ARTICLE IN PRESS

Journal of
Trace Elements
in Medicine and Biology
Journal of Trace Elements in Medicine and Biology 19 (2005) 183–189
www.elsevier.de/jtemb

FOOD CHAIN
Trace and mineral elements in royal jelly and homeostatic effects
Andreas Stockera,b,c, Peter Schramela, Antonius Kettrupa, Eberhard Bengscha,b,,1
a
GSF – National Research Center for Environment and Health, Institute of Ecological Chemistry, D-85758 Neuherberg, Germany
b
Centre de Biophysique Moléculaire, CNRS UPR 4301, University of Orléans, INSERM, F-45071 Orléans cedex 2, France
c
Lehrstuhl für Biologische Chemie, Fachgebiet Physikalische Biochemie, TU München-Weihenstephan, D-85350 Freising, Germany

Received 11 July 2005; accepted 24 August 2005

Abstract

Royal jelly from Apis mellifera is a highly active natural biological substance and is probably one of the most
interesting raw substances in natural product chemistry. Trace elements play a key role in the biomedical activities
associated with royal jelly, as these elements have a multitude of known and unknown biological functions. For this
reason concentrations of 28 trace (Al, Ba, Sr, Bi, Cd, Hg, Pb, Sn, Te, Tl, W, Sb, Cr, Ni, Ti, V, Co, Mo) and mineral
(P, S, Ca, Mg, K, Na, Zn, Fe, Cu, Mn) elements were systematically investigated in botanically and geologically
defined royal jelly samples. In addition, concentrations of 14 trace elements were measured in the associated honey
samples – honey being the precursor of royal jelly. Concentrations of K, Na, Mg, Ca, P, S, Cu, Fe, Zn, Al, Ba and Sr in
royal jelly were determined by inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES), while
concentrations of Bi, Cd, Hg, Pb, Sn, Te, Tl, W, Sb, Cr, Mn, Ni, Ti, V, Co and Mo in royal jelly were determined
by double focusing magnetic sector field inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (SF-ICP-MS).
In the honey samples, trace and mineral element concentrations strongly depended on botanical and geological
origin, and substantial variation was found. In contrast, the concentrations of trace and mineral elements were highly
constant in the associated royal jelly samples. The most important results were the homeostatic adjustments of trace
and mineral element concentrations in royal jelly. This effect was evidently produced in the endocrine glands of nurse
bees, which are adapted for needs of bee larvae. In conclusion, this research yielded a surprising and completely new
finding – that royal jelly, as a form of lactation on the insect level, shows the same homeostatic adjustment as
mammalian and human breast milk.
r 2005 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Royal jelly; Honey; Trace elements; Minerals; Homeostatic effects

Introduction mately 66% water, 15% sugars, 5% lipids and 13%

Royal jelly is a bee product from the hypopharyngeal,
mandibular- and postcerebral glands of nurse bees (Apis
mellifera). It is produced by the partial digestion of
essentially honey and pollen and consists of approxi-
Corresponding author.
1
In cooperation with J.M. Bonmatin.
proteins with a high content of essential amino acids and
vitamins [1,2], as well as minerals in the concentration
range of 0.7–1.2% [3]. Royal jelly is of particular interest
because, as a natural material, it offers probably the
greatest potential to find new substances with pharma-
ceutical potential [4]. Biological activities of royal jellies
are variable and have been correlated to their content of
trace elements.

0946-672X/$ - see front matter r 2005 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jtemb.2005.08.004
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
184 A. Stocker et al. / Journal of Trace Elements in Medicine and Biology 19 (2005) 183–189
In preliminary descriptive studies elemental concen-
trations of some trace and mineral elements were
measured in pollen, nectar and royal jelly of the honey
bee [5–7]. In total, nine elements were investigated to
find correlations between alimentation, regional origin
and level of elements in royal jelly [8,9]. Several trace
and mineral elements were used for the investigation of
authenticity of several samples [10].
For honey and pollen, the precursors of royal jelly,
trace and mineral elements were described as qualified
parameters of geographical, seasonal and botanical
origin. Analysis of honeys from defined botanical and
geographical origins in France showed highly varying
element concentrations depending on the plant material
[11,12]. Multi-floral honeys from Northern Italy [13]
showed significant differences in the concentrations of
trace elements depending on prevailing rock types.
Trace elements in honey samples from a large area in
Hungary were useful as environmental indicators [14].
Higher levels of trace elements in pollen, honey and bee
tissues were described for soils on volcanic rocks in
Kenya compared to samples deriving from metamorphic
rocks [15]. The trace elements lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd)
and manganese (Mn) were analysed in honey samples of
various seasonal origins – higher Pb contents being
found for the summer months [16].
The purpose of the present study was the systematic
investigation of a greater number of trace and mineral
elements in royal jellies of defined botanical (i.e.
seasonal) and geological origins. We produced and
investigated royal jellies from crystalline rocks, carbo-
nate rocks and loess soils from several regions of
France. In addition, a commercial royal jelly sample
from China was analysed.
Materials and methods
Samples
Royal jelly samples from various botanical, geogra-
phical and geological origins were produced 2001 in
cooperation with apiaries in France. Geologically
defined royal jelly samples were produced in order to
determine trace element variations in royal jelly
depending on the geochemical character of underlying
rocks in the region (i.e. rock types). Altogether seven
royal jelly samples were analysed in this study. Four
royal jellies derived from crystalline rocks of St. André
de la Marche, Vendée-Maine, France (samples 1–4), one
from carbonate rocks of Chézelles, Centre, France
(sample 5), and one from loess soils of Lugny, Picardie,
France (sample 6). In addition, one commercial royal
jelly sample was obtained from loess soils in China
(sample 7).
The four royal jellies from Vendée-Maine (samples
1–4) were collected at four different sampling dates from
the same honeybee colonies in order to investigate
seasonal (i.e. botanical) variation of trace elements.
Pollen morphological analysis of main pollen in royal
jelly samples from Vendée-Maine harvested on different
sampling dates showed following botanical origins:
Pyrus species and Brassica species in sample 1 (4 May
2001), Brassica species and Pyrus species in sample 2
(17 May 2001), Castanea sativa, Trifolium repens, Rubus
species in sample 3 (22 June 2001) and C. sativa in
sample 4 (2 July 2001). Royal jellies were kept at
refrigeration temperature (41C) until analysis.
A total of 94 honey samples derived from various
botanical, geographical and geological origins in France
covering the very same variety of botanical origins and
geochemical characters of underlying rock types (i.e.
crystalline rocks, carbonate rocks, loess soils) as the
royal jellies were also collected and investigated. Honey
samples were kept under room temperature conditions
until analysis.
Sample treatment
Royal jelly and honey samples were wet digested at
170 1C with HNO3 in pressurised PTFE bombs with
inserted quartz tubes [17]. Approximately 500 mg of
royal jelly and 500 mg of honey respectively, were wet
ashed with 1 mL HNO3 (subboiling dest.). The solutions
were subsequently filled up to 10 mL with high purity
water (Milli-Q, Millipore, Germany) and analysed.
Depending on the concentrations further dilution was
necessary, in some cases, if the concentrations were
relatively high. The pressure ashing in PTFE bombs is
state of the art, so no losses have to be taken into
account [17]. From our experiences contaminations
during sample pretreatment in the laboratory could be
excluded. For the natural raw material royal jelly
possible contamination of elements as e.g. aluminium
(Al) from dust aerosols before sampling cannot be
excluded as this is well-known for other biological
materials.
Analytical instruments
Determinations of several elements (Table 1) in royal
jelly were carried out by double focusing magnetic sector
field inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (SF-
ICP-MS) [18], using the ELEMENT1 (Thermo Finni-
gan MAT GmbH, Bremen, Germany). Pneumatic
nebulisation (Meinhard), a water-cooled spray chamber
(Scott type), a peristaltic pump (0.9 mL/min) and a
sample changer ASX-400 (CETAC, USA) were used for
sample introduction. Commercially available nickel-
cones were used in the interface.
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A. Stocker et al. / Journal of Trace Elements in Medicine and Biology 19 (2005) 183–189
Table 1. Elements in royal jelly and honey and methods used for analysis
Samples Methods
Royal jelly ICP-OES
ICP-MS
Royal jelly Resolution of 300
ICP-MS
Royal jelly Resolution of 5500
Honey ICP-OES
We have determined concentrations of 28 trace
elements in royal jellies. The elements bismuth (Bi),
Cd, mercury (Hg), Pb, stannous (Sn), tellurium (Te),
thallium (Tl), tungsten (W) and antimony (Sb) in royal
jelly (bulk material) were measured with SF-ICP-MS as
described above at a resolution of 300. The elements
chromium (Cr), Mn, nickel (Ni), titanium (Ti), vana-
dium (V), cobalt (Co) and molybdenum (Mo) were
measured with SF-ICP-MS at a resolution of 5500
(Table 1). The estimated analytical uncertainty was less
than 5%.
Inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectro-
scopy (ICP-OES) was used for the measurement of the
elements potassium (K), sodium (Na), magnesium (Mg),
calcium (Ca), phosphorous (P), sulphur (S), copper
(Cu), iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), Al, barium (Ba) and
strontium (Sr) in royal jelly samples and for the
measurement of Al, boron (B), Ba, Ca, Cu, Fe, K,
Mg, Mn, P, S, silicon (Si), Zn, Sr in honey samples (bulk
material). Combined sequential/simultaneous ICP spec-
trometers JY 70 and JY 66 ICP, respectively (Jobin
Yvon Longjumeau cedex, France), a 1.5 kW RF-
generator, a computer system and a concentric pneu-
matic nebuliser were used for routine analysis [19].
Again the analytical uncertainty was in the range of less
than 5%.
Analytical accuracy and precision and limits of
detection were determined using several bio-medical
control or certified reference materials as well as
chemical and procedural blank values as described for
ICP-OES in [17,19] and for ICP-MS in [18].
Results
Contents of 28 trace and mineral elements of seven
royal jelly samples from defined botanical and geologi-
cal origins were analysed. Concentrations of 23 trace
and mineral elements are given in Table 2. Concentra-
tions of five trace elements in royal jelly were below
limits of determination. Element concentrations of nine
trace and mineral elements of the seven royal jellies are
185
Elements
K, Na, Mg, Ca, P, S, Cu, Fe, Zn, Al, Ba, Sr
Bi, Cd, Hg, Pb, Sn, Te, Tl, W, Sb
Cr, Mn, Ni, Ti, V, Co, Mo
Al, B, Ba, Ca, Cu, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, P, S, Si, Zn, Sr
compared to 94 honeys from the same geological origins
in Figs. 1 and 2.
Royal jelly sample 3 from Vendée-Maine was
analysed in solutions from two independent digestions
of aliquots. Trace element values are given as mean of
two results 7 difference to the mean value (Table 2) to
show the analytical uncertainty and the biological
variability of the samples.
Concentrations of the mineral elements P, S, Ca, Mg,
K and Na were roughly identical in royal jelly samples
(Table 2, Fig. 1). No significant difference could be
found for mineral element concentrations from royal
jelly samples from different botanical and geographical
origins.
Concentration of the mineral elements P, S, Ca, Mg
and K in the associated honeys (Fig. 1) showed
significant variability depending on botanical origin
[11,12]. Mineral element concentrations in honeys varied
within approximately one decimal power and had
significant lower concentrations than the royal jelly
samples.
Thus concentrations of mineral elements in royal
jellies are accumulated compared to the associated
honeys. Factors of accumulation are approximately
20-fold for P, 20-fold for S, 5-fold for Ca, 10-fold for
Mg and 1-fold for K (Fig. 1).
Al and Si are elements that are well known for
exogenous contaminations with dust aerosols. There-
fore, Al and Si have to be regarded carefully. Al was
found in highly differing concentrations. Higher Al
values in the royal jellies (between 54.7 mg/kg (Table 2;
sample 3) and 27.6 mg/kg (sample 4)) were most likely
aerosol contaminations from former uranium mines in
Vendée-Maine. Al concentrations of 8.4, 4.7 and 1.6 mg/
kg were, therefore, probably more reliable (Table 2).
For the trace elements Zn, Fe, Cu and Mn, a similar
situation was found as for the mineral elements (Fig. 2).
Zn concentrations in royal jelly were highly adjusted, as
observed for the mineral elements. Fe, Cu and Mn had
only a small range of variation. Mn was the only
element with smaller element concentrations in royal
jellies as compared to the associated honeys (Fig. 2).
Factors of element accumulation in royal jelly are
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186 A. Stocker et al. / Journal of Trace Elements in Medicine and Biology 19 (2005) 183–189

Table 2. Mineral and trace elements in royal jelly samples from different seasonal (i.e. botanical), geographical and geological
origins: sample 3 was analysed for two independent sample digestions of aliquots

Crystalline rocks Carbonate rocks Loess soils Loess soils

(1) May 4 (2) May 17 (3) June 22b (4) July 2 (5) (6) (7)

P (mg/kg) 2060 2000 1949726 1960 1940 2350 2010

S (mg/kg) 1390 1210 1154716 1320 1290 1420 1340
Ca (mg/kg) 117 113 12079 122 113 145 129
Mg (mg/kg) 275 268 28277 269 264 312 28
K (mg/kg) 2770 2700 2462782 3050 2630 3120 2730
Na (mg/kg) 119 127 12772 106 107 129 142
Al (mg/kg) 0.8 40.2 54.7721.6 27.6 4.7 8.4 1.6
Zn (mg/kg) 20.6 20.3 20.170.1 19.4 22.4 24.8 24.4
Fe (mg/kg) 9.1 17.5 20.575.3 17.5 10.2 22.1 11.0
Cu (mg/kg) 4.1 7.4 8.171.8 7.9 4.6 8.0 4.0
Cr (mg/kg) 0.33 2.69 2.9771.35 2.62 0.65 2.93 0.34
Mn (mg/kg) 0.95 0.76 1.0670.16 4.35 0.70 1.48 0.78
Ni (mg/kg) 0.14 1.41 1.6571.05 1.45 0.33 1.70 0.15
Ti (mg/kg) o0.14a 0.71 1.5570.70 0.45 0.23 0.32 0.26
Sn (mg/kg) 196 277 143713 185 31 73 15
Hg (mg/kg) o1a 31 2675 31 2 36 1
Pb (mg/kg) 33 172 287785 17 50 32 51
Cd (mg/kg) 13 14 1973 12 2.2 6.9 1.3
W (mg/kg) 14 933 482071610 2.6 56 16 21
Te (mg/kg) 0.3 4.9 6.171.2 7.8 0.8 9.1 0.7
Sb (mg/kg) 0.4 1.3 5.472.3 1.3 0.8 1.5 0.5
Tl (mg/kg) 0.3 0.8 1.1570.05 0.3 0.4 0 0.1
Bi (mg/kg) 11 1.7 6.170.9 1.6 13.5 13 7.9
a
These values were below limit of determination.
b
See results section. Concentrations of Ba (o100 mg/kg), V (o200 mg/kg), Co (o200 mg/kg), Mo (o400 mg/kg) and Sr (o100 mg/kg) were below
limit of determination. Samples 1–4 were from Vendée-Maine, sample 5 from Centre and sample 6 from Picardie, France. Sample 7 was from China.
All samples were produced in 2001.
concentration (mg kg-1)

1000

100
90%
75%
50% percentiles
25%
10%
10

P S Ca Mg K Na

Fig. 1. Homeostasis of mineral elements in royal jelly and honey samples of various seasonal and geographical origins. Shown are
the 10%, 25%, 50%, 75%, and 90% percentiles of P, S, Ca, Mg, K and Na concentrations in seven royal jelly samples (grey bars),
and in 94 honey samples (white bars). Na was only measured in royal jelly samples.

approximately 30-fold for Zn, 20-fold for Fe and 15-fold
for Cu.
Cr and Ni concentrations varied depending on
seasonal and geological origins (Table 2). Pb, Hg and
Sn concentrations had similar patterns. Royal jelly
samples from Vendée-Maine showed seasonal (i.e.
botanical) differences and samples produced on crystal-
line rocks had little higher Pb, Hg and Sn concentrations
compared to samples from carbonates and loess. The
element Pb was biologically coupled with S. Ti, Cd and
W concentrations, analogous to the other heavy metals
Pb, Sn and Hg, also varied depending on seasonal

A. Stocker et al. / Journal of Trace Elements in Medicine and Biology 19 (2005) 183–189
100
concentration (mg kg-1)
10
1 75%
0.1
0.01
Zn
Fig. 2. Homeostasis of trace elements in royal jelly and honey samples of various seasonal and geographical origins. Shown are the
10%, 25%, 50%, 75%, and 90% percentiles of Zn, Fe, Cu, and Mn concentrations in seven royal jelly samples (grey bars), and in 94
honey samples (white bars).
effects and to a smaller degree depending on geological
origins (Table 2).
W concentrations were highly variable. The highest
values were found in crystalline basements of the Vendée
(Table 2). Te, Sb, Tl and Bi had patterns similar to the
other heavy metals. Concentrations in royal jelly
samples showed significant differences depending on
seasonal and geographical origin.
Concentrations of the five trace elements Ba, V, Co,
Mo and Sr in royal jelly were analysed and were found
to be below the limits of determination (Table 2).
Discussion and conclusions
The most abundant mineral elements in royal jelly
samples were K, Na, Mg, Ca, P, and S. Zn, Fe, Cu, Al
and Mn were abundant trace elements in royal jelly
(Table 2; Figs. 1 and 2).
Concentrations of P and S in royal jelly were adjusted
for the needs of the bee larvae. P is a structure element in
the nucleic acids of royal jelly and construction element
for the larvae. S concentrations in the royal jelly are
likely to be related with the disulphur bridges of
proteins. Homeostatic adjustments of P and S in royal
jelly samples are likely to be related to high and constant
amounts of nucleic acids and phospho-proteins.
Concentrations of Ca and K in honey depend on the
bioavailability in the soil and therefore on the chemistry
of the source rocks. Highly variable Ca and K
concentrations were therefore found in honey samples
(Fig. 1). The different chemistry and geological age of
source rocks and resulting soils, e.g. crystalline rocks,
carbonates and loess, lead to a different bioavailability
of the elements for the plants [20]. Furthermore, element
fractionation of the plants plays a role depending on the
deepness of the roots. The concentrations of mineral
elements like Ca and K depend on the bioavailability,
ARTICLE IN PRESS
187
90%
50% percentiles
25%
10%
Fe Cu Mn
and as a consequence vary in honeys from different
botanical origins [11,12,21]. Highly varying concentra-
tions of mineral elements have been also described for
pollen of different plant species [5,10]. K, Na, Mg and
Ca are the predominant mineral elements in pollen.
Honey and pollen are the biochemical precursor
substances of royal jelly, making royal jelly much more
processed and modified than honey. In bee tissue, K was
also found in high concentrations of 11 180 mg/kg [23].
It is therefore evident that homeostatic adjustment of K
in royal jelly corresponds to the needs of the bee larvae.
Na concentrations in royal jelly samples were also
much adjusted. (Na was not measured in honeys.) Royal
jelly sample 4 from Vendée-Maine from the end of the
royal jelly harvesting season showed a lower Na value of
106 mg/kg. An elevated Na concentration of 142 mg/kg
was found in a commercial royal jelly sample from
China (Table 2, sample 7).
The [K]/[Na] ratios ranged from approximately 19 to
28 in the seven royal jelly samples, seasonal and
geographical variations were comparatively low. The
[Mg]/[Ca] ratios had a relatively small range, from 2.2 to
2.3. [K]/[Na] ratios were more dependent on seasonal
and geographical variation than the [Mg]/[Ca] ratios.
Al concentrations differed greatly in the royal jelly
samples. Values from 54.7 to 27.6 mg/kg were most
likely an aerosol contamination whereas values from 8.4
to 0.8 mg/kg seem more reliable. Exogenous contamina-
tions of Al from aerosol dust are well known in trace
element analysis. In Vendée-Maine open cast mining of
uranium took place some decades ago and closed mines
can still play a role in Al aerosol contaminations. The
honeybee is probably capable of adjusting to Al in lower
concentrations. High Al amounts in the environment
certainly result in elevated Al concentrations in the royal
jelly.
Homeostatic adjustment of the trace elements Zn, Fe,
Cu and Mn was observed as for the mineral elements.
Zn concentrations were more strongly adjusted in royal
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
188 A. Stocker et al. / Journal of Trace Elements in Medicine and Biology 19 (2005) 183–189
jelly compared to the concentrations of Fe, Cu and Mn
(Fig. 2). The nurse bee seems to physiologically regulate
zinc concentrations according to the needs of the bee
larvae. Homeostatic adjustment of Fe, Cu and Mn also
seemed to occur, but to a lesser degree, leaving a
slight correlation depending on different source rocks
(Table 2, Fig. 2) as a consequence of different bio-
availability of the elements.
The royal jelly samples with low concentrations of Cr
were also low in Cu and Fe (Table 2). Ni and Cr in royal
jellies from Vendée-Maine showed low concentrations at
the beginning and higher concentrations in the middle
and at end of the season. This effect of lower concen-
trations of several trace elements at the beginning of the
season (sample 1) could be observed for several other
trace elements, especially the heavy metals (Table 2).
This can be due to a late arrival of the trace elements in
the pollen and nectars in the mid of May. Sn values
show that the plants have a fractionation capacity from
the phloem to the analysed product, the royal jelly.
The lowest concentrations of the heavy metals Pb, Ti,
Sn, Hg, Cd, W, Te, Sb, Tl and Bi were found at the
beginning of the season (Table 2, sample 1). Higher
concentrations were found in samples from the same
geographical origin but later harvesting date. Heavy
metal concentrations in royal jelly also appear to be
influenced by bioavailability and plant physiological
effects. Sr concentrations in royal jellies in this
investigation series were below the limit of determina-
tion.
Elias et al. [24] have described similar homeostatic
effects concerning the natural discrimination of Pb, Ba
and Sr in relation to Ca along similar nutrient pathways
i.e. soil/plant/herbivorous insects. Physiological regula-
tion of Cd has been found in human milk [25].
Nascarella et al. [26] have described hormesis and stage
specific toxicity of Cd in the queen blowfly, Phormia
regina. Homeostatic effects have also been reported in
the distribution of metals in organs of the beetle
Chrysolina pardalina [27].
The results reveal evident homeostatic effects of trace
and mineral elements in royal jelly secretion. The
element contents of the rocks were slightly fractionated
from the plants and were found in the honeys.
The variation of trace and mineral element contents of
honey samples depends on the bioavailability in the
prevailing rock types and fractionations of the plant
growing on the resulting soils. The concentrations of
several trace and mineral elements varied highly in
honeys [11–14,28,29] giving indications of the geological
origins [30].
Trace and mineral element concentrations in royal
jelly samples, on the other hand, were elevated and
roughly constant. Particularly noticeable is the con-
stancy of trace elements in royal jelly compared to
honey deriving from the very same geological origins.
The strictly homeostatic composition with regard to
trace and mineral elements shows the analogy to
mammalian milk where identical effects can be ob-
served. This is comprehensible considering the model
that royal jelly excretion is a form of lactation on the
insect level.
Acknowledgements
This work was granted by research contracts between
Gesellschaft für Strahlenforschung (GSF), Neuherberg,
Germany and Centre National de la Recherche Scien-
tifique (CNRS) Orléans, France, the Centre de Co-
opération Universitaire Franco-Bavarois (CCUFB/
BFHZ), Munich, the Université Franco-Allemand
(UFA/DFH), Sarrebruck, the Union Nationale de
l’Apiculture (UNAF), France and Syndicat National
d’Apiculture (SNA), France. We thank Prof. F. Korte
for his initiating help and encouragement to start this
research.
We thank for assistance and discussions:
 P. Grill, I. Wendler, GSF Neuherberg (honey
analysis).
 Dr. M. Gänzle, TU München (biology), Prof. P.
Horn, LMU München (geology), A. Mary, St. André
de la Marche, France and M. Mary, Chézelles, France
and P. Charpentier, Lugny, France (apidology).
 Dr. H. Horn, Universität Hohenheim-Stuttgart (pol-
len analysis).
 Dr. V.F. Medina, ERDC Vicksburg, USA (review of
the manuscript).
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