TEP4525 - Industrial Process

Engineering, Specialization Course

Course content
This course will give an introduction in industrial processes of importance for the
Norwegian petroleum, process, and onshore industry. The topics in this course will
connect our research activity with activities of importance for the process industry
(energy utilisation, process integration), oil/gas (LNG, gas processing, multi phase
transport, and gas hydrates), fishery and aquaculture (refrigeration and heat pump
systems), food industry (processing, drying, heat pumping and refrigeration systems)
and refrigeration industry (environmentally friendly heat pumps end refrigeration
systems). The interaction between modelling, simulation and laboratory activity will be
emphasized (laboratories of dewatering, refrigeration, food engineering and multi phase
flow). The project and the following master thesis will be adapted individually for each
student within a wide range of activity such as: laboratory work, concept study,
modelling, programming, simulation etc. Internationalisation will be emphasized
together with cooperation with SINTEF and Norwegian industry.

Learning outcome
Knowledge:
The course provides the student with knowledge within one or several areas of
competence:
- Gas processing and LNG
- Refrigeration components and systems
- Refrigeration systems and processes in the food industry
- Dewatering and drying engineering
- Multi phase flow
- Industrial heat engineering

Skills:
The course should enable the student to:
- Analyses, design and operation of industrial processes and components
- Developing and implementation of new technology in industrial processes
- Ability to go deep in theoretic and/or practice within a specific topic by use of scientific
methods, own experiments or develop models for detailed analyses
- Ability to perform larger independent projects inclusive project plans with milestones,
reporting results and write a scientific report according standards

General competence:
The course should give the student:
- After fulfilled topics the student will have a detailed knowledge about the selected
industrial process. The student will be able to use this competence in projects where
these topics are integrated as components or technology elements.
Learning methods and activities
The course consists of two modules at 3.75 ECTS credits each. Only students writing
Project have acccess to specialization courses. Choice of modules is to be performed in
consultation with the supervisor of the specialization project. Modules should normally
be chosen among the modules offered by the Department of Energy and Process
Engineering.It is also possible to combine with modules from other departments at
NTNU. The different courses will be lectures supplied with study groups, mini seminars
and laboratory work. Some of the modules can have limitation in the number of
students. The lectures and exercises are in English when students who do not speak
Norwegian take the course. If the teaching is given in English the Examination papers
will be given in English only. Students are free to choose Norwegian or English for
written assessments. If there is a re-sit examination, the examination form may be
changed from written to oral.

Further on evaluation
In case of "not passed" in one of the two 3.75 ECTS credit themes, new examination
has to be performed in both themes.

Recommended previous knowledge

Basic knowledge in thermodynamics, heat and mass transfer and fluid mechanics.

Required previous knowledge

The course is only open for students who have chosen TEP4520 Industrial Process
Engineering, Specialization Project.

Course materials
Given at start of the semester. Consist of a selection of book chapters or a collection of
papers.

Industrial processes
Industrial processes are procedures involving chemical, physical, electrical or mechanical steps to
aid in the manufacturing of an item or items, usually carried out on a very large scale. Industrial
processes are the key components of heavy industry.

Chemical processes by main basic material[edit]

Certain chemical process yield important basic materials for society, e.g., (cement, steel, aluminum,
and fertilizer). However, these chemical reactions contribute to climate change by emitting carbon
dioxide, a greenhouse gas, through chemical reactions, as well as through the combustion of fossil
fuels that generate the high temperatures required.

Cement[edit]
• Calcination – combustion of limestone to remove the carbon in its calcium carbonate (CaCO3),
resulting in useable calcium oxide (CaO) (also known as quicklime) and releasing carbon
dioxide (CO
2). Most prominently used to produce cement, although additionally used to provide a
chemical flux, as in a blast furnace in the production of pig iron.
Steel[edit]
• Smelting – using carbon monoxide (CO) generally from combusted coke (a fossil fuel) in a blast
furnace to remove oxygen from ores, producing pure metal and releasing CO
2. Most prominently used in the production of steel.

Aluminum[edit]
• Hall–Héroult process – smelting aluminum (Al2O3) from coke (C) through electrolysis at high
temperatures to yield pure aluminum (Al) and a mixture of carbon monoxide (CO) and CO
2.

Fertilizer[edit]
• Haber process – separating atmospheric Nitrogen (N2) to make ammonia (NH3), which is used to
make nitrogen fertilizer. Often requiring a fossil fuel carbon source to provide the carbon
monoxide in a water-gas shift reaction, producing useable hydrogen (H2) and releasing CO
2.

Other chemical processes[edit]

Main article: Chemical process

• Pyroprocessing – using heat to chemically combine materials, such as in cement.

• Disinfection – chemical treatment to kill bacteria and viruses.

Electrolysis[edit]
Main article: Electrolysis
The availability of electricity and its effect on materials gave rise to several processes for plating or
separating metals.

• Gilding, electroplating, anodization, electrowinning – depositing a material on an electrode

• Electropolishing – the reverse of electroplating
• Electrofocusing – similar to electroplating, but separating molecules
• Electrolytic process – the generic process of using electrolysis
• Electrophoretic deposition – electrolytic deposition of colloidal particles in a liquid medium
• Electrotyping – using electroplating to produce printing plates
• Metallizing, plating, spin coating – the generic terms for giving non-metals a metallic coating

Cutting[edit]

• Shearing
• Sawing
• Plasma cutting
• Water-jet cutting - cutting materials using a very high-pressure jet of water
• Oxyacetylene cutting
• Electrical discharge machining (EDM)
• Machining – the mechanical cutting and shaping of metal which involves the loss of the material
• Laser cutting
Metalworking[edit]
See also: Fabrication (metal) and Metalworking

• Smelting and direct Reduction – extracting metals from ores.

• Forging – the shaping of metal by use of heat and hammer
• Casting – shaping of a liquid material by pouring it into moulds and letting it solidify
• Steelmaking — turning "pig iron" from smelting into steel
• Progressive stamping – the production of components from a strip or roll
• Stamping
• Hydroforming – a tube of metal is expanded into a mould under pressure
• Sandblasting – cleaning of a surface using sand or other particles
• Soldering, brazing, welding – a process for joining metals
• Tumble polishing – for polishing
• Precipitation hardening – heat treatment used to strengthen malleable materials
• Work hardening – adding strength to metals, alloys, etc.
• Case hardening, differential hardening, shot peening – creating a wear-resistant surface
• Die cutting – A "forme" or "die" is pressed onto a flat material in order to cut, score, punch and
otherwise shape the material
• Electric arc furnace — very-high-temperature processing
Iron and steel[edit]
• Smelting – the generic process used in furnaces to produce steel, copper, etc.
• Catalan forge, open hearth furnace, bloomery, Siemens regenerative furnace – produced
wrought iron
• Blast furnace – produced cast iron
• Direct Reduction – produced direct reduced iron
• Crucible steel
• Cementation process
• Bessemer process
• Basic oxygen steelmaking, Linz-Donawitz process

Moulding[edit]
The physical shaping of materials by forming their liquid form using a mould.

• Casting, sand casting – the shaping of molten metal or plastics using a mould
• Sintering, powder metallurgy – the making of objects from metal or ceramic powder
• Blow molding as in plastic containers or in the glass container industry – making hollow objects
by blowing them into a mould.
• Compression molding

Separation[edit]
Many materials exist in an impure form, purification, or separation provides a usable product.

• Comminution – reduces the size of physical particles (it exists between crushing and grinding)
• Froth flotation, flotation process – separating minerals through flotation
• Liquid–liquid extraction – dissolving one substance in another
• Frasch process – for extracting molten sulfur from the ground
Distillation[edit]
Distillation is the purification of volatile substances by evaporation and condensation

• Fractional distillation, steam distillation, vacuum distillation

• Batch distillation
• Continuous distillation
• Fractionating column
• Spinning cone

Additive manufacturing[edit]
In additive manufacturing, material is progressively added to the piece until the desired shape and
size are obtained.

• Fused deposition modeling (FDM)

• Stereolithography (SLA)
• Selective laser sintering (SLS)
• Photolithography

Petroleum and organic compounds[edit]

The nature of an organic molecule means it can be transformed at the molecular level to create a
range of products.

• Cracking (chemistry) – the generic term for breaking up the larger molecules
• Alkylation – refining of crude oil
• Burton process – cracking of hydrocarbons
• Cumene process – making phenol and acetone from benzene
• Friedel-Crafts reaction, Kolbe-Schmitt reaction
• Olefin metathesis, thermal depolymerization
• Transesterification – organic chemicals
• Raschig process for production of hydroxylamine – part of the process to produce nylon
• Oxo process – Produces aldehydes from alkenes
• Polymerisation

Organized by product[edit]

• Aluminium – ( Hall-Héroult process, Deville process, Bayer process, Wöhler process)

• Ammonia, used in fertilizer – (Haber process)
• Bromine – (Dow process)
• Chlorine, used in chemicals – (chloralkali process, Weldon process, Hooker process)
• Fat – (rendering)
• Fertilizer – (nitrophosphate process)
• Glass – (Pilkington process)
• Gold – (bacterial oxidation, Parkes process)
• Graphite – (Acheson process)
• Heavy water, used to refine radioactive products – (Girdler sulfide process)
• Hydrogen – (water gas shift reaction, steam reforming)
• Lead (and Bismuth) – (Betts electrolytic process, Betterton-Kroll process)
• Nickel – (Mond process)
• Nitric acid – (Ostwald process)
• Paper – (pulping, Kraft process, Fourdrinier machine)
• Rubber – (vulcanization)
• Salt – (Alberger process, Grainer evaporation process)
• Semiconductor crystals – (Bridgeman technique, Czochralski process)
• Silver – (Patio process, Parkes process)
• Silicon carbide – (Acheson process, Lely process)
• Sodium carbonate, used for soap – (Leblanc process, Solvay process, Leblanc-Deacon
process)
• Sulfuric acid – (lead chamber process, contact process)
• Titanium – (Hunter process, Kroll process)
• Zirconium – (Hunter process, Kroll process, crystal bar process, iodide process)
A list by process:

• Alberger process, Grainer evaporation process – produces salt from brine

• Bacterial oxidation – used to produce gold
• Bayer process – the extraction of aluminium from ore
• Chloralkali process, Weldon process – for producing chlorine and sodium hydroxide
• Crystal bar process, iodide process – produces zirconium
• Dow process – produces bromine from brine
• FFC Cambridge Process
• Girdler sulfide process – for making heavy water
• Hunter process, Kroll process – produces titanium and zirconium
• Industrial rendering – the separation of fat from bone and protein
• Lead chamber process, contact process – production of sulfuric acid
• Mond process – nickel
• Nitrophosphate process – a number of similar process for producing fertilizer
• Ostwald process – produces nitric acid
• Packaging
• Pidgeon process – produces magnesium, reducing the oxide using silicon
• Steam reforming, water gas shift reaction – produce hydrogen and carbon monoxide from
methane or hydrogen and carbon dioxide from water and carbon monoxide
• Vacuum metalising – a finishing process
• Perstorp Formox process – oxidation of methanol to produce formaldehyde

16 Industrial Processes for Making

Everyday Things
1. Pencils
Let's kick off our list of "mildly" interesting industrial processes with a "doozy". Where
would we be without pencils? They come in a seemingly infinite variety of colors and
shapes and are loved by children and adults everywhere. But how are they made? It's
surprisingly simple yet incredibly fascinating to watch.

First, the "leads" are created by mixing graphite powder and clay, which is then baked.
Next, the pencil bodies need to be made. If wooden, the right material needs to be
selected to resist some pressure without breaking and be soft enough to sharpen. Staedtler
in Germany, use cedar wood from California. Precut sections are delivered to the factory.
These have grooves cut into them to receive the pencil "leads" and special glue is added
to stick the leads in place.

Next, every second piece is sent to a separate conveyor. The leads are added to the first
and these second wooden slats are glued to the first ones to form a multi-pencil sandwich.
These are then compressed to let the glue cure. Now the pencil sandwiches are cut
lengthways and shaped to form individual, unsharpened pencils, which later have the
points sharpened. The final phase generally involves lacquering the wood to hide the
grain, adding branding and other markers for identification of type.

2. Latex gloves
Ubiquitous across the world, latex gloves are an interesting example of industrial
processes. It involves the very basic process of farming and harvesting and highly
technical manufacturing. A perfect synergy of ancient versus ultra modern technology.

Natural Latex is harvested, technically called tapping, from the Hevea brasiliensis
tree. These are mainly found in Vietnam, Thailand, and Indonesia. Milky latex is
actually the tree's sap, and incredibly useful it is. Firstly, the molds or "formers" are
cleaned and prepared. To be honest, this phase looks a little "creepy", you'll see what we
mean. Simultaneously, the latex is prepared, latex gloves are actually not 100% pure.
Additives are added to improve the elasticity and shelf life of the latex.

The cleaned "Formers" or molds are dipped into the latex concoction at a specified time
depending on the desired glove thickness. Once coated, the "formers", plus latex
covering, are heated or vulcanized to prevent cracking whilst drying. Gloves are then
leached to remove excess latex to minimize the chance of user allergic reaction. After this
process, the gloves are beaded, for ease of donning. If the gloves are not to be powdered,
sometimes using cornstarch, they are chlorinated. This reduces their tackiness. Workers
then remove the gloves from the "formers" by hand ready for quality checking,
packaging, and shipping.

3. Flow Drilling holes in stuff

OK, a bit tenuous for "making things" industrial processes, but don't you "make holes"?
Yeah, weak we know but wait until you watch the video. You'll understand. This process,
effectively, involves creating your own inserts. This process generates a lot of heat from
friction that thickens the walls. The thickening process looks awesome but also has a
practical reason. Increasing the wall thickness provides additional strength and eliminates
the need for inserted brushings or welded nuts. Nice.

The process is fascinating to watch and just look at how hot the metal gets! Awesome.

4. Springs
Well now, how could we live without springs? They are found everywhere including
within medical devices, tools, electronics, pens, toys, and mattresses, to name but a
few. Interestingly, springs were first used in clocks around the 16th Century and are
found everywhere today. They will tend to come in various forms, compression, torsion,
wire or extension springs. But how are they made? Let's take a look.
Steel cord, of varying diameters, depending on final product needs, are passed to a de-
reeler. This unwinds the role and feeds the cord to a computer guided forming machine.
Here the chord is coiled to the desired length and cut into segments. The entire process
will vary depending on the final product and client specifications, obviously.

Spring manufacture is highly automated and can produce staggering quantities of springs
in a very short period of time. Warning, the following video is mesmerizing and a great
example of industrial processes.

5. Ketchup
Mmmm, who doesn't love tomato ketchup? Various recipes vary for slightly but the basic
ingredients tend to include tomato paste/puree, agave nectar, natural sweetener, spices,
salt, vinegar and onion powder. Obviously, the tomato paste is the main ingredient. The
paste is pumped into a holding tank ready for use. Depending on the batch size, measured
volumes of paste are passed into a cooking kettle where it is heated and constantly stirred.
The other ingredients are then added in a correct proportion to the batch size. The mixture
is constantly stirred.

Before bottling the ketchup needs to pass through a series of gradual cooling stages. At
the same time bottles prepared and aligned ready for receiving the ketchup. These bottles
are then filled with ketchup, caps are added and labels are attached. The bottles of
ketchup are now ready for packaging on distribution.

6. Mineral wool
Our next example of industrial processes is another interesting one. Mineral wool has a
massive variety of applications across many industries. The process starts by taking big
chunks of rock, melting them down and then spinning the melt into threads of mineral
wool. We are sold already. Rock tends to be sourced from the steel industry and includes
the use of slag. Coke is used to fuel the entire process. All ingredient rock is partially
crushed and sent for processing. The molten rock is passed into a large rotating drum.
This drum spins and whips the lava in a fine wool, a binder is usually added at this stage
too. It is a similar process used when making cotton candy, candy-floss for those in the
UK.

Later a large pendulum device is used to deposit the wool in zig-zagged sheets, the
number of layers of which will vary depending on final requirements. This loosely
packed mat is then passed through rollers to compress it and form the more uniform
sheets. Additional heat is usually applied to cure the binder. The sheets then pass through
more rollers to compress it further, which are then trimmed and cut to form the final
product. Pretty neat and it is very cool to watch.

7. Compact Disks
Does anyone still buy these? Anyway, CDs (except the master), if you didn't know, are
99% polycarbonate plastic. The reflective bit makes up the remaining 1% or so. Molten
polycarbonate plastic is used to make the actual disk. Digital information, if not blank, is
then stamped onto it whilst the disk is still near to melting point. Often, this involves a
die and the stamp creates microscopic bumps called "pits and lands". These provide the
binary coding for the data to be "read".

Once complete, the reflective foil layer is applied using a process called sputtering or wet
silvering. This allows the reader's laser to reflect the light back to the player. This is
usually made of aluminum but can also be made of precious metals like silver but can be
gold or platinum. To finish, a lacquer coating is applied to seal the reflective layer and
prevent oxidation. This is an incredibly thin layer and offers very little protection from
physical damage. As we all know far too well. Cool eh?

8. Ice cream sandwiches

Another food related example of industrial processes here. We make no apologies. They
are very satisfying to eat and indeed to watch being made. Honestly, you won't be
disappointed. The process is pretty simple, but the engineering behind the machines less
so. Ice cream is first whipped to add air. This is fed to the next part of the assembly. Here
two sets of wafers are "sandwiched" together as ice cream is simultaneously injected
between them. The process is so efficient that around 140 ice cream sandwiches can be
produced a minute! Wow.

They are then packaged, refrigerated, obviously, and shipped out for you all to enjoy.
How pleasant.

9. Shot-peening
Although not technically "making" something, this is still a pretty awesome example of
industrial processes. One of the lesser-known industrial processes, shot-peening literally
involves blasting pieces of metal with millions of tiny metal balls. The process leaves the
metal's surface with a "peened" texture and also hardens it as a bonus. Sounds awesome
right? Given the very small size of the projectiles, you can't see the bombardment with
the human eye. This video gives a good overview of the process, enjoy.

10. Car Tires (or Tyres)

Ever wondered how car tires are made? So have we. Thanks "How things are made"
you're awesome. Tire production is a multistage process and consists of varying
components that all come together to form the final tire.

Tires are made from around 15 basic "ingredients". These include natural and synthetic
rubber, chemical additives and carbon black pigment. Giant blenders are used to mix
these ingredients under high temperatures and pressures. "Recipes" will vary slightly
from each part of the tire but the final result at this stage is thin "rubber gum". These are
rolled into sheets.

Later, various combinations of cloth, metal, and rubber from each component of the tire,
skeleton, walls and treads etc. are combined together to form the final product. All layers
are assembled and heated, well vulcanized, together to produce a tire. We've deliberately
"glossed over" the full process, we didn't want to spoil your enjoyment of the following
video. Not to mention it could be a full article on its own. We never realized there were
so many industrial processes and stages to making tires, hey ho.
11. Rotational Molding
A pretty self-explanatory example of industrial processes, but it's awesome to watch in
any case. This process is used to make hollow things like tanks, troughs, marine floats
and kayaks for example. The process is surprisingly simple, dare we say primitive?
Basically, you make a hollow mold of something. Heat it then cool it again. Pour in some
plastic powder and then heat and rotate once again. The powder tumbles around inside
the mold and gradually adds layers as it comes into contact with the hot sides. We told
you it was pretty simple.

Obviously owing to the process you can't actually "see" anything other than the mold
spinning. Here is a nice overview of the process in action. Enjoy.

12. Bullseye! Making Darts

Dart manufacture is a "proper" hardcore example of industrial processes. The flight shafts
are made first. 3-meter aluminum rods are loaded into a machine that has several cutting
tools. These tools work from many angles simultaneously on each rod. The rod is made
into several shafts with threads cut so they can be attached to the final dart barrel. A
cross-saw cuts the slot for the arrow flights on the other end. The entire process is carried
out with a liberal amount of oil to carry away the metal shavings and keep the cutting
tools cool.

Brass rods are loaded into a similar machine to make the dart barrels. These are then
tooled and fashioned into the barrels, the bit you hold. One end is threaded and tapered,
so the shaft can be attached as well as to make the arrow aerodynamic. Grooves are also
cut into the barrels' surface to make the arrow easy and comfortable to hold. Barrels can
also be made of tungsten, these allow for narrower parts to be created. Professional
players actually prefer tungsten darts, FYI.

The final step is to create the dart point. This is achieved by forcing a pointed steel into
the hollow part of the barrel using a hydraulic press. Dart segments are then assembled
and the flights attached to create one perfectly crafted dart. Tidy.
13. Potato chips (crisps for us Brits)
Having a batch of potatoes is obviously a good start. These are delivered to the factory in
large quantities. Each and every one is checked for quality and taste. Some are punched
with holes to allow tracking through the cooking process. Defective potatoes are kept to
one side, for instance, if they have green edges or blemishes. If their weight exceeds the
factory's present allowances, the entire shipment can be sent back to the supplier. Tough
crowd.

Acceptable potatoes are then fed via conveyor belts into t a vertical helical conveyor.
This removes dirt and stones, if any, with the potatoes then passed on to an automatic
peeler. The peeled potatoes are then passed through a revolving impaler/presser that cuts
them into uniform, paper-thin slices. The blades can be either straight or ridged
depending on the product. Excess starch is removed in a cold soak, but not always. Color
treatment is also added at this stage if required.

The paper thin potato slices now pass onto the important bit, frying, and salting. They
first pass under air jets to remove excess water. The slices are then passed through very
hot oil (between 176 and 190 degrees centigrade). They are gently passed along with
paddles. As they complete their trip through the oil, salt is added at a predetermined
concentration. Flavoring is also added if needed. Potato chips are then drained of excess
oil, cooled and sorted, burnt ones are removed automatically using optical sorters.

14. Marbles! Yeah.

Ooo marbles. We all loved them as children, perhaps still do, but how are they made?
Although originally made of clay or stone in antiquity, modern ones are usually glass.
The process starts by melting recycled glass as well as previously rejected marble stocks
(e.g. too big or too small). All of these random assortments of glass are fed into a kiln for
melting. 16 hours later, or so, the molten glass is drained from the kiln ready for
processing.
A cutter bar cuts the stream of molten glass every half a second to make little pieces of
glass, called slugs. These will eventually become marbles. Marble sizes are determined
by altering shearing action time intervals, quicker for smaller marbles and vice versa. The
still hot slugs then pass through a series of constantly rotating metal ridged rollers that
keep the slugs separated whilst cooling and also give them their signature spherical
shape. The marble's final appearance, or coloring, was determined in the kiln as air
passed coloring through the molten glass.

Solidified marbles are then sorted by size. Marbles with more intricate designs are
actually made by hand. This process is fascinating, you'll find it in the second half of the
following video. We won't spoil the fun for you.

15. Gin!
Ah, good old "mother's ruin". Gin is one of the most popular spirits on Earth, and for
good reason. But how is it made? Well you could either watch this video or go and visit a
distillery. The latter option is far more satisfying, to be honest, try it. Anyway, the main
ingredient, for those who don't know, is Juniper berries. Depending on the size of the
distillery, ingredients will either be sorted and processed by hand or via automation.

Whatever method is used, the basic process is more or less the same. Juniper berries are
weighed in sufficient quantities for the size of the intended Gin batch. Gin products do
vary in what other ingredients are then added. This could include vegetables, spices,
coriander or fruit peel, for instance. Plymouth Gin, from Plymouth funnily enough,
famously uses only four ingredients (P.S. it's also one of the best in the world, well in our
opinion). Other popular brands can have a lot more. All of these ingredients are added to
a copper still. The still generally already includes alcohol derived from grain
fermentation. This is tasteless, but soon won't be. Water is generally added to reduce the
alcohol content.

The still is heated until the alcohol starts to boil. The temperature is carefully controlled
to prevent excess water evaporation, which can spoil the batch. Distillation takes about 6-
7 hours, generally. Sampling is conducted throughout to monitor quality and alcohol
content. The now flavored alcohol evaporates and passes through a series of tubes and
condensers. This cools the gas or vapor back into liquid form, moreish-ly tasty Gin.
Lucky us.

16. Bullets
Time to end with a bang! Sorry. There is a massive variety of bullet types and
manufacturers, ranging from large companies to individuals who load and reload ammo
with simple tools. Larger organizations tend to automate at least part of the process.
Bullet making techniques also vary widely. We follow the process employed by Hornady
in the U.S. for making their soft point exposed core type bullet, aka a Hornady interlock.

Firstly, the metal jacket for the bullet is formed from stretching copper cups to receive the
lead core at a later stage. Hornady prefers to use mechanical force to achieve this rather
than heating and molding. This takes several stages to gradually stretch the copper to its
desired length and diameter. A lead core is later added inside the jacket. Further stages of
mechanical force are used to slowly form the characteristic bullet shape.

This reshaping leads to excess lead being forced out of the top of the bullet. These are
trimmed off. Further forced reshaping occurs and once again excess lead is trimmed off
the nose until the complete finalized bullet shape is achieved. Excess lead is shaped to
form the bullet tip. The following video gives a nice overview and includes the formation
of the entire cartridge.

Industrial Processes
MECHANICAL DESIGN & INDUSTRIALISATION
• Product design and development: Mechanical design (including 3D models and 2D drawings)
for manufacturing (constructive project development) and monitoring of workshop tasks.
• Manufacturing processes assessment: Machining, stamping, moulding, plastic injection, etc.
• Product industrialisation: Complete manufacturing plant development/ scale-up from
prototype to industrial level, layout definition, machinery/equipment selection and/or design.
• Rapid prototyping: FDM 3D printer available for design validation (adaptingdesigns for
printing and printing with different materials), State-of-the-Art 3D printer assessment technologies
and silicone mould that can be used for detailed, small series production and development.
• Commissioning & test support: Highly qualified team with proven experience in
commissioning and testing of industrial installations.
 • Finite element analysis and simulation: Heat transfer, fluidics and mechanical stress
simulations, and assessment for product development.
OPTIMIZATION & AUTOMATION
• Chemical, industrial & biological processes design and/or optimisation: Characterisation
and selection of instrumentation (sensors,
analysers, valves, flowmeters, etc..) and sizing/selection of side equipment (pumps, blowers,
compressors, vessels, etc..), design/review of Piping and Instrumentation Diagrams (P&ID).
• Process requirements definition: Operational conditions, system specifications, and control
rules for optimal conditions and safe operation.
• Full industrial automation: Process specification (electronic input-outputs requirements),
module selection (control modules, HMI, I/O modules, power supply modules, etc.), PLC software
programming based on predefined process requirements, SCADA design and programming for
Graphic User Interface (GUI), electrical design and full development of control cabinets.
• Commissioning & test support: Highly qualified team with proven experience in
commissioning and testing of industrial installations.
• Industry 4.0: Full automation and data exchange between the industrial process and cloud
systems, including: technology assessment, selection of equipment, implementation, and integration
with software platform.
LIFE CYCLE ANALYSIS (LCA) DEVELOPMENT
• Environmental impacts assessment (LCA): associated with all the stages of a product,
process, or service lifecycle (from raw material extraction through materials processing,
manufacture, distribution, use, repair and maintenance, and disposal or recycling).
• LCA includes:
• Compiling an inventory of relevant energy and material inputs and environmental releases.
• Evaluating the potential environmental impact associated with identified inputs and releases.
• Interpreting the results to help you make a more informed decision.