Lecture Note 3

MODULE 3 - Applications of Integral Calculus 1
Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan
TOPICS:
I. Areas Between Two Graphs
II. Volumes by Slicing
III. Solids of Revolution
1. Disk and Washer Method
2. The Shell Method
IV. Arc Length
V. Surfaces of Revolution
I. PLANE AREAS BETWEEN TWO CURVES
Learning Objectives
At the end of this section, the students should be able to
1. Sketch the area bounded by curves in the Cartesian coordinate.
2. Determine the area bounded between curves using integration with respect to the x- or the y-
axis.
In this section, we are going to look at finding the area between two curves. There are actually two
cases that we are going to be looking at.
Case 1: Integrating with respect to x

In the first case we are want to determine the area between y = f(x) and y = g(x) on the interval [a,
b]. We are also going to assume that f (x) ≥ g(x). The formula for the area in this case
b
A=   f(x) - g(x) dx
a
(1)
=  ( upper function ) - ( lower function ) dx
b
a  x b
a
x=a x=b
y
(x, f(x))
y = f(x)
f(x) - g(x)
y = g(x)
a b
0 x
(x, g(x))
x
Examples:
1. Find the area bounded by the graphs of y = 3 - x and y = x2 - 9
Solution:
The region in the Figure is determined by the intersection of the two curves. The limits of
integration will then correspond to the x-coordinates of the points of intersection. To find the
limits, we set the two functions equal and solve for x.
3 - x = x2 - 9 or 0 = x2 + x - 12 = (x - 3) (x + 4)
Thus, the curves intersect at x = -4 and x = 3. Be careful to notice from the graph which curve
forms the upper boundary of the region and which one forms the lower boundary. In this case, the
upper boundary is formed by y = 3 - x. So, for each fixed value of x, the height of a rectangle (such
as the one indicated in the Figure) is
h(x) = (upper function) – (lower function) = yupper – ylower = (3 - x) - (x2 - 9)
The area between the curves is then

3
 x3 x2 
( ) ( )
A =  ( 3 − x ) − x 2 − 9  dx =  − x 2 − x + 12 dx =  − −
3 3
+ 12 x 
−4 −4
 3 2  −4
 ( 3 ) 3 ( 3 )2   ( −4 )3 ( −4 )2 

= − − + 12 ( 3 )  −  − − + 12 ( −4 )  
 3 2  
  3 2 

343
= square units
6
2. Find the area bounded by the graphs of y = x2 and y = 2 − x2 for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2.

Solution:
Since the two curves intersect in the middle of the interval, we will need to compute two integrals,
one on the interval where 2 − x2 ≥ x2 and one on the interval where x2 ≥ 2 − x2.
To find the point of intersection, we solve x2 = 2 − x2, so that 2x2 = 2 or x2 = 1 or x = ±1. Since x =
−1 is outside the interval of interest, the only intersection of note is at x = 1.
The total area is two parts:

A1 (on [0, 1]) = [(upper function) – (lower function)]x = [yupper – ylower] x =  2 − x 2 − x 2  x ( )
A2 (on [1, 2]) = [(upper function) – (lower function)]x = [yupper – ylower] x =  x 2 − 2 − x 2  x ( )
Hence,
( ) ( )
1 2
A =   2 − x 2 − x 2  dx +   x 2 − 2 − x 2  dx
 
0 1
1 2
 2x 3   2x 3 
 ( 2 − 2 x ) dx +  ( )
1 2
= 2
2 x − 2 dx = 2 x −
2
 +  − 2x 
0 1
 3 0  3 1
= 4 square units
3. Find the area bounded by the graphs of y = x2, y = 2 − x and y = 0.
Solution:
A sketch of the three defining curves is shown in Figure below. Notice that the top boundary of the
region is the curve y = x2 on the first portion of the interval and the line y = 2 − x on the second
portion.
To determine the point of intersection, we solve

2 − x = x2 or 0 = x2 + x − 2 = (x + 2)(x − 1)
Since x = −2 is to the left of the y-axis, the intersection we seek occurs at x = 1. We then break the
region into two pieces, as shown and find the area of each separately. The total area is then
A = A1 + A2:
A1 (on [0, 1]) = [(upper function) – (lower function)]x = [yupper – ylower] x = [x2 – 0] x
A2 (on [1, 2]) = [(upper function) – (lower function)]x = [yupper – ylower] x = [(2 – x) – 0] x
( )  ( 2 − x ) − 0  dx
1 2
A =  x 2 − 0 dx +
0 1
1 2
x3  x2  5
= + 2 x −  = square units
3 0  2 1 6
4. Find the area of the region bounded by the graphs of y = x2 + 1 and y = x3 and the vertical lines x
= −1 and x = 1.
Solution:
After quickly plotting the graphs we see that (x2 + 1) lies above x3 on the interval. So, let f(x) = x2
+ 1 and g(x) = x3. Since both are continuous (polynomials) we have
1
 x3 x4 
( )
A =   f ( x ) − g ( x )  dx =   x 2 + 1 − x 3  dx =  + x − 
b 1
−1
a
3 4  −1
 ( 1 ) 3 (1)
4
  ( −1 )3 ( −1 )
4
 8
=  +1− − −1−   = square units
 3 4   3
  4  3

5. Find the area of the region enclosed by the graphs of y = 8 − x2, y = 7x, and y = 2x in the first
quadrant.
Solution:
This time there are three curves to contend with. Since the curves are relatively simple (an upside-
down parabola and two lines through the origin, it is relatively easy to make a sketch of the region.
Let f(x) = 8 − x2, g(x) = 7x, and h(x) = 2x. A wedge-shaped region is determined by all three curves.
Notice that the ‘top’ curve of the region switches from g(x) to f (x). We find the intersections of the
pairs of graphs:
f(x) = g(x)  8 − x2 = 7x
 x2 + 7x − 8 = 0
 (x − 1)(x + 8) = 0
 x = 1 (not −8).
f(x) = h(x)  8 − x2 = 2x
 x2 + 2x − 8 = 0
 (x − 2)(x + 4) = 0
 x = 2 (not −4).
g(x) = h(x)  7x = 2x
 5x = 0
 x = 0.
The region is thus divided into two sub-regions and the graph gives the relative positions of the
curves. Since all the functions are continuous, the Area enclosed by f, g, and h is
A =   7 x − 2 x  dx +  ( 8 − x ) − 2x  dx
1 2
2
0 1
1 2
5x2  x3 
= +  8x − − x2 
2 0  3 1
5  ( 2 ) − 2 2  −  8 1 − ( 1 ) − 1 2  
3 3
= +  8 ( 2 ) − ( )   () ()
2  3   3  

31
= square units
6
Classroom Activity 1
1. Find the area of the region between the graphs of y = ex and y = x and the vertical lines x = 0
and x = 1. [Ref 15]
2. Find the area of the region bounded by the graphs of y = 2 – x2 and y = -x. [Ref 15]
3. Find the area between the graphs of f (x) = x2 − 5x − 7 and g(x) = x − 12 over [−2, 5]. [Ref 17]
4. Find the area of the region bounded by the graphs of y = 8/x2, y = 8x, and y = x. [Ref 17]
Case 2: Integrating with respect to y

The second case is almost identical to the first case. Here we are going to determine the area between
x = f(y) and x = g(y) on the interval [c, d] with f (y) ≥ g(y). In this case the formula is
d
A=   f(y) - g(y) dy
c
(2)
=  ( right function ) - ( left function ) dy
d
c  y d
c
y x = g(y) x = f(y)
d y=d
y
S
c y=c
x
f(y) - g(y)
Examples:
1. Determine the area of the region bounded x = -y + 10 and x = ( y - 2 ) .
2 2
Solution:
The intersection points must be initially determined.
-y 2 + 10 = ( y - 2 )
2
-y 2 + 10 = y 2 - 4y + 4
0 = 2y 2 - 4y - 6
0 = 2 ( y + 1 )( y - 3 )
The intersection points are y = -1 and y = 3 . The figure below is a graph of the region.
Retrieved from Ref [6]
The area can be determined as,

A = [(right function) – (left function)] y = [xright – xleft] y
( )
A =   − y 2 + 10 − ( y − 2 )  dy
3 2
−1  
2. Find the area of the region bounded by the graphs of x = 3 - y2 and x = y + 1.
Solution:
Consider g(y) = 3 - y2 and f(y) = y + 1
These two curves intersect when y = -2 and y = 1.
Horizontal rectangles (integration with respect to y)
 g ( y ) − f ( y ) dy
d
Because f(y)  g(y) on this interval: A= c
A = [(right function) – (left function)] y = [xright – xleft] y

A =  ( 3 − y 2 ) − ( y + 1 )  dy =  ( − y 2 − y + 2 ) dy
1 1
−2 −2
1
 − y3 y2 
= − + 2y
 3 2  −2
 − ( 1 ) 3 ( 1 )2   − ( −2 )3 ( −2 )2 

=  − + 2(1) −  − + 2 ( −2 )  
 3 2   3
  2 

9
= square units
2
In Example 2, notice that by integrating with respect to y you need only one integral. If you had
integrated with respect to x you would have needed two integrals because the upper boundary
would have changed at x = 2, as shown below.
Vertical rectangles (integration with respect to x)

Thus,
A1 (on [-1, 2]) = [(upper function) – (lower function)]x = [yupper – ylower] x
A2 (on [2, 3]) = [(upper function) – (lower function)]x = [yupper – ylower] x
A =  ( x − 1 ) + 3 − x  dx + ( )
2 3
3 − x + 3 − x dx
−1 2
 x − 1 + ( 3 − x )1/2  dx + 2 ( 3 − x )1/2 dx
2 3
= 
−1   2
2 2
 x2 (3 − x)   ( 3 − x )3/2 
3/2
=  −x−  −2 
 2 3 / 2 
−1

 3 / 2  2
 2  1 16  2
=  2 − 2 −  −  + 1 −  − 2 (0 ) + 2  
 2 2 3 3
9
= square units
2
1. Find the area of the curves bounded by y2 = 2x + 6 and y = x – 1. [Ref 18]
Using integration with respect to y:
Using integration with respect to x:

Exercises 1
1. Sketch the region enclosed by the given curves. Decide whether to integrate with respect to x
or y. Draw a typical approximating rectangle and label its height and width.
a. Bounded by y = 1/x, y = 0, x = e and x = e2
b. Bounded by y = 5 – 2x – 3x2, y = 0, x = -1 and x = 1
c. Above y = x and below y = 12 – x2
d. Below y = 1 – cos x and above y = 0 between two consecutive intersections of these
graphs
2. Find the area enclosed by the line y = x – 1 and the parabola y2 = 2x + 6.
3. Find the area of the region bounded by the graphs of y = cos x and y = (2/π) x – 1 and the
vertical lines x = 0 and x = π.
4. Find the area of the region between the curves y = 4 – x2 and y = -x + 2 from x = -2 to x = 3.
5. Find the area of the region in the first quadrant that is bounded above by the curve y = x and
below by the x-axis and the line y = x – 2.
6. Determine the area of the region bounded y = 2x2 + 10 and y = 4x + 16.
7. Compute the area of the region enclosed by x = ½ y2 – 3 and y = x - 1 .
8. Determine the area to the left of y = 3 – y2 and to the right of x = -1.
9. Find the area of the “triangular” region in the first quadrant bounded on the left by the y-axis
and on the right by the curves y = sin x and y = cos x.
10. The region bounded below by the parabola y = x2 and above by the line y = 4 is to be partitioned
into two subsections of equal area by cutting across it with the horizontal line y = c.
a. Sketch the region and draw a line y = c across it that looks about right. In terms of c,
what are the coordinates of the points where the line and parabola intersect? Add them
to your figure.
b. Find c by integrating with respect to y. (This puts c in the limits of integration.)
c. Find c by integrating with respect to x. (This puts c into the integrand as well.)
II. VOLUMES OF KNOWN CROSS SECTION (METHOD OF SLICING)
Learning Objectives
1. Sketch the solid bounded by curves by slicing it with known cross-sectional geometry.
2. Determine the volume of a solid using slicing with known cross-sectional area.
If the area A(x) of the cross-section R(x) is a continuous function of x, we can find the volume of the
solid by integrating A(x) from a to b.
Thus, the volume of the solid of known integrable cross-section area A(x) from x = a to x = b is the
integral of A from a to b:
b
V= 
a
A(x)dx (3)
How to find the volumes by the method of slicing?

1. Sketch the solid and a typical cross section.
2. Find a formula for A(x).
3. Find the limits of integration.
4. Integrate A(x) to find the volume.
Examples:
1. A pyramid 3 m high has a square base that is 3 m on a side. The cross-section of the pyramid
perpendicular to the altitude x m down from the vertex is a square x m on a side. Find the
volume of the pyramid. [Ref 12]
2. A curved wedge is cut from a cylinder of radius 3 by two planes. One plane is perpendicular to
the axis of the cylinder. The second plane crosses the first plane at a 45° angle at the center of
the cylinder. Find the volume of the wedge. [Ref 12]
3. Calculate the volume V of a pyramid of height 12 m whose base is a square of side 4 m. [Ref
17]
4. Compute the volume V of the solid in the Figure, whose base is the region between the inverted
parabola y = 4 − x2 and the x-axis, and whose vertical cross sections perpendicular to the y-
axis are semicircles.
1. The axes of two right cylinders, each of radius r, intersect at right angles. Find the volume of
the resulting solid that is common to both cylinders.
2. The base of a solid is the ellipse b2x2 + a2y2 = a2b2. Each cross-section perpendicular to the x-
axis is a square with ends of a side on the ellipse. What is the volume?
3. Find the volume bounded by the cylinder x2 + y2 = 2a2 and the planes z = 0, x = 0, y = x, y = z.
4. Find the volume of the solid bounded by the paraboloid x2 + 4y2 = z and the plane z = 4.
5. A solid has a circular base of radius 2. Parallel cross sections of the solid perpendicular to its
base are equilateral triangles. What is the volume of the solid?
6. The radius of a hemispherical vat is 5 ft, and it contains a liquid to a depth of 4 ft. Find the
volume of the liquid.
Exercises 2
1. A solid has the circle x2 + y2 = 25 as a base. The sections perpendicular to a specified diameter
are squares. Sketch the solid and find its volume.
2. Find the volume of a cap of height h formed from a sphere of radius r.
3. A solid has a circular base of radius 2, and their parallel cross sections perpendiculars to its
base are isosceles right triangles oriented so that the endpoints of the hypotenuse of a triangle
lie on the circle. Find the volume of the solid.
4. A solid has an elliptical base with a major axis of 18 in. and a minor axis of 12 in. Find the
volume of the solid if every section perpendicular to the major axis is (a) a square; and (b) an
equilateral triangle.
5. A variable square whose plane is perpendicular to the x-axis has two adjacent vertices on the
parabola y2 = 4ax. Find the volume of the solid generated as the square moves from x = 0 to x
= a.
6. The solid lies between planes perpendicular to the y-axis at y = 0 and y = 2. The cross-sections
perpendicular to the y-axis are circular disks with diameters running from the y-axis to the
parabola x = 5y2. Find the volume of the solid.
7. Find the volume of a cap of height h formed from a sphere of radius r.
8. Find the volume of a right pyramid with a square base of side and height.
9. Calculate the volume of the solid generated by revolving the plane region bounded by
y = x , x = 4, and y = 1 2 about the x-axis.
10. Compute the volume of the solid generated by revolving the plane region bounded by
y = x 2 , y = 9, and x = 0 about the x-axis.
III. VOLUMES OF SOLID OF REVOLUTION
Learning Objectives
1. Sketch the solid formed by revolving the area bounded by curves about a particular axis.
2. Determine the volumes of solid of revolution by using the
a. Disk method
b. Washer or “ring” method
c. Cylindrical shell method
The most common application of the method of slicing is to solids of revolution. Solids of
revolution are solids whose shapes can be generated by revolving plane regions about axes.
Thread spools are solids of revolution; so are hand weights and billiard balls. Solids of revolution
sometimes have volumes we can find with formulas from geometry, as in the case of a billiard ball.
But when we want to find the volume of a blimp or to predict the weight of a part, we are going to have
turned on a lathe, formulas from geometry are of little help and we turn to calculus for the answers.
A. Volumes of Solids of Revolution by the Disk Method
If the area bounded by the curve y = f(x), the x-axis, the line x = a and the line x = b is revolved
about the x-axis, a solid is generated. We can find the solid’s volume in the following way.
The typical cross section of the solid perpendicular to the axis of revolution is a disk of radius f(x) and
area
A(x) = (radius)2 = [f(x)]2
The solid’s volume, being the integral of A from x = a to x = b, is the integral of [f(x)]2 from a to b.
Since y = f(x), we obtain
b b b
 π radius  π  f ( x )  dx = 
2 2
V = dx = π y 2 dx (4)
a a a
Similarly, the volume generated by the region bounded by x = g(y), the y-axis, y = c and y = d
about the y-axis is given by
d d d
 π radius  π  g ( y )  dy = 
2 2
V = dy = πx 2 dy (5)
c c c
Examples:
1. Find the volume of the solid obtained by revolving the region under the graph of y = x on
[0, 2] about the x-axis. [Ref 15]
Solution:
2. Find the volume of the solid of revolution generated by rotating the region under the graph of
y = ex from x = -1 to x = 2 about the x-axis.
Solution:
1. The region between the curve y = x, 0  x  4, and the x-axis is revolved about the x-axis to
generate a solid. Find its volume.
2. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region bounded by y = x and the line
y = 1, x = 4 about the line y = 1.
B. Volumes of Solids of Revolution by use of “Washers or Rings”
The volume generated by the area when the axis of rotation is about a line that is not a boundary of
the area that is being rotated. Such situations are handled by expressing the desired volume as the
difference of two volumes each of which can be obtained by rotating a region about a line that forms
of its boundaries. The cross sections perpendiculars to the axis of revolution are washers instead of
disks.
The washer’s area is
A ( x ) =   outer radius  −   inner radius = 

2 2
 outer radius
2
−  inner radius 
2

The washer formula for finding volumes is
a   outer radius − inner radius  dx

b 2 2
V =
We thus find that the volume obtained by rotating about the x-axis the area bounded by y1 = f(x),
y2 = f(x), x = a, and x = b is given by
 (y )
b
2
V =π 1 - y 22 dx or
a
(6)
= π (y ) dx
b
2 2
higher - ylower
a
Similarly, the volume generated by the region bounded by x1 = f(y), x2 = f(y), y = c, and y = d
about the y-axis is given by
 (x )
b
2
V =π 1 - x 22 dy or
a
(7)
= π (x ) dy
b
2 2
right - xleft
a
Examples:
1. Find the volume of the solid obtained by revolving the region bounded by y = x and y = x
about the -axis. [Ref 15]
Solution:
2. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region bounded by y = x and the
lines y = 1, x = 4 about the line y = 1. [ref 12]
Solution:
3. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region bounded by y = 9 – x2 on the
first quadrant about the line x = - 2. [Ref 18]
Solution:
1. The region bounded by the curve y = x2+ 1 and the line y = -x + 3 is revolved about the x-axis
to generate a solid. Find the volume of the solid.
2. The region bounded by the parabola y = x2 and the line y = 2x in the first quadrant is revolved
about the y-axis to generate a solid. Find the volume of the solid.
3. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region between the y-axis and the
curve x = 2/y, 1  y  4, about the y-axis.
4. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region between the parabola x = y2 + 1
and the line x = 3 about the line x = 3.
5. The region in the first quadrant enclosed by the parabola y = x2, the y-axis, and the line y = 1
is revolved about the line x = 3/2 to generate a solid. Find the volume of the solid.
6. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region in the first quadrant bounded
above by the curve y = x2, below by the x-axis, and on the right by the line x = 1, about the line
x = -1.
Exercises 3
Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region bounded by the graphs of the equations
and/or inequalities about the indicated axis.
1. y = x2, y = 0, x = 2; the x-axis
2. y = x3, y = 0, x = 1; the x-axis
3. y = -x2 + 2x, y = 0; the x-axis
4. y = ex, y = 0, x = 0, x = 1; the x-axis
5. x = -y2 + 2y, x = 0; the y-axis
6. x2 – y2 = 4, x  0, y = -2, y = 2; the y-axis
7. x2 + y2 = 1, y2 = 3/2 x, y  0, the x-axis; (the smaller region)
8. Determine the volume of the solid obtained by rotating the region bounded
y = x 2 - 2 x and y = x about the line y = 4 .
9. Determine the volume of the solid obtained by rotating the region bounded by
y = 2 x - 1 and y = x - 1 about the line x = -1.
10. Rotate the region bounded by y = 7 - x 2 , x = -2, x = 2 and the x-axis.
C. Volumes of Solids of Revolution by use of Cylinders
In the method of cylinders or method of shells, the formula for the area in all cases will be
A = 2π (shell radius)(shell height)
When the region shown in (a) is revolved about the vertical line x = L, a solid is produced which can
be sliced into cylindrical shells. A typical shell is shown in (b)
There are a couple of important differences between this method and the method of rings/disks.
First, rotation about a vertical axis will give an area that is a function of x and rotation
about a horizontal axis will give an area that is a function of y. This is exactly opposite of the
method of rings/disks.
Second, we don’t take the complete range of x or y for the limits of integration as we did in the previous
section. Instead we take a range of x or y that will cover one side of the solid.
The volume of the solid generated by revolving the region between the x-axis and the graph of a
continuous function y = f(x)  0, 0  a  x  b, about the y-axis is
b b
V =  2π ( shell radius )( shell height ) dx =  2π x f ( x ) dx (8)
a a
Examples:
1. The region bounded by the curve y = x ,the x-axis, and the line y = 2x is revolved about the
y-axis to generate a solid. Find the volume of the solid.
Solution:
2. The region bounded by the curve y = x, the x-axis, and the line x = 4 is revolved about the x-
axis to generate a solid. Find the volume of the solid.
Solution:
3. Let R be the region bounded by the graphs of y = x2 + 1, y = -x + 1 and x = 1. Find the volume
of the solid that is obtained by revolving about the -axis using (a) the method of washers and
(b) the method of cylindrical shells.
Solution:
4. Let R be the region bounded by the graphs of y = 4 – x2 and y = -x + 2. Find the volume of the
solid obtained by revolving R about the line x = 4.
Solution:
1. The region bounded by the curve y = x, the x-axis, and the line x = 4 is revolved about the y-
axis to generate a solid. Find the volume of the solid.
2. The region in the first quadrant bounded by the parabola y = x2, the y-axis, and the line y = 1
is revolved about the line x = 2 to generate a solid. Find the volume of the solid.
Summary of the Shell Method

Regardless of the position of the axis of revolution (horizontal or vertical), the steps for implementing
the shell method are these.
1. Draw the region and sketch a line segment across it parallel to the axis of revolution. Label
the segment’s height or length (shell height) and distance from the axis of revolution (shell
radius).
2. Find the limits of integration for the thickness variable.
3. Integrate the product (shell radius) (shell height) with respect to the thickness variable (x or
y) to find the volume.
Exercises 4:
Obtain the volume of the following using method of cylinders.
1. Determine the volume of the solid obtained by rotating the region bounded by and the x-axis
3
y = x , x = 8, about the x-axis.
y = 2 x - 1 and y = x - 1 about the line x = 6.
x = ( y - 2 ) and y = x about the line y = -1.
2
4. Rotate the region bounded by x = ( y - 2 ) , the x-axis and the y-axis about the x-axis.
2
5. Let R be the region bounded by the graphs of the equations y = 4 – x2 and y = -x + 2. Find
the volume of the solid obtained by revolving R about the line x = 4.
6. Let be the region R bounded by the graphs of y = x2 + 1, y = -x + 1, and x = 1. Find the volume
of the solid that is obtained by revolving R about the y–axis using (a) the method of washers
and (b) the method of cylindrical shells.
7. Let R be the region bounded by the graphs of the equations y = 4 – x2 and y = -x + 2. Find
the volume of the solid obtained by revolving R about the line x = 4.
1 1
8. Rotate the region bounded by y = , x = , x = 4 and the x-axis about the y-axis.
x 2
IV. ARC LENGTH OF PLANE CURVES
Learning Objectives
1. Derive the formulas for finding the length of a curve.
2. Determine the length of a curve in a given interval.
Derivation of the Length of a Curve
We want to determine the length of the continuous function y = f(x) on the interval [a, b]. Initially
we’ll need to estimate the length of the curve. We’ll do this by dividing the interval up into n equal
subintervals each of width Δx and we’ll denote the point on the curve at each point by Pi. We can then
approximate the curve by a series of straight lines connecting the points. Here is a sketch of this
situation for n = 7.
y P6
P5 P8
y = f(x)
P4 P7
P1 P2
yi
P3 xi
x
a xi-1 xi b
Now denote the length of each of these line segments by Pi −1 Pi and the length of the curve will then
be approximately,
n
L P
i =1
i −1 Pi
and we can get the exact length by taking n larger and larger. In other words, the exact length will be
n
L = lim
n→ Pi =1
i −1 Pi
Now, let’s get a better grasp on the length of each of these line segments. First, on each segment let’s
define yi = yi − yi −1 = f ( xi ) − f ( xi −1 ) . We can then compute directly the length of the line segments as
follows.
( xi − xi −1 ) + ( yi −1 − yi ) = x 2 + yi2
2 2
Pi −1 Pi =
*
By the Mean Value Theorem, we know that on the interval xi −1 , xi there is a point x i so that
( )
f ( xi ) − f ( xi −1 ) = f ' xi* ( xi − xi −1 )
y = f ' ( x ) x
i
*
i
Therefore, the length can now be written as
( xi − xi −1 ) + ( yi −1 − yi )
2 2
Pi −1 Pi =
( )
2
= x 2 +  f ' xi*  x 2
 
( )
2
= 1 +  f ' xi*  x
 
The exact length of the curve is then
n 1
  ( )
2
L = lim Pi −1 Pi = lim 1 +  f ' xi*  x
n→ n→  
i =1 i =1
However, using the definition of the definite integral, this is nothing more than
2
b b  dy 
 1 +  f' ( x )  dx = 
2
L= 1+  dx (9)
a a  dx 
In a similar fashion we can also derive a formula for x = h(y) on [c, d]. This formula is
2
d d  dx 
 1 + h' ( x )  dx = 
2
L= 1+  dy (10)
c c
 dy 
From this point on we are going to use the following formula for the length of the curve.
L = ds  (11)
where:
2
b  dy 
ds = a
1+  dx
 dx 
if y = f ( x ), a x b
(11-a)
2
d  dx 
ds = c
1+  dy
 dy 
if x = h( y), c y d
Examples:
1. Determine the length of y = ln ( sec x ) between 0  x  /4.
Solution:
In this case we’ll need to use the first ds since the function is in the form y = f (x). So, let’s get the
derivative out of the way.
2
dy sec x tan x  dy  2
= = tan x  dx  = tan x
dx sec x  
Let’s also get the root out of the way since there is often simplification that can be done and there’s
no reason to do that inside the integral.
2
 dy 
1+  = 1 + tan 2 x = sec x = sec x
 dx 
Note that we could drop the absolute value bars here since secant is positive in the range given.
The arc length is then,

 /4  /4
L= 
0
sec x dx = ln sec x + tan x
0
= ln ( )
2 + 1 units
2 3
2. Determine the length of x = ( y -1 ) 2 between 1  y  4 .
3
Solution:
There is a very common mistake that students make in problems of this type. Many students see
that the function is in the form x = h(y) and they immediately decide that it will be too difficult to
work with it in that form so they solve for y to get the function into the form y = f (x). While that
can be done here it will lead to a messier integral for us to deal with.
Sometimes it’s just easier to work with functions in the form x = h(y). In fact, if you can work with
functions in the form y = f (x) then you can work with functions in the form x = h(y). There really
isn’t a difference between the two so don’t get excited about functions in the form x = h(y).
Let’s compute the derivative and the root.

2
dy  dx 
= ( y − 1)
1/2
 1+  = 1 + y −1 = y
dx  dy 
As you can see keeping the function in the form x = h(y) is going to lead to a very easy integral. To
see what would happen if we tried to work with the function in the form y = f (x) see the next
example.
Let’s get the length.

4 2 4 14
L=  1
y dy = y3/2 =
3 1 3
units
1. Set up, but do not evaluate, an integral for the length of y = x + 2,1  x  7 using,
2
 dy 
a. ds = 1 +   dx
 dx 

b. y = sin2 x , 0  x 
8
1
2. Set up, but do not evaluate, an integral for the length of x = cos y, 0  x  using,
2
2
 dy 
a. ds = 1 +   dx
 dx 
2
 dx 
b. ds = 1 +   dy
 dy 
1 2 1
3. Determine the length of x = y for 0  x  . Assume that y-positive.
2 2
V. SURFACE AREAS OF SOLID OF REVOLUTION
Learning Objectives
1. Sketch the surface of a curve by revolving the length and reach of the curve that generates it.
2. Determine the surface area of a curve generated by revolving an arc length about a particular
axis.
Suppose we want to find the area of the surface swept out by revolving the graph of a nonnegative
function y = f(x), a  x  b, about the x-axis. We partition [a, b] in the usual manner and use the
points in the partition to partition the graph into short arcs.
y P
Q
y = f(x)
a
xk– 1
xk x
b
As the arc PQ revolves about the x-axis, the line segment joining P and Q sweeps out part of a cone
whose axis lies along the x-axis. A piece of a cone like this is called a frustum of a cone, frustum
being Latin for “piece”. The surface area of the frustum approximates the surface area of the band
swept out by the arc PQ.
The surface area of the frustum of a cone is 2 times the average of the base radii times the slant
height.
r1 + r2
Frustum surface area = 2   L =  ( r1 + r2 ) L
2
where: r1 = radius of right end

r2 = radius of left end
L = the length of the slant of the frustum
For the frustum on the interval xk−1 , xk we have
r1 = f(xk)
r2 = f(xk – 1)
L= Pk −1 Pk (length of the line segment connecting Pk – 1 and Pk)
We know from the previous section that
( )
2
Pk −1 Pk = 1 +  f ' xk*  x *
where x k is some point in xk−1 , xk
 
Before writing down the formula for the surface area we are going to assume that Δx is “small” and
since f(x) is continuous we can then assume that
f ( xk )  f ( xk* ) and f ( xk −1 )  f ( xk* )
So, the surface area of the frustum on the interval xk−1 , xk is approximately,
 f ( x k ) + f ( x k −1 ) 
Ai = 2   PQ
 2
 
( ) ( )
2
 2 f xk* 1 +  f ' xk*  x
 
The surface area of the whole solid is then approximately
 2 f ( x ) ( )
2
S *
1 +  f ' xk*  x
k  
i =1
and we can get the exact surface area by taking the limit as n goes to infinity.
 2 f ( x ) ( )
2
S = lim *
1 +  f ' xk*   x
n→
k  
i=1 (12)
b
 2π f ( x ) 1+  f' ( x )  dx
2
=
a
We can derive a similar formula for rotating x = h(y) on [c, d] about the y-axis. This would give the
following formula.
d
 2π h ( y ) 1+ h' ( y )  dy
2
S= (13)
c
Notice that the roots in both of these formulas are nothing more than the two ds’s we used in the
previous section. Also, we will replace f(x) with y and h(y) with x; doing this gives the following two
formulas for the surface area.

S = 2π yds rotation about x-axis
(14)
S =  2π xds rotation about y - axis
where:
2
b  dy 
ds = 
a
1+  dx
 dx 
if y = f ( x ), a  x b
(14-a)
2
d  dx 
ds = 
c
1+  dy
 dy 
if x = h( y), c  yd
Examples:
1. Determine the surface area of the solid obtained by rotating y = 9 - x 2 , -2  x  2 about the
x-axis.
2. If a parabolic reflector of an automobile head light is 12 in. in diameter and 4 in. deep, what is
its area?
3. Compute the area of surface generated by revolving the four-cusped of hypocycloid
x 2/3 + y2/3 = a2/3 about the x-axis.
4. Find the area of the surface generated by revolving y = ln x from x = 0 to x = 1 about the y-axis.
2
1. Compute the area of the surface generated by revolving the arc of y = x from x = 0 to x = 2
about the y-axis.
2. Find the surface area of the torus (doughnut) obtained by rotating the circle (x – b)2 + y2 = a2
about the y-axis.
3. Find the area of the surface obtained by rotating the ellipse x2 + 4y2 = 4 about the x-axis.
4. Find the area of the surface obtained by rotating the ellipse x2 + 4y2 = 4 about the y-axis.
Exercises 6:
1. Find the area of the surface obtained by revolving the graph of x = y3 on the interval [0, 1]
about the y-axis.
2. Find the area of the surface obtained by revolving the graph of y = 4 − x 2 on [0, 1] about the
x-axis. This surface is called a spherical zone.
3. Find the area of the curved surface of a right-circular cone of base radius r and height h by
rotating the straight-line segment from (0, 0) to (r, h) about the y-axis.
4. Find the area of the surface obtained by revolving the graph of y = 4 − x 2 on [0, 1] about the
x-axis. This surface is called a spherical zone.
5. Find the area of the spherical zone formed by revolving the graph of y = r 2 − x 2 on [a, b],
where 0 < a < b < r, about the x-axis.
VI. AREAS, ARC LENGTH AND SURFACE AREAS IN POLAR AND PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS
Learning Objectives
1. Sketch the graph of functions involving parametric and polar equations.
2. Determine the areas, volumes, arc length and surface areas bounded by parametric equations.
3. Determine the areas, volumes, arc length and surface areas bounded by polar equations
APPLICATIONS WITH PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS
The coordinates (x, y) of a point on a curve are often expressed in terms of a third variable, say t, thus:
x = f (t) y = g(t)
The third variable is called the parameter and the two equations are the parametric equations of the
curve
1. Parametric Equations of a Straight Line

x = x1 + at
y = y1 + bt
where x1, y1 a, and b are fixed quantities
If a  0, m = b/a
If a = 0, x = x1
2. Parametric Equations of Circle

x = h + r cos
y = k + r sin
with C(h, k)
3. Parametric Equations of Conics

Ellipse:
x = h + cos
y = k + sin
Hyperbola:
x = h + a sec
y = k + b tan
Parabola:
(y – k)2 = 4a(x – h)
x = h + at2
y = k + 2at
y2 = 4ax
x = 4a/t2
y = 4at
A. Area with Parametric Equations

In this section we will find a formula for determining the area under a parametric curve given by the
parametric equations
x = f (t) y = g(t)
as the curve is traced out exactly once as t increases from α to β.
Recall how to find the area under y =F(x) on a ≤ x ≤ b:
b
A=  F (x)dx
a
We will now think of the parametric equation x = f (t) as a substitution in the integral, with a = f()
and b = f().
If this is going to be a substitution we’ll need dx = f ′(t )dt
Plugging this into the area formula above and making sure to change the limits to their corresponding
t values gives us

A= 

F ( f (t )) f '(t ) dt
Since we don’t know what F(x) is we’ll use the fact that
y = F(x) = F(f (t)) = g(t)
and we arrive at the formula that we want.
β
A= 
α
g(t) f'(t) dt (15)
If we should happen to have b= f(α) and a= f(β )the formula would be
α
A= 
β
g(t) f'(t)dt (16)
Example:
Determine the area under the parametric curve given by the following parametric equations.
x = 6 ( - sin ) y = 6 (1- cos  ) 0    2
Solution:
First, we need to derive the parametric equation for x.
dx
= 6 (1 - cos  )
d
The area is then,

2
A =  36 ( 1 - cos  ) d
2
0
2
= 36 1 - 2cos  + cos 2  d
0
32 1
= 36 - 2cos  + cos 2 d
20 2
3 1 2
= 36  - 2sin  + sin 2
2 4 0
= 108
B. Arc Length with Parametric Equations

In this section we will find a formula for determining the arc length of a parametric curve given by the
parametric equations
x = f (t) y = g(t)
as the curve is traced out exactly once as t increases from α to β.
We will also be assuming that the curve is traced out exactly once as t increases from αto β. Also, for
the purposes of the derivation that we’re going to use we will assume that the curve is traced out from
left to right as t increases. This is equivalent to saying
dx
0 for   t  
dt
Using the definition of arc length L =  ds
2
b  dy 
ds = 
a
1+   dx
 dx 
if y = f ( x ), a x b
(17)
2
d  dx 
ds = 
c
1+  dy
 dy 
if x = h( y), c yd
Using the first ds definition, we need to know that
dx
dx = f '(t ) dt = dt
dt
The arc length formula then becomes
( dy / dt )
2 2
  dy / dt  dx  dx
L= 

1+ 
 dx / dt  dt
dt = 
1+
( dx / dt )
2
dt
dt
Simplifying, we obtain the formula
2 2
β
 dx   dy 
L= 
α
  +  dt
 dt   dt 
(18)
Notice that we could have used the second formula for ds above is we had assumed instead that
dy
0 for   t  
dt
If we had gone this route in the derivation, we would have gotten the same formula.
Example:
Determine the length of the parametric curve given by the following parametric equations.
x = 3sin t y = 3cos t 0  t  2
Solution:
It is evident that this is a circle of radius 3 centered at the origin. And we know that it will be
traced out exactly once in this range. So, the derived formula above is applicable.
dx dy
= 3cos t = -3sin t
dt dt
The length is then,

2
L= 9sin 2 t + 9cos 2 t dt
0
2
=  3 sin 2 t + cos2 t dt
0
2
= 3 dt
0
= 6
C. Surface Area with Parametric Equations

Consider the surface area of a region obtained by rotating a parametric curve about the x or y-axis.
We will rotate the parametric curve given by
x = f (t) y = g(t) t
about the x or y-axis. We are going to assume that the curve is traced out exactly once as t increases
from α to β. At this point there actually isn’t all that much to do. We know that the surface area can
be found by using one of the following two formulas depending on the axis of rotation.
S=  2πy ds rotation about x − axis

(19)
S =  2πx ds rotation about y − axis
All that we need is a formula for ds to use and from the previous section we have
2 2
 dx   dy 
ds =   +  dt if x = f (t ), y = f (t )   t 
 dt   dt 
which is exactly what we need.
We will need to be careful with the x or y that is in the original surface area formula. Back when we
first looked at surface area, we saw that sometimes we had to substitute for the variable in the integral
and at other times we didn’t. This was dependent upon the ds that we used. In this case however, we
will always have to substitute for the variable. The ds that we use for parametric equations introduce
a dt into the integral and that means that everything needs to be in terms of t. Therefore, we will need
to substitute the appropriate parametric equation for x or y depending on the axis of rotation.
Example:
Ref [1] Find the surface area of the solid of revolution generated when the parametric curve
x = 3t
y = 7t + 1
for 0  t  1 is revolved around the x-axis.
Solution:
( ) ( 7)
1 2
S = 2  ( 3)
2
7t + 1 t+ dt
0
1
  7 2 
( )
1
= 2  7t + 1 dt = 8  t + t 
 
0
  2   0
 7 
= 8 
 2
+1 = 4
 ( 7 +2  )
 
APPLICATIONS WITH POLAR EQUATIONS
A. Graphs of Equations in Polar Coordinates

Symmetry:
1. If for an equation in polar coordinates an equivalent equation is obtained when (r, ) is
replaced by either (r, - + 2n) where n is any integer, the graph of the equation is symmetric
with respect to the polar axis.
replaced by either (r,  −  + 2n) or (−r, − + 2n), where n is any integer, the graph of the
equation is symmetric with respect to the ½  axis (normal axis).
replaced by either (−r,  + 2n) or (r,  +  + 2n), where n is any integer, the graph of the
equation is symmetric with respect to the pole.
Common Polar Coordinate Graphs

Let’s identify a few of the more common graphs in polar coordinates. We’ll also take a look at a couple
of special polar graphs.
1. Lines
Some lines have fairly simple equations in polar coordinates.
1. θ = c + k, where k is any integer
A line containing the pole and making an angle of radian measure c with the polar axis
2. r cos θ =  a
This is easy enough to convert to Cartesian coordinates to x = a. So, this is a vertical
line.
3. r sin θ =  b
Likewise, this converts to y = b and so is a horizontal line.
2. Circles
Let’s take a look at the equations of circles in polar coordinates.
a. r = a.
This equation is saying that no matter what angle we’ve got the distance from the origin must
be a. If you think about it that is exactly the definition of a circle of radius a centered at the
origin. So, this is a circle of radius a centered at the origin. This is also one of the reasons why
we might want to work in polar coordinates. The equation of a circle centered at the origin has
a very nice equation, unlike the corresponding equation in Cartesian coordinates.
b. r = 2a cos θ.
This is a circle of radius │a│and center (a, 0). Note that a might be negative and so the absolute
value bars are required on the radius. They should not be used however on the center.
c. r = 2b sin θ
This is similar to the previous one. It is a circle of radius b and center (0, b).
d. r = 2a cos θ + 2b sin θ
This is a combination of the previous two and by completing the square twice it can be shown
that this is a circle of radius a2 + b2 and center (a, b). In other words, this is the general equation
of a circle that isn’t centered at the origin.
3. Equations of Limacons:
r = a  b sin r = a  b cos
a. 0 < a/b < 1 limacon with a loop

b. a/b = 1 cardioid (heart-shaped)
c. 1 < a/b < 2 limacon with a dent
d. 2  a/b convex limacon (no dent)
4. Equations of Roses: r = a cos n r = a sin n
a. If n is odd, it has n leaves

b. If n is even, it has 2n leaves
5. Equations of spiral of Archimedes: r=  0
6. Equation of lemniscates: r2 = a sin2 r2 = a cos2
B. Area with Polar Coordinates

1 2
Area of sector of a circle = r
2
=
i
ri
=
  r = f()
O
n
1
A = lim
 i → 0  2 r 
i =1
i
2
i
(21)
1 β

2
A= r dθ
2 α
Consider an area bounded by r = g() and r = f()
=
i
ri =
r = f()
  r = g()
O
 n 1 2 n
1 2 
A = lim 
i →0 
 i =1 2
ri i − i =1
2
ri i 
 (22)
A=
1 β
2 α   2

2

 f ( θ )  -  g ( θ )  dθ

Examples:
1. Determine the area of the inner loop of r = 2 + 4cos .
Solution:
First, we will determine the values of 𝜃 where the curve goes through the origin. We can get these
by equating equal to zero and solving.
0 = 2 + 4 cos 
1
cos  = -
2
2 4
= ,
3 3
The figure below shows the curve with the inner loop shaded in.
The values of 𝜃 define where the inner loop starts and ends and hence are also the limits of
integration in the formula.
So, the area is then,

4 4
1 1
A = 23
2
2
(
( 2 + 4cos  ) d = 23 4 + 16cos  + 16cos 2  d )
3 3 2
4 4
= 23 2 + 8cos  + 4 (1 + cos2 )  d = 23 6 + 8cos  + 4cos2 d

3 3
4
= ( 6 + 8sin  + 2sin 2 ) 3
2 = 4 - 6 3 = 2.174
3
2. Determine the area of the inner loop of r = 2 + 4cos θ.
Solution:
So, we will need the limits that will enclose this area as we trace out the curve. This will be the
angles for which the curve passes through the origin. We can get these by setting the equation
equal to zero and solving.
0 = 2 + 4cos 
1 2 4
cos  = −  = ,
2 3 3

1 β 2
A=
2 α 
r dθ
4
1
 ( 2 + 4cos ) d
2
A= 2
3
3
2
4
=  2
3 1
2
( )
4 + 16cos  + 16cos 2  d
3
4 4
 
 ( ) 1
= 2
3
3
2 + 8cos  + 8cos 2  d = 
2
3
3
2 + 8cos  + 8  2 (1 + cos2 )  d
 
4
4 /3
=  2
3
3
6 + 8cos + 4cos2  d = (6 + 8sin  + 2sin 2 ) 2 /3
= 4 − 6 3 sq. unit
3. Determine the area that lies inside r = 3+ 2 sin θ and outside r = 2.
Solution:
To determine this area, we’ll need to know that value of θ for which the two curves intersect. We
can determine these points by setting the two equations and solving.
3 + 2sin  = 2
1 7 11
sin  = −  = ,
3 6 6
Here is a sketch of the figure with these angles added.

Note as well here that we also acknowledged that another representation for the angle 11/6 is -
/6. This is important for this problem. In order to use the formula above the area must be
enclosed as we increase from the smaller to larger angle. So, if we use 7/6 to 11/6 we will not
enclose the shaded area, instead we will enclose the bottom most of the three regions. However, if
we use the angles -/6 to 7/6 we will enclose the area that we’re after.

A=
1 β
2 α   2

2

 f ( θ )  -  g ( θ )  dθ

7  /6 1
 ( 3 + 2sin  ) − ( 2 )2  d
2
A=
− /6 2  
7  /6 7  /6
= 
− /6
1
2
( )
5 + 12sin  + 4sin 2  d = 
− /6
1
2
( 7 + 12sin  − 2cos2 ) d
1 7  /6 11 3 14
= ( 7 − 12sin  − sin 2 ) − /6 = + square units
2 2 3
4. Determine the area of the region outside r = 3 + 2 sin θ and inside r = 2.
Solution:
This time we’re looking for the following region.
So, this is the region that we get by using the limits 7/6 to 11/6. The area is then,
A=
1 β
2 α    
 f ( θ )  -  g ( θ )  dθ
2 2

11 /6
1 2
 ( 2 ) − ( 3 + 2sin  )  d
2
A=
7  /6 2  
11 /6 1
= 
7  /6 2
( )
−5 − 12sin  − 4sin 2  d
11 /6 1 1 11 /6
= 
7  /6 2
( −7 − 12sin  + 2cos2 ) d = ( −7 + 12sin  + sin 2 ) 7  /6
2
11 3 7
= − square units
2 3
Notice that for this area the “outer” and “inner” function where opposite!
5. Determine the area that is inside both r = 3 + 2 sin θ and r = 2.
Solution:
Here is the sketch for this example.
We are not going to be able to do this problem in the same fashion that we did the previous two.
There is no set of limits that will allow us to enclose this area as we increase from one to the other.
In this case however, that is not a major problem.
There are two ways to do get the area in this problem.
Solution 1
Notice that the circle is divided up into two portions and we’re after the upper portion. Also notice
that we found the area of the lower portion in Example 4. Therefore, the area is,
11 3 7
Area = Area of Circle – Area from Example 4 = (2)2 - − = 10.370 square units
2 3
Solution 2
In this case we do pretty much the same thing except this time we’ll think of the area as the other
portion of the limacon than the portion that we were dealing with in Example 3.
So, in this case the area is,
Area = Area of Circle – Area from Example 4

2 1  11 3 14 
 ( 3 + 2sin  ) d − 
2
A= + 
0 2  2 3 

2 1  11 3 14 
= 0 2
( )
9 + 12sin  + 4sin 2  d − 
 2
+ 
3 

2 1  11 3 14 
= 
0 2
( 11 + 12sin  + 2cos 2 ) d − 
 2

+ 
3 
1 2  11 3 14 
= ( 11 − 12cos  + sin 2 ) −  + 
2 0  2 3 

11 3 14
= 11 − −  10.370 square units
2 3
1. Find the area of the region that is common to the interiors of the cardioids r = 2 – 2 cos  and
the limacon r = 2 + cos .
2. Find the area of the inner loop of the limacon r = 1 + 2 cos.
C. Arc Length with Polar Coordinates

First write the curve in terms of a set of parametric equations:
x = r cos y = r sin 

x = f() cos y = f() sin
2 2
  dx   dy 
Using: ds = 

 d  +  d  d
   
We’ll need the following derivatives for these computations
dx dy
= f '( )cos − f ( )sin  = f '( )sin  + f ( )cos 
d d
Substituting these in ds and simplifying, we get the formula for arc length in polar as

L= ds (23)
where
2
 dr 
2
ds= r +   dθ (23-a)
 dθ 
Example
1. Determine the length of r = θ, 0 ≤ θ ≤ 1.
Solution:
Using the formula directly
2
 dr 

L= ds ds= r 2 +   dθ
 dθ 
1
L=  2 + 1 d
0
Using trigonometric substitution:  = tan x d = sec 2 x dx
Changing the limits: =0 0 = tan x x=0

=1 1 = tan x x = /4
Therefore, the arc length is

( )
1  /4
L=  2 + 1 d =  tan 2 x + 1 sec 2 x dx
0 0
 /4
= sec 3 x dx
0
1  /4
= sec x tan x + ln ( sec x + tan x ) 
2 0
1
=  2 + ln 1 + 2 
2
(  )
Find the entire length of the following.
1. The circle r = a sin  + b cos 
2. The cardioids r = a (1 + cos )
3. r = a sec  tan  from  = 0 to  = ¼ 
D. Surface Area with Polar Coordinates

We want to find the surface area of the region found by rotating
r = f(θ )  
about the x or y-axis.
As we did in arc length section, we’ll write the curve in terms of a set of parametric equations.
x = r cos y = r sin 

x = f() cos y = f() sin
If we now use the parametric formula for finding the surface area, we’ll get

S = 2πy ds rotation about x − axis
(24)
S =  2πx ds rotation about y − axis
where
2
 dr 
2
ds= r +   dθ     (24-a)
 dθ 
1. Find the area of the surface generated by revolving the upper half of r = 2a cos  about the polar
axis.
2. What is the area of the surface generated by revolving the upper half of r = a (1 + cos ) about
the polar axis?
3. Find the surface area of the torus generated by revolving the circle r = 2a cos  about the line
r cos  = b, b > 2a.
4. Find the surface area of the torus generated by revolving the circle r = 2a cos  about the line
r cos  = b, b > 2a.
References
[1] Buchanan, J. R. (2018). Arc Length and Surface Area in Parametric Equations. Retrieved
from Millersville: http://banach.millersville.edu/~bob/math211/ArcPara/main.pdf
[2] Dawkins, P. (2003). Arc Length. Retrieved from Paul's Online Math Notes:
http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/Classes/CalcII/ArcLength.aspx
[3] Dawkins, P. (2003). Arc Length with Parametric Equations. Retrieved from Paul's Online
Math Notes: http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/Classes/CalcII/ParaArcLength.aspx
[4] Dawkins, P. (2003). Arc Length with Polar Coordinates. Retrieved from Paul's Online Math
Notes: http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/Classes/CalcII/PolarArcLength.aspx
[5] Dawkins, P. (2003). Area with Polar Coordinates. Retrieved from Paul's Online Math Notes:
http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/Classes/CalcII/PolarArea.aspx
[6] Dawkins, P. (2003). Area Between Curves. Retrieved from Paul's Online Math Notes:
http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/Classes/CalcI/AreaBetweenCurves.aspx
[7] Dawkins, P. (2003). Area with Parametric Equations. Retrieved from Paul's Online Math
Notes: http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/Classes/CalcII/ParaArea.aspx
[8] Dawkins, P. (2003). Surface Area. Retrieved from Paul's Online Math Notes:
http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/Classes/CalcII/SurfaceArea.aspx
[9] Dawkins, P. (2003). Volumes of Solids of Revolution / Method of Cylinders. Retrieved from
Paul's Online Math Notes:
http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/classes/calcI/volumewithcylinder.aspx
[10] Dawkins, P. (2003). Volumes of Solids of Revolution/Method of Rings. Retrieved from

Paul's Online Math Notes:
http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/Classes/CalcI/VolumeWithRings.aspx
[11]Dennis G. Zill, W. S. (2011). Calculus Early Transcendentals (Fourth Edition). USA: Jones
and Barlette Publishers.
[12] George B. Thomas, M. D. (2005). Thomas' Calculus (11th Edition). USA: Pearson
Education, Inc.
[13] Ron Larson, B. H. (2010). Calculus (Ninth Edition). USA: Brookes/Cole.
[14] Series Math Study. (2005). Surface Area of Solid of Revolution. Retrieved from Series
Math Study: http://seriesmathstudy.com/surfacearea1.htm
[15] Tan, S. T. (2011). Calculus Early Transcendentals. Canada: Brookes/Cole.
[16] Ving, P. K. (2015). Finding Volumes By Slicing. Retrieved from Pheng Kim Ving:
http://www.phengkimving.com/calc_of_one_real_var/12_app_of_the_intgrl/12_03_findi
ng_vol_by_slicing.htm
[17] Rogawski, Rogawski, Jon (2012). Calculus (2nd Edition). W. H. Freeman and Company
[18] Stewart, James (2002). Calculus – Concepts and Contexts, (2nd Edition). USA, Pearson,
Inc.
[19] Bittinger, Marvin L., David J. Ellenbogen and Scott A. Surgent (2012). Calculus and Its
Applications (10th Edition). USA: Pearson Education, Inc.

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MODULE 3 - Applications of Integral Calculus 1

Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan

I. PLANE AREAS BETWEEN TWO CURVES

Case 1: Integrating with respect to x

h(x) = (upper function) – (lower function) = yupper – ylower = (3 - x) - (x2 - 9)

The area between the curves is then

2. Find the area bounded by the graphs of y = x2 and y = 2 − x2 for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2.

The total area is two parts:

3. Find the area bounded by the graphs of y = x2, y = 2 − x and y = 0.

To determine the point of intersection, we solve

Case 2: Integrating with respect to y

Retrieved from Ref [6]

The area can be determined as,

2. Find the area of the region bounded by the graphs of x = 3 - y2 and x = y + 1.

These two curves intersect when y = -2 and y = 1.

Horizontal rectangles (integration with respect to y)

A = [(right function) – (left function)] y = [xright – xleft] y

Vertical rectangles (integration with respect to x)

Using integration with respect to y:

Using integration with respect to x:

II. VOLUMES OF KNOWN CROSS SECTION (METHOD OF SLICING)

How to find the volumes by the method of slicing?

III. VOLUMES OF SOLID OF REVOLUTION

A. Volumes of Solids of Revolution by the Disk Method

A(x) = (radius)2 = [f(x)]2

Since y = f(x), we obtain

B. Volumes of Solids of Revolution by use of “Washers or Rings”

The washer’s area is

A ( x ) =   outer radius  −   inner radius = 

The washer formula for finding volumes is

a   outer radius − inner radius  dx

C. Volumes of Solids of Revolution by use of Cylinders

A = 2π (shell radius)(shell height)

Summary of the Shell Method

IV. ARC LENGTH OF PLANE CURVES

Derivation of the Length of a Curve

Therefore, the length can now be written as

The exact length of the curve is then

The arc length is then,

Let’s compute the derivative and the root.

Let’s get the length.

V. SURFACE AREAS OF SOLID OF REVOLUTION

where: r1 = radius of right end

For the frustum on the interval xk−1 , xk we have

L= Pk −1 Pk (length of the line segment connecting Pk – 1 and Pk)

We know from the previous section that

f ( xk )  f ( xk* ) and f ( xk −1 )  f ( xk* )

The surface area of the whole solid is then approximately

APPLICATIONS WITH PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS

1. Parametric Equations of a Straight Line

where x1, y1 a, and b are fixed quantities

2. Parametric Equations of Circle

3. Parametric Equations of Conics

A. Area with Parametric Equations

as the curve is traced out exactly once as t increases from α to β.

Recall how to find the area under y =F(x) on a ≤ x ≤ b:

If this is going to be a substitution we’ll need dx = f ′(t )dt

y = F(x) = F(f (t)) = g(t)

and we arrive at the formula that we want.

If we should happen to have b= f(α) and a= f(β )the formula would be

The area is then,

B. Arc Length with Parametric Equations

as the curve is traced out exactly once as t increases from α to β.