Engineering Environmental and Pollution Dr.

Abdulameer
Mathematics Techniques Eng. Department AL-Mubarak

Chapter Four

Vectors

4.1. Definition
There are physical quantities like force, velocity, acceleration and others that are
not fully determined by their numerical data. Such quantities, which are completely
specified by a magnitude and a direction, are called vectors or vector.
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
Vector: - Is directed line segment. Thus, a vector is denoted as 𝑣⃑ = 𝐴𝐵 where the
point A is called the start and point B is the end.
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ |.
The length or magnitude of the vector 𝑣⃑ is |𝑣⃑| = |𝐴𝐵
Equal vectors: - Two vectors have same length and direction.
Negative vectors: - the vectors have same magnitude and opposite direction.
B
B
D
A
C F
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ |
|𝑣⃑| = |𝐴𝐵
A E

4.2. Vectors in Cartesian coordinate. 𝑦

By introducing a coordinate system in a plane with 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦)
𝑦 𝑗⃑
the unit vectors, 𝒊 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒋 (in direction
of x and y coordinate axis, respectively). The vector
equals the sum of its vector components, 𝑥𝒊 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 𝒋 in
direction of coordinate axes, that is 𝑗⃑
O 𝑖⃑ 𝑥 𝑖⃑ 𝑥
⃑⃑⃑⃑ = 𝑥𝒊⃑ + 𝑦⃑𝒋⃑
𝒗

𝑦 𝑃1
Consider a vector a in the plane directed from a
point P1(x1, y1) to P2(x2, y2) shown in the right
diagram, it also equals to the sum of 𝑎𝑦 𝑗⃑
corresponding vector components 𝑎𝑥 𝒊⃑ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑦 𝒋⃑,
in direction of coordinate axes, 𝑃2 𝑎𝑥 𝑖⃑
𝑗⃑
⃑⃑ = 𝑎𝑥 𝒊⃑ + 𝑎𝑦 𝒋⃑
𝒂
O 𝑖⃑ 𝑥

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Engineering Environmental and Pollution Dr. Abdulameer
Mathematics Techniques Eng. Department AL-Mubarak

4.3.Vector Operations
 The vector between two Points: -
⃑⃑ = 𝑎𝑥 𝒊⃑ + 𝑎𝑦 𝒋⃑ = (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )𝒊⃑ + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )𝒋⃑
𝒂
 The length of the vector,
|𝑎⃑| = √𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑦 2 = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2

 Equal vectors
⃑⃑ = 𝑎𝑥 𝒊⃑ + 𝑎𝑦 𝒋⃑ and ⃑𝒃⃑ = 𝑏𝑥 𝒊⃑ + 𝑏𝑦 𝒋⃑
Two vectors have same length and direction. If 𝒂
⃑⃑ = ⃑𝒃⃑
Then if 𝒂 then 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑏𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑦 = 𝑏𝑦
𝑥𝑎 +𝑥𝑏 𝑦𝑎 +𝑦𝑏
 mid-point between point A and B = ( , )
2 2
 add and subtract Two vectors 𝒂 ⃑⃑ = 𝑏𝑥 𝒊⃑ + 𝑏𝑦 𝒋⃑
⃑⃑ = 𝑎𝑥 𝒊⃑ + 𝑎𝑦 𝒋⃑ and 𝒃
⃑⃑ = (𝑎𝑥 𝒊⃑ + 𝑎𝑦 𝒋⃑) + (𝑏𝑥 𝒊⃑ + 𝑏𝑦 𝒋⃑) = (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 )𝒊⃑ + ( 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑏𝑦 )𝒋⃑
⃑⃑ + 𝒃
𝒂
⃑⃑ = (𝑎𝑥 𝒊⃑ + 𝑎𝑦 𝒋⃑) − (𝑏𝑥 𝒊⃑ + 𝑏𝑦 𝒋⃑) = (𝑎𝑥 − 𝑏𝑥 )𝒊⃑ + ( 𝑎𝑦 − 𝑏𝑦 )𝒋⃑
⃑⃑ − 𝒃
𝒂
 Multiply vector by scaler c
⃑⃑ = 𝑎𝑥 𝒊⃑ + 𝑎𝑦 𝒋⃑
𝒂 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 ⃑⃑ = 𝑐 𝑎𝑥 𝒊⃑ + 𝑐 𝑎𝑦 𝒋⃑
𝒄𝒂

Example 1: Determine a vector a whose 𝑦

(−4,1)
tail is at the point P1(-4, 1) and head at the
point P2(-1, -3).
Solution: Points, P1 and P2 determine
radius vectors, 𝑎⃑ 𝑥

Therefor, ⃑⃑ = (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )𝒊⃑ + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )𝒋⃑

𝒂
(−1, −3)
⃑𝒂⃑ = (− 1 + 4) 𝒊⃑ + (−3 − 1)𝒋⃑ = 3 𝒊⃑ − 4𝒋⃑

Example 2: At what point P1(x1, y1) has the vector a = -7i + 2j its tail, if its head is
at the point P2(3, -4)?

Solution: Using ⃑⃑ = (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )𝒊⃑ + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )𝒋⃑ or after substitution

𝒂
−7 𝒊⃑ + 2𝒋⃑ = (3 − 𝑥1 )⃑𝒊 + (−4 − 𝑦1 )𝒋⃑
Knowing that two vectors are equal if their corresponding scalar (numeric)
components are equal, it follows

(3 − 𝑥1 ) = −7 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥1 = 10
} → 𝑷𝟏 = (𝟏𝟎, −𝟔)
(−4 − 𝑦1 ) = 2 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑦1 = −6

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Engineering Environmental and Pollution Dr. Abdulameer
Mathematics Techniques Eng. Department AL-Mubarak

Example 3: To a parallelogram given are vertices, A (-2, 3), B (4, -2) and D (3, 5).
Determine coordinates of the vertex C and the intersection point S of the diagonals.
𝑦
Solution: To the given vertices point radius vectors, (3,5)
(−2,3)
⃑⃑ = 5𝒊⃑ + 2𝒋⃑
𝒂 𝑎⃑ 𝑐⃑
𝑏⃑⃑ = (𝑥 − 4)𝒊⃑ + (𝑦 + 2)𝒋⃑ 𝐶(𝑥, 𝑦)
𝑐⃑ = (𝑥 − 3)𝒊⃑ + (𝑦 − 5)𝒋⃑ S
⃑⃑ = 6𝒊⃑ − 5𝒋⃑
𝒅 𝑑⃑ 𝑥
𝑏⃑⃑
From equal Diagonals of parallelogram (4, −2)
⃑⃑ = 𝒄
⃑⃑ + 𝒅
𝒂 ⃑⃑
⃑⃑ + 𝒃

(5𝒊⃑ + 2𝒋⃑) + (6𝒊⃑ − 5𝒋⃑) = ((𝑥 − 4)𝒊⃑ + (𝑦 + 2)𝒋⃑) + ((𝑥 − 3)𝒊⃑ + (𝑦 − 5)𝒋⃑)

(11𝒊⃑ − 3𝒋⃑) = ((2𝑥 − 7)𝒊⃑ + (2𝑦 − 3)𝒋⃑)

From equal (2𝑥 − 7) = 11 𝑜𝑟 𝑥=9 and (2𝑦 − 3) = −3 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = 0

Then C = (9,0)

−2+9 3+0 7 3
S is mid-point between A and C = ( , ) = (2 , 2)
2 2

Example 4: Given are vectors, 𝑎⃑ = − 2𝒊⃑ + 3𝒋⃑ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ⃑⃑⃑⃑ 𝒃 = 4𝒊⃑ + 𝛼 𝒋⃑, determine
the coefficient α such that the vectors to be collinear.
Solution: In order vectors to be collinear must
be
𝑎⃑ = 𝛽 𝑏⃑⃑ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑠
− 2𝒊⃑ + 3𝒋⃑ = 𝛽 (4𝒊⃑ + 𝛼 𝒋⃑)
−2𝒊⃑ + 3𝒋⃑ = 4𝛽𝒊⃑ + 𝛼𝛽 𝒋⃑
as two vectors are equal if their corresponding
scalar components are equal, then
1
4𝛽 = −2 → 𝛽 = −
2
3 3
𝛼𝛽 = 3 → 𝛼 = = = −6
𝛽 −1
2
Vectors, 𝑎⃑ = − 2𝒊⃑ + 3𝒋⃑ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝒃 = 4𝒊⃑ + 𝛼 𝒋⃑, are collinear, as shows diagram in
the above figure.

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Engineering Environmental and Pollution Dr. Abdulameer
Mathematics Techniques Eng. Department AL-Mubarak

4.4. Vector in space

𝑧
By introducing three mutually
perpendicular unit vectors, 𝒊, 𝒋 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒌 , in 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
𝑧 𝑘⃑⃑
direction of coordinate axes of the three-
dimensional coordinate system,
𝑘⃑⃑
called standard basis vectors, every
point 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) of the space determines the O 𝑥
radius vector or the position vector, 𝑗⃑ 𝑖⃑
𝑦 𝑗⃑
𝑣⃑ = ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝑂𝑃 ⃑⃑
𝑣⃑ = 𝑥𝑖⃑ + 𝑦𝑗⃑ + 𝑧𝑘 𝑥 𝑖⃑
𝑦
𝑎𝑛𝑑 |𝑣⃑| = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 the length of 𝑟⃑
Similarly, a vector a between 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑃1(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃2(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 )in space,
⃑⃑ , in the direction of the
equals to sum of its vector components, 𝑎𝑥 𝒊⃑ , 𝑎𝑦 𝒋⃑ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑧 𝒌
coordinate 𝑎𝑥𝑒𝑠, 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 respectively, that is ,
⃑⃑ = 𝑎𝑥 𝒊⃑ + 𝑎𝑦 𝒋⃑ + 𝑎𝑧 ⃑𝒌⃑
𝒂
Thus 𝒂 ⃑⃑
⃑⃑ = (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )𝒊⃑ + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )𝒋⃑ + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )𝒌
Length of the vector a, |𝑎⃑| = √𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑦 2 + 𝑎𝑧 2

4.5. Angle of vectors relation to coordinates

The scalar components of a vector and its

magnitude form a right triangle in which the
hypotenuse equals the magnitude of the vector,
then
𝑥 = |𝑟⃑| cos 𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = |𝑟⃑| cos 𝛽
since 𝛽 = 90° − 𝛼 then 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼,
and components of a vector a,
𝑎𝑥 = |⃑𝑎⃑| cos 𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑦 = |𝑎 ⃑⃑| cos 𝛽

If a vector in 3D space forms with the

coordinate axes, x, y and z angles
𝛼, 𝛽 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛾 respectively, then
components of the vector are

𝑥 = |𝑟⃑| cos 𝛼 , 𝑦 = |𝑟⃑| cos 𝛽

𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 = |𝑟⃑| cos 𝛾

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Engineering Environmental and Pollution Dr. Abdulameer
Mathematics Techniques Eng. Department AL-Mubarak

4.6. The unit vector of the vector a,

Unit vector is equal to the vector on the vector length

𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑥 ⃑𝒊 + 𝑎𝑦 𝒋⃑ + 𝑎𝑧 ⃑𝒌⃑ 𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑦 𝑎𝑧
𝑎⃑0 = = = 𝒊⃑ + 𝒋⃑ + ⃑𝒌⃑
|𝑎⃑| |𝑎⃑| |𝑎⃑| |𝑎⃑| |𝑎⃑|

Or 𝑎⃑0 = cos 𝛼 𝒊⃑ + cos 𝛽 𝒋⃑ + cos 𝛾 ⃑𝒌⃑

Since |𝑎⃑0 | = 1 → √cos 2 𝛼 + cos2 𝛽 + cos 2 𝛾 = 1

Or cos 2 𝛼 + cos2 𝛽 + cos 2 𝛾 = 1

Example 1: Determine angles that a radius vector of the point 𝐴(3, − 2, 5) forms
with the coordinate axes.
Solution: Let calculate the magnitude or length of
the radius vector,
|𝑟⃑| = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = √32 + (−2)2 + 52 = √38
Angles between the radius vector and the coordinate
axes are,
𝑥 3
𝛼 = cos−1 = cos−1 = 600 52′ 42′′
|𝑟⃑| √38
𝑦 −2
𝛽 = cos−1 = cos−1 = 1080 55′ 54′′
|𝑟⃑| √38
−1 𝑧 5
𝛾 = cos |𝑟⃑| = cos −1 = 350 47′ 45′′
√38
Example: A vector AB is directed from 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝐴(−1, − 2, 1) 𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝐵(−2, 3, 4),
find the unit vector of the vector AB.
Solution: Determine the vector AB from the
expression
⃑⃑⃑
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ = (−2 − (−1))𝒊⃑ + (3 − (−2))𝒋⃑ + (4 − 1)𝒌
𝑨𝑩
⃑⃑⃑
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ = −𝒊⃑ + 5 𝒋⃑ + 3𝒌
𝑨𝑩

The length of the vector AB

|𝑟⃑| = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = √(−1)2 + 52 + 32 = √35

The unit vector of the vector AB

⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝑨𝑩 ⃑⃑⃑
−𝒊⃑ + 5 𝒋⃑ + 3𝒌 −𝟏 5 3 ⃑⃑⃑
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑𝟎 =
𝑨𝑩 = = 𝒊⃑ + 𝒋⃑ + 𝒌
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ |
|𝑨𝑩 √35 √35 √35 √35

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Engineering Environmental and Pollution Dr. Abdulameer
Mathematics Techniques Eng. Department AL-Mubarak

Example: A vector a in a 3D-space, of the length | a | = 4, forms with

axes, x and y the same angles, α = β = 60°, find the components of the vector a.
Solution: Using relation
cos2 𝛼 + cos 2 𝛽 + cos2 𝛾 = 1 𝑜𝑟 cos 𝛾 = ∓ √1 − cos 2 𝛼 + cos2 𝛽
applying given conditions
1 2 1 2 1
cos 𝛾 = ∓ √1 − (2) + ( ) =∓ then 𝛾 = 450 , 1350
2 √2
The components of a,
𝑎𝑥 = |𝑎 ⃑⃑| cos 𝛼 = 4 cos 60 = 2
𝑎𝑦 = |⃑𝑎⃑| cos 𝛽 = 4 cos 60 = 2 } 𝑎 ⃑⃑ = 2𝒊⃑ + 2𝒋⃑ + 2√2𝒌 ⃑⃑⃑
𝑎𝑧 = |⃑𝑎⃑| cos 𝛾 = 4 cos 45 = 2√2
Example: Show that vectors 𝑎, 𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 are coplanar.
⃑⃑ = − 𝒊 + 3 𝒋 + 𝒌, ⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝒂 𝒃 = 3𝒊 − 4 𝒋 − 2𝒌 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒄 ⃑⃑⃑ = 5𝒊 − 10 𝒋 − 4𝒌
Solution: If all three vectors lie on the same plane then there are coefficients, µ and λ
such that, for example 𝒄 ⃑⃑ = 𝜆𝒂
⃑⃑ + µ𝒃⃑⃑,
Thus 5𝒊⃑ − 10 𝒋⃑ − 4 ⃑𝒌⃑ = 𝜆 (−𝒊⃑ + 3 𝒋⃑ + ⃑𝒌⃑) + µ (3𝒊⃑ − 4 𝒋⃑ − 2 ⃑𝒌⃑)
Or ⃑⃑ = (−𝜆 + 3µ)𝒊⃑ + (3𝜆 − 4µ) 𝒋⃑ + (𝜆 − 2µ) 𝒌
5𝒊⃑ − 10 𝒋⃑ − 4 𝒌 ⃑⃑)
Therefore, must be
−𝜆 + 3µ = 5
} 𝜆 = −2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 µ = 1 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑓𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑟𝑑 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
3𝜆 − 4µ = −10
𝜆 − 2µ = −4 so 𝒄 ⃑⃑ = −2 𝒂⃑⃑ + 𝒃⃑⃑,
Example: Points, 𝐴(0, − 2, 1), 𝐵(−2, 1, − 3) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶(3, − 1, 2) are the vertices of
a triangle, determine the vector of the median mc = CM and
its length.
Solution: The radius vector of the midpoint of the side AB,
𝑥1 +𝑥2 𝑦1 +𝑦2 𝑧1 +𝑧2
Middle of AB = ( 2
, 2
, 2
)=
0−2 −2+1 1−3 1
( , , ) = 𝑴(−𝟏, − 2 , −𝟏)
2 2 2
1
𝑀𝐶 = [(−1 − 3)𝒊⃑ + (− + 1) 𝒋⃑ + (−𝟏 − 𝟐) ⃑𝒌⃑] =
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
2
1
⃑
−4𝒊⃑ + 𝒋⃑ − 𝟑 𝒌⃑
2
1 2 √101
and the length of the median CM, ⃑⃑⃑𝑐 | = √(−4 )2 + (2 ) + (−𝟑)𝟐 =
|𝑚
2
To calculate the coordinates of the centroid G,

𝑥1 +𝑥2 +𝑥3 𝑦1 +𝑦2 +𝑦3 𝑧1 +𝑧2 +𝑧3 0−2+3 −2+1−1 1−3+2 1 −2

𝐺( , , )=( , , ) then 𝐺 (3 , ,0)
3 3 3 3 3 3 3