TOPIC 1 - 5

OPEN ENDED LABORATORY IMPLEMENTATION

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Open-ended experiment employs out-come based education. It is a student-
centered learning philosophy that focuses on empirically measuring student
performance, which is called outcomes. Thus, in this open ended laboratory
project, a problem will be given to a group of student to solve or complete by
conducting certain experimental work within a specified time. Student should
actively participate in discussion either in or out lab class.

1.2 EXPECTED OUTCOME

At the end of this course, students are expected to come up with:
1. A LAB SHEET for the newly developed experiment that consist of all
standard content of Thermodynamics Lab Sheets
2. Fully functioning EXPERIMENTAL TOOLS to conduct the experiment.
3. FULL REPORT for the newly developed experiment
4. A PRESENTATION SLIDE that explains newly developed experiment.

1.3 MILESTONES
The course will be conducted in six weeks with full supervision of Lab
Instructors and Lab Assistant Engineers. Students are expected to design new
experiments but all technical aspects of equipment, tools, and lab resources
must be consulted by the Lab Assistants Engineers.

1.4 EVALUATIONS
Evaluation criteria are as follows:
i) Full Report 70 %
ii) Presentation 25 %
iii) Team work assessment 5 %

1
WEEK ACTIVITY

1 Students will be divided into small group and each group consists
of 4-5 students. Each group will be given the objectives of their
experiment to develop two (2) experiments.

2 All groups are expected to come up with their Title, Learning

Outcomes, Objectives, Skills, Materials, Scopes, Theory and
Procedures of the new experiment setup for 1st experiment. The
proposal must be approved by the Lab Instructor while the
technical aspect must be approved by the Lab Assistant Engineer.

3 Running new experiments to obtain result for Full Report

submission. (Submit in Week 4)

4 All groups are expected to come up with their Title, Learning

Outcomes, Objectives, Skills, Materials, Scopes, Theory and
Procedures of the new experiment setup for 2nd experiment. The
proposal must be approved by the Lab Instructor while the
technical aspect must be approved by the Lab Assistant Engineer.

5 Running new experiments to obtain result for Full Report

submission. (Submit in Week 6)

6 Project presentation

2
TOPIC 1: Relationship between pressure and temperature (Clausius-
Clapeyron equation)
TOPIC 2: The comparison of dynamic response between different
temperature measuring devise
TOPIC 3: Understanding the concept of 2nd law of thermodynamics
application for heat pump process
TOPIC 4: Understanding the concept of 2nd law of thermodynamics
application for refrigeration process
TOPIC 5: Polytrophic process for ideal gas in isothermal condition

3
 TOPIC 6

FLUID FLOW METER

TOPIC LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this topic, students will be able to determine the discharge
coefficient of an orifice meter, venturi meter and pitot tube.

CONTENT

6.1. INTRODUCTION

There are several devices commonly used for flow measuring namely orifice
meter, venturi meter and pitot tube. When the devices are placed in a pipe, the
velocity of water flowing through the pipe at or immediately after the devices is
higher than velocity before the devices. At the same time, static pressure
before the devices is higher than at devices. The pressure different is
measured by a manometer.

6.2. EXPERIMENTAL THEORY

6.2.1. ORIFICE METER

When an orifice plate is placed in a pipe, the velocity of water flowing through
the pipe at or immediately after the orifice is higher than velocity before the
orifice. At the same time, static pressure before the orifice is higher than at the
orifice. The pressure difference is measured by manometer. In this case, the
Bernoulli’s equation will be applied.

4
 2 2
P1 V1 P V (1)
  Z1  2  2  Z 2
 2g  2g
where,
P = pressure (kg/m2)
V = velocity (m/s)
Z = elevation of fluid (m)
γ = specific weight (kg/m3)
g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)

When Z1 = Z2,
2 2
P1 V1 P V
  2 2
 2g  2g

2 2
P1  P2 V  V1
or,  2 (2)
 2g

Figure 6.1 Orifice Plate

If,
A1 = cross-sectional area of the pipe
A2 = cross-sectional area of the orifice

Flow rate, Q = A1V1 = A2V2 (3)

A1V1
or, V2 
A2

Therefore, equation (2) can be written as,

5
 2
 A1V1 
   V1 2
P1  P2  A2 
 (4)
 2g

P1  P2 2g
and, V1  (5)
  A1 2 
 2  1
A 
 2 

P1  P2
 H P1  H P 2
Since 
 H P (difference in manometer level )

Q  A1V1
2 gH P
 A1 (6)
 A12 
 2  1
A 
 2 

In the actual flow, there is slight loss energy between 1 and 2 and also
there is a vena contracta after the orifice. The actual flow rate will be
slightly below the theory. Thus,

2 gH P
Qact  Co A1
 A12 
 2  1
A 
 2 
(7)
D1 2
2 gH P
 Co
4  D14 
 4  1
D 
 2 

where Co is a discharge coefficient for orifice.

For this test equipment, Qact  k o Co H P

Qact
i.e.; Co 
k o H P

6
 where ko is a constant.

6.2.2. VENTURI METER

Figure 6.2 Venturi Meter

The same Bernoulli’s equation applies for flow between point 1 and 2 as
case of orifice meter. Thus,

2 gH P
Qact  Cv A1
 A12 
 2  1
A 
 2 
(8)
D12 2 gH P
 Cv
4  D14 
 4  1
D 
 2 

where Cv is a discharge coefficient for venturi meter.

For this test equipment,

Qact  k v Cv H P

Qact
i.e.; Cv 
k v H P

where kv is a constant.

7
6.2.3. PITOT TUBE

Figure 6.3 Pitot Tube

The same Bernoulli’s equation applies for flow between point 1 and 2 as
case of orifice meter. Thus,

2 2
P1  P2 V2  V1

 2g

However, V2 = velocity at the tip of pitot tube (stagnation

point)
=0

P2  P1
V1  .2 g
Therefore,  (9)
 2 gH P

where Cp is a discharge coefficient for pitot tube.

For this test equipment,

Qact  k p C p H P

Qact
i.e.; Cp 
k p H P

where kp is a constant.

8
6.3. EXPERIMENTAL EQUIPMENT

The flow meter equipment comprises primary flow measuring devices namely
orifice plate, venturi meter and pitot tube as well as variable flow meter
(rotameter) (see Figure 6.4).

Figure 6.4 Arrangement of Fluid Flow Meter Apparatus

Figure 6.4 shows the arrangement of the flow meter apparatus, which is
consists of several main components. The first component is a brass orifice
plate of 20 mm diameter in clear acrylic tube diameter 29 mm. The second
component is a venturi meter in clear acrylic with inlet diameter, D1 = 29
mm and throat diameter, D2 = 17 mm. The next component is a pitot tube
in clear acrylic tube diameter 19 mm. Another component is 8 tubes water
manometer 500 mm x 1 mm graduation with hand air pump. The variable
area flow meter can measure flow rate between 5 – 35 l/min. All the devices
are connected in series starting with rotameter, orifice meter, venture
meter, pitot tube and pressure control valve. The components are mounted
on white acrylic board on steel frame for mounting on hydraulics bench.

9
 The whole assembly is supported on a base mounted on adjusting screws
which serve to level the equipment.

6.4. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

6.4.1. BEFORE TESTING

a. Level the apparatus on the hydraulic bench.
b. Open the discharge valve (2) of the test set. Open the vent valve
(1) on manometer top manifold and attach the hand air pump.
c. Open the measuring tank discharge valve and closed the bench
supply valve.

6.4.2. START THE TEST

a. Switch on the hydraulic bench pump and open the bench supply
valve for maximum flow rate until air bubbles are completely
removed from the test set.
b. Set the rotameter reading (3) to 22 l/min by control the bench supply
valve.
c. Close the vent valve and pump air into the manometer head
manifold until the manometer level in tube 1 give a reading of 40
cm.
d. Close the measuring tank discharge valve and record the time to fill
in 5 liter of water into the measuring tank (Table 6.1).
e. Record the water manometer level for orifice meter, venturi meter
and pitot tube (Table 6.2, 6.3, 6.4).
f. Open the measuring discharge valve to flow back the water into a
water tank.
g. Repeat step 6.7 until 6.9 for flow rate of 20, 18, 16, 14, 12, 10 and
8 l/min.

10
ACTIVITY 1

ADDITIONAL THEORY (10%)

Please describe additional theory according to this topic.

RESULTS (15%)
a. Fill in the experimental result in the Table 6.1.
b. Plot the graph of flow rate (l/min) vs discharge coefficient for meter
orifice, venture meter and pitot tube in the same graph.

Table 6.1 Calculations of Flow Rate for Flow Meter

Flow Rate of Flow Meter (l/min)

Measuring Tank
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
l
Volume
m3
Time (s)
Flow Rate l/min
(Q) m3/s

Table 6.2 Calculations of Discharge Coefficient for Orifice Meter, Co

D1 = 29 mm D1 (m) = Flow Rate of Flow Meter (l/min)

D2 = 20 mm D2 (m) = 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Water manometer level,
Water manometer level,
inlet (mm)
Different,
outlet (mm)H P (mm)
Different, H P (m)
H P (m)
Discharge coefficient, Co

11
 Table 6.3 Calculations of Discharge Coefficient for Venturi Meter, Cv

D1 = 29 mm D1 (m) = Flow Rate of Flow Meter (l/min)

D2 = 17 mm D2 (m) = 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Water manometer level, inlet

Water manometer level, outlet

Different, H P (mm)

Different, H P (m)

H P (m)

Discharge coefficient, CV

Table 6.4: Calculations of Discharge Coefficient for Pitot Tube, CP

Flow Rate of Flow Meter (l/min)

D1 = 19 mm D1 (m) =
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Water manometer level, inlet

Water manometer level, outlet

Different, H P (mm)

Different, H P (m)

H P (m)

Discharge coefficient, CP

OBSERVATION (20%)
Please make an observation of the experiment that you have conducted.

CALCULATION (10%)
Show your calculation.

12
DISCUSSION (30%)
a. From the graph, explain the change of discharge coefficient, C d due to
flow rate, Q.
b. Describe why the different of discharge coefficient occur between the
orifice, venturi meter and pitot tube.

CONCLUSION (15%)
Deduce conclusion from the experiment. Please comment on your
experimental work in terms of achievement, problems faced throughout the
experiment and suggest recommendation for improvement.

REFERENCES
a. Bruce R. Munson, Donald F. Young, Theodore H. Okiishi (2006),
Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, 5th Edition, John Wiley & Sons
Inc.
b. Yunus A. Cengel, John M. Cimbala, Fluid Mechanics-
Fundamentals and Applications (2006), McGraw Hill.
c. Robert L. Mott, Applied Fluids Mechanics (2006), 5th Edition,
Prentice Hall.
d. Robert A. Granger (1988), Experiments in Fluid Mechanics, HRW,
IncInstruction Manual of HB15 Bernoulli’s Theorem Apparatus,
Essom Co. Ltd

13
 TOPIC 7

FLOW THROUGH A VENTURI METER

TOPIC LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this topic, students will be able to determine the discharge
coefficient of a venturi meter.

CONTENT

7.1. INTRODUCTION
Venturi meter is a device which has been used over many years for measuring
the rate of flow along a pipe. Comparing to orifice and nozzle meter, it is
considered as the most precise and expensive from the three obstructions type
flow meters. It is designed to minimize the head losses to a minimum by a
streamline contraction and gradual expansion downstream of the throat. As
may be seen from Figure 7.1, it consists essentially of a tapering contraction
section, along which the fluid accelerates towards a short cylindrical throat,
followed by a section which diverges gently back to the original diameter.
(Such a slowly diverging section is frequently referred to as a diffuser). As the
velocity increases from the inlet section to the throat, there is a fall in a
pressure, the magnitude of which depends on the rate of flow. The flow rate
may therefore be inferred from the difference in the pressure, as measured by
the piezometers placed upstream and at the throat.

14
7.2. EXPERIMENTAL THEORY
Consider flow of an incompressible, inviscid flow through the convergent-
divergent venturi meter shown in Figure 7.1. The cross sectional area at the
upstream section 1 is A1, at the throat section 2 is A2, and at any arbitrary
section is An. Piezometer tubes at these sections register h1, h2 and hn above
the arbitrary datum shown. Note that, although the tube may have any
inclination, the datum must be necessity to be horizontal. Assume that both
the velocity and the piezometric head are constant over each of the sections
considered. This amounts to assuming the flow to be one-dimensional, so that
the velocity and the piezometric head vary only in the direction of the tube
length. We may then treat the convergent-divergent pipe as a stream tube,
along which Bernoulli’s theorem states

u12 u 22 u n2
 h1   h2   hn (1)
2g 2g 2g

in which u1, u2 and un are the flow velocities at sections 1, 2 and n.

Figure 7.1 Ideal Conditions in a Venturi Meter

15
The equation of continuity is,

Q  u1 A1  u 2 A2  u n An (2)

in which Q denotes the rate of volume flow or discharge. Substituting in

Equation (1) for u1 from Equation (2) gives,

2
u 22  A2  u 22
   h1   h2
2 g  A1  2g

and solving this for the velocity u2 in the throat leads to,

2 g (h1  h2 )
u2 
1  ( A2 A1 ) 2

The rate of flow Q is found by multiplying the throat velocity u2 by the cross
sectional A2 at the throat, giving

2 g (h1  h2 )
Q  A2 (3)
1  ( A2 A1 ) 2

This is the ideal discharge rate, obtained by assuming inviscid, one-

dimensional flow. In practice, there is some loss of head between sections 1
and 2. In addition, the velocity is not absolutely constant across either of these
sections. As a result, the actual values of Q fall a little short of those given by
Equation (3). It is customary to allow this by writing

2 g (h1  h2 )
Q  C d A2 (4)
1  ( A2 A1 ) 2

In which Cd is known as the discharge coefficient or simply the coefficient of

the venturi meter. Its value, which usually lies between 0.92 and 0.99, is

16
established by experiment. It varies from one meter to another, and for a given
meter, it may vary slightly with the flow rate.

Coming now to the distribution of piezometric head along the length of the
meter, it is convenient to seek a dimensionless way of expressing the change
in piezometric head between the inlet section 1 and any typical section n. This
2
is conveniently done by use of the velocity head u 2 2 g at the throat.
Accordingly, we define a piezometric head coefficient Cph

hn  h1
C ph  (5)
(u 22 2 g )

Since (hn  h1 ) and u 2 2 g both have the same dimensions of length, the
2

piezometric head coefficient will be dimensionless. Suppose that, at some

known flow rate, piezometric heads are read along the length of the venturi
meter. If these readings are then divided by the known value of velocity head
2
at the throat, namely u 2 2 g , the readings are thereby converted into
dimensionless piezometric head coefficients.

It is simple to find an expression for the ideal distribution of Cph along a venturi
meter, solely in terms of its geometry. From Bernoulli’s Equation,

u12 u n2
hn  h1  
2g 2g

2
So, dividing through by u 2 2 g ,

2 2
hn  h1  u1   un 
    
(u22 2 g )  u2   u2 

17
Now the terms on the right may be substituted from the continuity equation:

u1 A u A
 2 and n  2
u2 A1 u2 An

and the expression on the left is the piezometric head coefficient Cph. Making
these substitutions, we obtain
2 2
A  A 
C ph   2    2  (6)
 A1   An 
as the ideal variation of dimensionless piezometric head along the tube. In
terms of tube diameter D, since AD 2 the result is

4 4
D  D 
C ph   2    2  (7)
 D1   Dn 

7.3. EXPERIMENTAL EQUIPMENT

The venturi meter is a complete set consists of a venturi meter and the
hydraulic bench (see Figure 7.2).

Figure 7.2 Arrangement of Venturi Meter Apparatus

18
Figure 7.2 shows the arrangement of the venturi meter, which is manufactured
in clear plastic material. Water is admitted from the bench supply valve and
passes through a flexible hose into the meter. Beyond the control valve, which
is mounted just downstream of the meter, a further flexible hose leads to the
measuring tank. The piezometers in the wall of the venturi tubes are connected
to vertical manometers tube, mounted in front of a scale marked in milimeter.
The manometer tubes are connected at their top ends to a common manifold,
in which the amount of air may be controlled by a small valve at one end. The
whole assembly is supported on a base mounted on adjusting screws which
serve to level the equipment.

7.4. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

7.4.1. BEFORE TESTING

a. Level the apparatus on the hydraulic bench.

b. Open the measuring tank discharge valve of the test set. Close the
bench supply valve, open the flow control valve and attach the hand
air pump into a manometer head manifold.

7.4.2. START THE TEST

a. Switch on the hydraulic bench pump.

b. Open the bench supply valve to flow the water into an apparatus
set. After about half minute, close the control valve. Make sure all
the air bubbles were removed from the apparatus set.
c. Set the water level at a convenient height (± 150 mm manometer
reading) when the control valve is closed.
d. If the water level is too high, switch off the hydraulic bench pump
and pump air into the manometer head manifold.
e. If the water level is too low, remove the air from the manometer tube
by squeeze the air stopped valve on the manometer head manifold.

19
7.4.3. DISTRIBUTION OF PIEZOMETRIC HEAD ALONG THE VENTURI
TUBE

a. Set the flow rate until the reading of tube D approaching 0 by open
the control valve.
b. Close the measuring tank discharge valve and record the time to fill
in 5 liter of water into the measuring tank. Open the measuring tank
discharge valve and record the water manometer level for each tube
(Table 7.1).
c. Calculate and fill in Table 7.1.
d. For ideal values, calculate and fill in Table 7.2 (refer the value at
the back of manometer panel board).

7.4.4. ESTABLISHMENT OF A METER COEFFICIENT

a. Set the flow rate until the reading of tube D approaching 0 by open
the control valve.
b. Close the measuring tank discharge valve and record the time to fill
in 5 liter of water into the measuring tank.
c. Open the measuring tank discharge valve and record the
manometer reading for tube A and D.
d. Increase the manometer reading for tube D about 15 mm by control
the flow rate using the control valve.
e. Repeat step b to d.
f. Calculate and fill in Table 7.3.

ACTIVITY 1

ADDITIONAL THEORY (10%)

Please describe additional theory according to this topic.

RESULTS (15%)
a. Fill in the experimental result in the Table 7.1.
b. Calculate and fill up Table 7.2 and 7.3.

20
 c. Plot 3 graphs :

Cph vs x (mm) : profile of Cph (piezometric head coefficient) along

the Venturi meter

(h1 - h2)1/2 (m1/2) vs Q (m3/s) : Variation of (h1 - h2)1/2 with flow

rate

Cd vs Q (m3/s) : Variation of Cd with flow rate

Table 7.1 Piezometric Head Profile along Venturi Meter (Experimental

Value)

Volume :
Time (s) :
Flow rate (Q) :
u2 :
(u 22 2 g ) :

hn (mm) hn-h1 (mm) hn  h1

Piezometer ref. no: C ph 
n = A, B, C… (u 22 2 g )

A (1)

D (2)

21
Table 7.2 Calculation of Ideal Values of Piezometric Head Coefficient, Cph

Piezometer
Xn Dn
No. ref. no. D2/Dn (D2/Dn)4 Cph
(mm) (mm)
(mm)

1 A (1)

2 B

3 C

4 D (2)

5 E

6 F

7 G

8 H

9 J

10 K

11 L

22
 Table 7.3 Measurement of (h1-h2) and Q

Flow
Volume Time h1 h2 rate, Q (h1-h2) (h1-h2)1/2
No Cd
(m3) (s) (mm) (mm) (m3/s) (m) (m1/2)

10

11

OBSERVATION (20%)
Please make an observation of the experiment that you have conducted.

CALCULATION (10%)
Show your calculation.

DISCUSSION (30%)
a. From Equation (4) and graph b, find the slope of the graph. Then,
determine Cd.

23
 b. From graph c, explain the change of discharge coefficient, C d due
to flow rate, Q.
c. Describe the changes of profile between measured and ideal value
of Cph along venturi meter.

CONCLUSION (15%)
Deduce conclusion from the experiment. Please comment on your
experimental work in terms of achievement, problems faced throughout the
experiment and suggest recommendation for improvement.

REFERENCES
a. Bruce R. Munson, Donald F. Young, Theodore H. Okiishi (2006),
Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, 5th Edition, John Wiley & Sons
Inc.
b. Yunus A. Cengel, John M. Cimbala, Fluid Mechanics-
Fundamentals and Applications (2006), McGraw Hill.
c. Robert L. Mott, Applied Fluids Mechanics (2006), 5th Edition,
Prentice Hall.
d. Robert A. Granger (1988), Experiments in Fluid Mechanics, HRW,
Inc.
e. Instruction Manual of HB15 Bernoulli’s Theorem Apparatus, Essom
Co. Ltd

24
 TOPIC 8

HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE

TOPIC LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this topic, students will be able to determine the center of
pressure of a plane submerged in water.

CONTENT

8.1. INTRODUCTION
When a surface is submerged in a fluid, the surface will experience the
hydrostatic force due to the fluid pressure. For fluids at rest we know that the
force must be perpendicular to the surface since there are no shearing
stresses present. We also know that the pressure will vary linearly with depth
if the fluid is incompressible. Determination of these forces is important for
examples in the design of storage tanks, ships, dams, and other hydraulic
structures.

8.2. EXPERIMENTAL THEORY

8.2.1. HYDROSTATIC FORCE ON THE SUBMERGED SURFACE

The hydrostatic force on submerged surface is given by,

FR  ghc A

25
Where ,
FR = hydrostatic force
hc = depth of the centroid from fluid free surface
A = submerged surface area

To understand how equation (3) is obtained, consider an inclined submerged

surface as shown in Figure 8.1.

Figure 8.1 Hydrostatic Force on Submerged Surface

At any given depth, h, the force acting on the element area dA is given by
𝑑𝐹 = 𝛾ℎ 𝑑𝐴
and is perpendicular to the surface. Thus, the magnitude of the resultant force
acting on the entire surface can be determined by summing all the differential
forces.

𝐹𝑅 = ∫ 𝛾ℎ 𝑑𝐴 = ∫ 𝛾𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑑𝐴
𝐴 𝐴

with h = y sin θ. For constant 𝛾 and 𝜃

26
 𝐹𝑅 = 𝛾 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ∫ 𝑦𝑑𝐴
𝐴

But the term ∫ y dA is the first moment of area with respect to axis x where

∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑦𝐶 𝐴
𝐴

Thus
𝐹𝑅 = 𝛾𝐴𝑦𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 or 𝐹𝑅 = 𝛾ℎ𝐶 𝐴
Where hc is the vertical distance from the fluid surface to the centroid of the
area.

8.2.2. Determination of Center of Pressure, CP (Theoretical Method)

Point or location where resultant force FR act is known as center of pressure ,

CP. Position of this point usually is explained by a vertical distance free
surface, hR or distance from axis x, yR (or sometimes known as ycp). This yR
distance can be determined by summation of moments around x axis. That is
the moment of resultant force must equal the moment of the distributed
pressure force, or

Therefore,

yR 
A
g sin y 2 dA
FR


A
g sin y 2 dA
gAy c sin 


A
y 2 dA
yc A

But ∫ y2 dA is the second moment of the area (moment of inertia) , Ix with respect
to an axis formed by the intersection of the plane containing the surface and
the free surface (x axis). Thus, we can write

27
 Ix 2
yR  where I x  I xc  Ay c
yc A

Or,
I xc
yR   yc
yc A
Where ,
yR = distance from point O to center of pressure, CP (m).
yc = distance from point O to centroid of surface area (m).
Ixc = second moment of area about the centroid (m4).
A = area of submerged surface (m2).

Or in a vertical distance,

I xc
hR   hc
hc A

Where,
hR = vertical distance from point free surface to center of pressure, CP (m).
hc = vertical distance from free surface to centroid of surface area (m).

Thus, the center of pressure is always lower than the centroid.

Hydrostatic pressure on the circular side of the quadrant exerts no turning

moment on the fulcrum. The same is hydrostatic pressure on the radial side of
the quadrant. The only pressure exerting turning moment on the fulcrum is that
a pressure acting on the 100 mm x 75 mm surface which is maintained at
vertical.

Submerged surface , A = 100 mm (height) x 75 mm (width)

Quadrant inner radius, R1 = 100 mm
Quadrant outer radius, R2 = 200 mm
Fulcrum is located at the center of the quadrant block.

28
Under static balance conditions :

FY  mgL

Thus,
mgL
Y
F

a. When water level is above the quadrant scale :

I xc
hR (theory)  hc 
Theoretically,
Ahc

Where,
hc  (h1  50) mm

bd 3 75  100 3
I xc    6.25  10 6 mm 4
12 12

A  75  100  7500 mm2

From Figure 8.2, Y h R ( R1  h1 )

Thus hR  Y  R1  h1

Experimentally, hR (exp eriment)  Y  R1  h1

mgL
  R1  h1
F
mgL
  100  h1
ghc A
mL
  100  h1
 (h1  50) A

Where :  = 1000 kg/m3

L = 280 mm
A = 100 mm x 75 mm = 7500 mm2

29
 Figure 8.2 Water Level above the Quadrant Scale

b. When water level is within the Quadrant Lower Scale:

I xc
Theoretically, hR (theory)  hc 
Ahc
h2
Where, hc  mm
2
3
bd 3 75  h2
I xc   mm 4
12 12
A  75h2 mm2

From Figure 8.3, R2  Y  h2  hR 

Experimentally, hR (exp eriment)  Y  R2  h2

mgL
  R2  h2
F
mgL
  200  h2
g hc A

2mL
  200  h2
h2 A

30
 Figure 8.3 Water Level within the Quadrant Lower Scale

8.3. EXPERIMENTAL EQUIPMENT

Details of the equipment are (see Figure 8.4):

a. Hydrostatic Pressure Test Apparatus

b. Hydraulic Bench
c. A set of weight

Weight Hanger

Figure 8.4 Hydrostatic Pressure Test Apparatus

8.4. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

a. Level the apparatus on the Hydraulic Bench (until Balance Indicator
shows the apparatus is in balance).

31
 b. Adjust the counter weight to balance the quadrant, beam and weight
hanger (no weight) - without water in the tank.
c. Manually fill the tank with the water so that the quadrant is
completely submerged or about 180 mm submerged. The beam at
the weight hanger end is now tilted upward.
d. Add the weight 500 g until the beam is about to tilt downward.
e. Slowly, drain the water from the tank and close the valve
immediately when the beam is horizontal.
f. Record the water level and weight, m in Table 8.1.
g. Remove 50 g, so that the beam will again tilted upward.
h. Repeat step e to g until all the weights are removed. (when the
water level below than 100 mm, continue recording the data in
Table 8.2) .

ACTIVITY 1

ADDITIONAL THEORY (10%)

Please describe additional theory according to this topic.

RESULTS (15%)
Fill up Table 8.1 and 8.2.

Table 8.1 Water level above the Lower Quadrant

No. Mass, m h1 hc =(h1+50) Ixc A1 x h c hR (theory) hR (exp)

unit g mm mm mm4 mm mm
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

32
 Table 8.2 Water level within the Lower Quadrant

Mass,
No. h2 hc=(h2/2) Ixc A2 A2 x h c hR (theory) hR (exp)
m

Unit g mm mm mm4 mm2 mm mm

OBSERVATION (20%)
Please make an observation of the experiment that you have conducted.

CALCULATION (10%)
Show your calculation.

DISCUSSION (30%)
a. Plot the following graphs
i. Mass,m vs Distance hR (exp)
ii. Mass,m vs Distance hR (theory)
b. Calculate the slope of both graph.
c. Discuss the result of the graph.

CONCLUSION (15%)
Deduce conclusion from the experiment. Please comment on your
experimental work in terms of achievement, problems faced throughout the
experiment and suggest recommendation for improvement.

33
REFERENCES
a. Bruce R. Munson, Donald F. Young, Theodore H. Okiishi (2006),
Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, 5th Edition, John Wiley & Sons Inc.
b. Yunus A. Cengel, John M. Cimbala, Fluid Mechanics- Fundamentals
and Applications (2006), McGraw Hill.
c. Robert L. Mott, Applied Fluids Mechanics (2006), 5th Edition, Prentice
Hall.
d. Robert A. Granger (1988), Experiments in Fluid Mechanics, HRW, Inc.
e. Instruction Manual of HB12 Hydrostatic Pressure, Essom Co. Ltd.
.

34
 TOPIC 9

IMPACT OF A JET

TOPIC LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this topic, students will be able to measure the force due to the
impact of water jet on the various targets.

CONTENT

9.1. INTRODUCTION
One way of producing mechanical work from fluid under pressure is to use the
pressure to accelerate the fluid to a high velocity in a jet. The jet is directed on
to the vanes of a turbine wheel, which is rotated by the force generated on the
vanes due to the momentum change or impulse which takes place as the jet
strikes the vanes. Water turbines working on this impulse principle have been
constructed with outputs of the order of 100 000 kW and with efficiency greater
than 90%. In this experiment, the force generated by a jet of water as it strikes
a flat plate or hemispherical cup can be measured and compared with the
momentum flow rate in the jet. Another plate available is a conical plate.

9.2. EXPERIMENTAL THEORY

Consider a plat or vane symmetrical about the y-axis as shown in Figure 1. A
jet of fluid flowing at the rate of m kg/s along the y-axis with the velocity v1 m/s

strikes the vane and is deflected by it through angle  , so that the fluid leaves

the vane with the velocity v2 m/s inclined at an angle  to the y-axis.

35
Total force acting on control volume,

F  F B  FP  FR

Where, FB = weight or body force

FP = pressure force
FR = reaction force

Figure 9.1 Control Volume of Jet Impact

Both point 1 and 2 are exposed to the atmosphere, therefore the total pressure
force is equal to zero. Since the weight of water is neglected, the total force
becomes,

F  F R

Due to principle of momentum, total force in y-direction acting on a control

volume is equal to the rate of change of momentum in the same direction.
Therefore,

36
  F  m v 2y  v1 y 
 m (v 2 cos   v1 )
 Q(v 2 cos   v1 )

Thus, FR  Q(v2 cos   v1 )

a. Flow rate, Q (m3/s)

Q
Volume,  m 3  
time, t s 

b. Velocity of the jet as it leaves the nozzle, V1 (m/s)

Using the continuity equation,

Q  A1 V1
Q
V1 
A1
Where, A1 is the given area of the nozzle = 38.48 mm 2 (diameter
of nozzle = 7 mm)

c. Velocity at the target, V2 (m/s)

Using Bernoulli equation by assuming the fluid-friction energy loss

is negligible,

2 2
P1 V1 P V
  z1  2  2  z 2
g 2 g g 2 g

Since P1, P2 and z1 is equal to zero, the equation becomes,

2 2
V1 V
 2  z2
2g 2g
V2  V
1
2
 2 gz 2 
With distance from centre of the vane to the nozzle z2 = 30 mm

37
 Therefore, V2  V
1
2
 29.810.03
 V
1
2
 0.5886 

d. Theoretical force, Ftheoretical (N)

FR (theoretical )  Q(V2 cos   V1 )

Where, density of water , ρ = 1000 kg/m3

And for flat plate, β = 90º
for conical vane, β = 120º
for hemisphere vane, β = 180º

e. Measured force, Fmeasured (N)

The actual force is weight of the load,

FR ( measured)  mg

9.3. EXPERIMENTAL EQUIPMENT

Details of the equipment are (see Figure 9.2):

a. Impact Jet
b. Hydraulic Bench
c. A set of weight
d. Three target plates : Flat, 120o cone, hemisphere
e. Stop watch

38
 Figure 9.2 Arrangement of Experimental Apparatus

9.4. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

a. Level the apparatus on the hydraulic bench (until Balance Indicator

shows the apparatus is in balance).
b. Install the target and adjust the stem level indicator so that it is at the
same level with the stem.
c. Place 100 g weight on the stem, it will move downward.
d. Switch on the power supply and the jet will hit the target plate
e. Adjust the inlet (supply) valve until the stem back to its original position.
f. Close the outlet (discharge) valve and record the time needed to collect
5 liter water in the tank (reading from manometer)
g. Add another 100 g. Repeat from step c until maximum weight of 500 g.
h. Repeat step b until g for another 2 targets.

ACTIVITY 1

39
ADDITIONAL THEORY (10%)
Please describe additional theory according to this topic.

RESULTS (15%)

Table 9.1 Experimental Results

FR(measur
FLOWRATE FR(theoretic
MASS VOLUME TIME V1 V2 ed)
, al)
(g) (m3) (s) (m/s) (m/s) (N)
Q (m3/s) (N)
\

1 100

2 200
FLAT PLATE

3 300

4 400

5 500

1 100

2 200
CONICAL 120O

3 300

4 400

5 500

1 100
HEMISPHERICAL

2 200

3 300

4 400

5 500

OBSERVATION (20%)

40
Please make an observation of the experiment that you have conducted.

CALCULATION (10%)
Show your calculation.

DISCUSSION (30%)
a. Plot graph Ftheoretical vs flow rate, Q for each plate or vane.
b. Calculate the slope of the graph.
c. Calculate deviation of actual force from ideal force.
d. Discuss the graph.

CONCLUSION (15%)
Deduce conclusion from the experiment. Please comment on your
experimental work in terms of achievement, problems faced throughout the
experiment and suggest recommendation for improvement.

REFERENCES
a. Bruce R. Munson, Donald F. Young, Theodore H. Okiishi (2006),
Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, 5th Edition, John Wiley & Sons Inc.
b. Yunus A. Cengel, John M. Cimbala, Fluid Mechanics- Fundamentals
and Applications (2006), McGraw Hill.
c. Robert L. Mott, Applied Fluids Mechanics (2006), 5th Edition, Prentice
Hall.
d. Robert A. Granger (1988), Experiments in Fluid Mechanics, HRW, Inc.

41
 TOPIC 10

FLOW MEASURING APPARATUS

TOPIC LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this topic, students will be able to determine the discharge and
head loss occurs in a venturi, an orifice and a rotameter.

CONTENT

1.5 INTRODUCTION
A major application area of fluid mechanics is determination of the flow rate or
discharge of fluids. There are many ways to measure the flow rate of
incompressible fluid along a pipe. The flow measurement devices and
techniques range from very crude to very elegant based on their level of
sophistication, size, cost, accuracy, versatility, capacity, pressure drop and the
operating principle.

A simple way of measuring the flow rate of fluid can be done by collecting water
in a bucket and recording the collection time. This method which is called
volume-time method provides a quite fair accurate measurement. A rotameter
which consists of a tapered tube (typically made of glass) with a float is used
the principle of density difference; it has to have a higher density than the fluid,
otherwise it will float to the top even if there is no flow. At a higher flow rate
more area (between the float and the tube) is needed to accommodate the
flow, so the float rises. The float is shaped so that it rotates axially as the fluid
passes. It is also a relatively simple device that can be manufactured out of
cheap materials.
Both venturi and orifice meter use the Bernoulli's principle where the flow rate
through a pipe can be determined by constricting the flow and measuring the
decrease in pressure due to the increase in velocity at the constriction area.

Venturi meter consists of tapering contraction section, along which the fluid
accelerates towards a short cylindrical throat, followed by a diffuser which
diverges gently back to the original diameter. While an orifice is basically a thin
plate with a hole in the middle which usually placed in a pipe in which fluid
flows. It has a simple design and cheap. However, it has a greater loss of total
head than the venturi meter. Venturi meter which causes very low head losses
is known as a most accurate flow meter in its group, but it is also the most
expensive.

1.6 EXPERIMENTAL THEORY

10.2.1 The Mass Flow Rate

Both venturi and orifice meter use the Bernoulli's principle where the flow rate
through a pipe can be determined by constricting the flow and measuring the
decrease in pressure due to the increase in velocity at the constriction area.
When the fluid reaches the constriction area, the fluid is forced to converge to
go through the constriction area; the velocity and the pressure changes.
Beyond the constriction area, the fluid expands and the velocity and pressure
change once again. By measuring the difference in fluid pressure between the
normal pipe section and at the constriction area, the volumetric and mass flow
rates can be obtained from Bernoulli's equation.

Applying Bernoulli’s equation between section 1 (before constriction) and

section 2 (after constriction) gives:

2 2
P1 V1 P V
  z1  2  2  z 2 (1)
g 2 g g 2 g

If the pipe is horizontal where the z1 = z2, therefore the equation becomes,

43
 2 2
P1 V1 P V
  2  2 (2)
g 2 g g 2 g

From continuity equation,

A1V1  A2V2

2
AV  d 
V2  1 1   1  V1 (3)
A2  d 2 

Combining equation (2) and (3) and solving for V2 gives,

2P1  P2 
V1 
 d  2 
  1   1
 d 2  
(assuming no loss) (4)

The mass flow rate is given by,

  Q  V1 A1
m (5)

10.2.2 Mass Flow Rate Calculation

a. Venturi Meter:

Mass flow rate, m  0.962(hA  hB ) kg/s

1/ 2

b. Orifice Meter:

Mass flow rate, m  0.846(hE  hF ) kg/s

1/ 2

c. Rotameter:

Refer to Typical Rotameter Calibration Curve as shown in Figure 10.1.

44
 Figure 10.1 Typical Rotameter Calibration Curve

d. Hydraulic Bench (volume-time method):

Flow rate, Q  Volume / time (m /s)

3

Mass flow rate, m  Q (kg/s)

10.2.3 The Head Loss

The head loss H12 may be assumed to rise as a consequence of the vortices
in the stream. Since the flow is viscous, a wall shear stress exists and a
pressure force must be applied to overcome it. The consequent increase in
flow work appears as in increase in internal energy, and because the flow is
viscous, the velocity profile at any section is non-uniform.

a. Venturi Meter:
(hA  hC )
Head Loss =
V A2
2g
b. Orifice Meter:
0.83(hE  hF )
Head loss 
0.0625(V A2 2 g )
c. Rotameter:

Head loss = 0.83(hH  hI )

45
10.3 EXPERIMENTAL EQUIPMENT

The Flow Measurement Apparatus is a complete set consists of Flow

Measurement Apparatus and the Hydraulic Bench (see Figure 10.2).

1
5

4
2

Figure 10.2 Flow Measurement Apparatus

Water from the hydraulic bench enters the equipment through a venturi meter,
which consists of a gradually converging section, followed by a throat, and a
long gradually diverging section. After a change in cross-section through a
rapidly diverging section, the flow continues along a settling length and through
an orifice plate meter. It has a shape of a plate with a hole of reduced diameter
through which the fluid flows. It also has eleven manometers; nine are
connected to tapping in the pipe work and another two for other measurement.

10.4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

a. Switch on the power supply of hydraulic bench. .

b. Ensure the in-let valve (water supply) to apparatus is fully open.
c. Close the air-purge valve fully (1).

46
d. Close the apparatus valve fully (out-let apparatus valve) (2).
e. Switch on the pump at hydraulic bench and slowly open its valve (2)
until water starts to flow.
f. Couple the bicycle pump (3) to the purge valve and pump down until all
the manometers read approximately 260mm.( Note : to pump it while
machine is OFF & to check it while machine is ON )
g. Dislodge the entrained air from the manometers by gentle tapping with
the fingers. Check to ensure the water levels are constant ( origin status
: A ~ I manometer level is same and approximately 260mm.
h. Check the tube ferrules (4) and the top manifold (5) are free from water
blockage.
i. Open the apparatus valve until rotameter shows a reading of
approximately 110 mm.
j. When a steady flow is maintained, measure the flow with the hydraulic
bench.
k. Repeat step i and j for a number of equidistant values of rotameter
readings up to the point in which the maximum pressure values can be
recorded from the manometer.

Figure 10.3 Diagram of Flow Measurement Apparatus

47
ACTIVITY 1

ADDITIONAL THEORY (10%)

Please describe additional theory according to this topic .

RESULTS (15%)
a. Calculate and fill up Table 10.1 and 10.2.

Table 10.1 Manometer Readings

min. max.
Rotameter
Setting
TEST NUMBER
Manometer
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Levels
A

48
 Table 10.2 Mass Flow Rate and Kinetic Head

Rotameter Setting
TEST NUMBER
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Venturi
Mass Flow Rate,

Orifice
m (kg/s)

Rotameter
(refer
Figure 1)
5Ltr/t 5Ltr/t 5Ltr/t 5Ltr/t 5Ltr/t 5Ltr/t 5Ltr/t 5Ltr/t 5Ltr/t 5Ltr/t
Hydraulic
Bench

Venturi
Kinetic Head
H/Inlet

Orifice

Rotameter

OBSERVATION (20%)
Please make an observation of the experiment that you have conducted.

CALCULATION (10%)
Show your calculation.

DISCUSSION (30%)
Discuss the results.

49
CONCLUSION (15%)
Deduce conclusion from the experiment. Please comment on your
experimental work in terms of achievement, problems faced throughout the
experiment and suggest recommendation for improvement.

REFERENCES
a. Bruce R. Munson, Donald F. Young, Theodore H. Okiishi (2006),
Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, 5th Edition, John Wiley & Sons Inc.
b. Yunus A. Cengel, John M. Cimbala, Fluid Mechanics- Fundamentals
and Applications (2006), McGraw Hill.
c. Robert L. Mott, Applied Fluids Mechanics (2006), 5th Edition, Prentice
Hall.
d. Robert A. Granger (1988), Experiments in Fluid Mechanics, HRW, Inc.
e. Instruction Manual of H10 Flow Measurement Apparatus, TQ Education
and Training Ltd.

50