloride stress corrosion to occur are as follows. Chloride ions
are present in the environment Dissolved oxygen is present in the environment Metal is under tensile stress
Austenitic stainless steel is a non-magnetic alloy consisting of iron, chromium, and nickel, with a low
carbon content. This alloy is highly corrosion resistant and has desirable mechanical properties. One type
of corrosion which can attack austenitic stainless steel is chloride stress corrosion. Chloride stress
corrosion is a type of intergranular corrosion. Chloride stress corrosion involves selective attack of the
metal along grain boundaries. In the formation of the steel, a chromium-rich carbide precipitates at the
grain boundaries leaving these areas low in protective chromium, and thereby, susceptible to attack. It has
been found that this is closely associated with certain heat treatments resulting from welding. This can be
minimized considerably by proper annealing processes. This form of corrosion is controlled by
maintaining low chloride ion and oxygen content in the environment and the use of low carbon steels.
Environments containing dissolved oxygen and chloride ions can readily be created in auxiliary water
systems. Chloride ions can enter these systems via leaks in condensers or at other locations where auxiliary
systems associated with the nuclear facility are cooled by unpurified cooling water. Dissolved oxygen can
readily enter these systems with feed and makeup water. Thus, chloride stress corrosion cracking is of
concern, and controls must be used to prevent its occurrence.

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Galvanic Corrosion

Summary of galvanic corrosion of nickel stainless steels

Crevices can be:

• The space under a washer or bolt head.

Prevention measures should therefore also aim at design, fabrication and

Why crevices can corrode

To work at its best, stainless needs free access to

The result is that the oxygen in the moisture is used

These are all conditions that can lead to the

Table one shows laboratory measurements of critical temperatures needed to

Factors influencing crevices:

The geometry of the crevice will influence its

Once the CCT is exceeded, then as with pitting

Good design, fabrication and operating practices

Design to minimize the occurrence of crevices. If a crevice is a necessary part of

Ensure full root penetration of welded joints

'Smooth and clean' at all times. ASSDA

The Nickel Institute's free publication #11021 'High Performance Stainless

If more detailed corrosion mechanism information is required, then 'Corrosion of

The Australian Stainless Steel Development Association (ASSDA) would like to

• Richard Matheson - Executive Director, ASSDA

This article featured in Australian Stainless magazine - Issue 29, September

Corrosion Control - Galvanic Table

Originally published August 1997

The Galvanic Table

More on Galvanic Table (Almost straight from MIL-STD-

1. Sacrificial - by applying to the cathodic member a sacrificial coating having a

The (Non-Aerodynamic) Area Rule

Corollary I - Use LARGE ANODE AREA.

Corollary IV - Design for a SMALL Cathodic/Anodic Ratio (CAR). (When designing,

Sea Water Environments

Plate the cathodic member with a metal compatible to the anode.

Select a electrically conductive sealant. (More on these later.)

Not For Electrical Conductors - Interpose a non-absorbing, inert gasket material or

Apply corrosion-inhibiting pastes or compounds under heads of screws or bolts inserted

Galvanic/Dissimilar Metal Corrosion

What causes galvanic corrosion?

For galvanic or dissimilar or electrolytic corrosion to occur, three conditions must

Wetting the join

The conductive liquid or electrolyte could be rainwater or even water from

Metal to metal contact

However, a stainless screw in galvanized steel is frequently used although a

Available current density

Examples of acceptable galvanic pairs include:

The technical recommendations contained in this publication are necessarily of a

Table 1: Family of Stainless Steels

Grade S30400 Stainless Steel

When selecting a stainless steel, first consider the fundamental "competitive

For corrosive environments, take advantage of past experience. Even small

For resistance to environments such as strong acids, where uniform general

Selection for Mechanical and Physical Properties

Selection for Fabric ability:

Fabric ability should be considered early in the grade selection process - it

Before selecting a grade of stainless steel, it is essential to consider the required

ASM International (1989) Corrosion Data.

ASM International (1994) ASM Specialty Handbook - Stainless Steels.

304: the place to start