CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1) Introduction to Pervious Concrete

Pervious concrete typically describes a near-zero-slump, open-graded material consisting

of Portland cement, coarse aggregate, little or no fine aggregate, admixtures, and water. The mix

of these fixings will create a solidified material with associated pores that enable water to go

through effectively. Pervious concrete is generally perceived as a maintainable structure

material, as it reduces storm water runoff in the top soil, improves storm water quality, may

recharge groundwater supplies, and it can diminish the impact of the “urban heat island effect”.

[CITATION Per19 \l 1033 ]

Pervious concrete, also known as porous, no-fines, or permeable concrete, is a more

environmentally friendly option for ready mix concrete. [ CITATION srm19 \l 1033 ]

With a pervious concrete mix, the aggregates are much coarser and there is next to

nothing when it comes to sand—this event generates “voids,” or compartments made of air

space, that permit water and air to flow through with no trouble. These mixes are commonly

used as pavement and in greenhouses, parking areas, pathways, and almost all sustainable

structure erections. [ CITATION srm19 \l 1033 ]

2.2) History of Pervious Concrete

Pervious concrete had its earliest stages in Europe. In the 19th century, pervious concrete

was used in a variety of applications such as load bearing walls, mass-produced panels, and

paving.

In the United Kingdom in 1852, two houses were built with gravel and concrete. Cost efficiency

seems to have been the prime goal for its earliest usage due to the limited amount of cement

used. It was not until 1923 when pervious concrete reemerged as a feasible construction

material. This time it was limited to the building of 2-story households in areas such as Scotland,

Liverpool, London, and Manchester. Use of pervious concrete in Europe improved gradually,

particularly in the post-World War II era. Since pervious concrete uses less cement than

conventional concrete and cement was uncommon at the time, it appeared that pervious concrete

was the top material for that period. Once again, housing construction was its main use. Pervious

concrete continued to advance in terms of popularity and its use spread to areas such as

Venezuela, West Africa, Australia, Russia, and the Middle East.[ CITATION Cho07 \l 1033 ]

Although not a new invention, pervious concrete has only been applied in the United

States in the past fifty years.  The notion was proposed in the 1960s in hopes of reducing floods,

raising water tables, and replenishing aquifers, while a decade later the Environmental Protection

Agency (EPA) began testing it to determine its cost and efficiency.  These tests were done at

various sites in Delaware, Pennsylvania, and Texas, with Texas being the most significant site

since it was the only one to have installed monitoring instruments.[CITATION Placeholder1 \l 1033 ]
 Pervious concrete has been used as one of the key materials for permeable pavement.

Permeable pavement systems have become common in the past decade due to their noteworthy

influence to sustainable drainage systems. Since the 19th century, the drainage system has been

established as a pipeline system. However, this traditional system quite often leads to stormwater

runoff, especially in urban areas. Thus, this pipeline drainage system is not really efficient.

Permeable pavement systems can play a significant role in controlling stormwater runoff,

especially in urban areas. Water Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD) has claimed that this system

has benefits such as a reduction in the potential for flooding, recharging the groundwater level,

and improvement of the water quality. [ CITATION Sch07 \l 1033 ]

2.3) Design of Pervious Pavements

Two factors determine the design thickness of pervious pavements, the hydraulic

properties, such as permeability and volume of voids, and the mechanical properties, such as

strength and stiffness. Pervious concrete used in pavement systems must be designed to support

the intended traffic load and contribute positively to the site-specific stormwater management

strategy. The designer selects the appropriate material properties, the appropriate pavement

thickness, and other characteristics needed to meet the hydrological requirements and anticipated

traffic loads simultaneously. Separate analyses are required for both the hydraulic and the

structural requirements, and the larger of the two values for pavement thickness will determine

the final design thickness.

2.3.1) Hydrological Design Considerations

In assessing the hydrologic plan abilities of pervious asphalt, the methodology is to

decide whether the qualities of the pervious solid asphalt framework are sufficient to invade,

store, and discharge the normal inflow of water (which incorporates direct precipitation and may

likewise incorporate excess spillover from nearby impenetrable surfaces). All things considered,

data required in a hydrologic examination incorporates the precipitation force levels, the

thickness and penetrability characteristics of the pervious solid asphalt cross slants and

geometrics, and porousness properties and qualities of the basic base, subbase, and subgrade

materials. Numerous hydrological plan techniques exist that can be utilized when planning

pervious solid asphalt frameworks, including the Regular Resources Protection Administration

Bend Number Strategy and the Normal Technique (Leming et al. 2007). Fundamentally, the

hydrologic structure of pervious solid asphalts should consider two potential conditions to

guarantee that abundance surface spillover doesn't happen (Leming et al. 2007):

1. Low penetrability of the pervious solid material that is lacking to catch the "main

flush" of a precipitation occasion.

2. Insufficient maintenance gave in the past solid structure (section and subbase).

Frequently, the thickness of pervious solid asphalt is first decided dependent on basic

necessities and afterward broke down to decide its appropriateness to meet the hydrologic needs

of the undertaking site. In the event that the thickness is seen as insufficient, modifications can

be made to the thickness of the pervious asphalt or the hidden base course.
2.3.1) Structural Design Considerations

Pervious concrete pavements can be designed using virtually any standard concrete

pavement procedure (e.g., American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials,

Portland Cement Association, Street Pave) (Delatte 2007). The American Concrete Pavement

Association has recently developed a comprehensive program, Pervious Pave that can be used to

develop both structural and hydrological designs for pervious pavements (Rodden et al. 2011).

Regardless of the procedure used, there are critical factors to consider in the design of pervious

concrete pavements (ACI 2010): Subgrade and subbase. In the design of pervious pavements,

foundation support is typically characterized by a composite modulus of subgrade reaction,

which should account for the effects of both the subgrade and the subbase. An open-graded

subbase is commonly used beneath pervious concrete pavements not only to provide an avenue

for vertical drainage of water to the subgrade, but also to provide storage capabilities. Special

subgrade conditions (such as frost susceptibility or expansive soils) may require direct treatment.

The flexural strength of concrete is an important input in concrete pavement structural

design. However, testing to determine the flexural strength of pervious concrete may be subject

to high variability therefore, it is common to measure compressive strengths and to use empirical

relationships to estimate flexural strengths for use in design (Tennis et al. 2004).

The anticipated traffic to be carried by a pervious pavement is commonly characterized in

terms of equivalent 18,000-lb (80 kN) single-axle load repetitions, which many procedures

compute directly based on assumed truck-traffic distributions. Most pervious concrete pavements

are used in low-truck-traffic applications. Currently there are no thickness standards for pervious

concrete pavements, but many pervious pavements for parking lots are constructed 6 inches (150
mm) thick, whereas pervious pavements for low-volume streets have been constructed between 6

and 12 inches (150 and 300 mm) thick (ACI 2010).

2.5) Advantages and Disadvantages of Pervious Pavement

Benefits/Advantages Limitations/Disadvantages
  Limited use in heavy vehicle traffic
 Decreasing flooding possibilities,
areas
especially in urban areas
 Extended curing time
 Recharging the groundwater level
 Sensitivity to water content and control
 Reducing puddles on the road
in fresh concrete
 Improving water quality through
 Special attention and care in design of
percolation
some soil types such as expansive soils
 Sound absorption
and frost-susceptible ones
 Heat absorption
 Special attention possibly required with
 Supporting vegetation growth
high groundwater

Maintenance
 Prevention of clogging of the void structure

 Design site to minimize flow of soil and leaves onto pavement

 Vacuuming annually or more often

 Power blowing or pressure washing is another option

Safety
 Eliminates ponding during heavy rains

 Glare from wet pavement is virtually eliminated

 Risk of hydroplaning and skidding is reduced

 Light color of concrete provides a safer, better lit area at night