Tutorial 4 Biology 2 (group 3) HN2

Muhammad Amirul Hakim Bin Zamri

Mohamad Nur Firdaus Bin Zulkifli

1. Discuss the sequence of events that lead to the formation of an embryo.

Fertilisation can be divided into 7 stages. Firstly, Attraction between sperm & oocyte, Sperm are
attracted by a chemical signal, swim spirally up the oviduct to reach the oocyte & try to push
through the follicular layers around the oocyte.

Secondly, Capacitation, As the sperm swim up the female genital tract, sperm undergo final
stage of maturation – capacitation. Capacitation results in chemical changes on the surface of
sperm & make it capable to fertilize by secretions from the female genital tract.

Thirdly, Acrosomal reaction, the first sperm binds to the zona pellucida layer will trigger changes
in the sperm acrosome the acrosome reacts by separating acrosomal cap from the sperm &
releasing its contents. The acrosomal content contains enzymes such as protease that digest a
narrow path through the zona pellucida, allows the sperm to reach & penetrate the oocyte
plasma membrane.

Fourth, Fusion of plasma membranes, when sperm & oocyte plasma membranes fuse & sperm
nucleus enters the oocyte.

Fifth, Cortical reaction, as soon as sperm nucleus enters the oocyte, small vesicles i.e cortical
granules in the outer part of the oocyte cytoplasm move to the plasma membrane of oocyte &
fuse with it, releasing their enzyme. The enzymes cause formation of cross-linkages in the
glycoproteins of zona pellucida. this hardens the zona pellucida, forming a barrier to prevent the
entry of other sperm.

Sixth, Fusion of oocyte & sperm nuclei, sperm nucleus is drawn through the oocyte cytoplasm to
a position close to the oocyte nucleus. Sperm & oocyte nucleus combine & restore diploid
number of chromosomes.

Seventh, activation of development, the maternal & paternal chromosomes arrange themselves
on the spindle & the embryo undergoes its first mitotic division.

2. Describe the hormonal control during parturition.

Towards the end of pregnancy, level of E2 increases & Pg level reduces . Premature births
sometimes occur when the Pg level falls too low, & if this happens before about the seventh month of
pregnancy a miscarriage may occur. Nextly, the onset of parturition is triggered by the release of adrenal
cortisol by the fetus into the maternal blood circulation. This results in an increase production & release
of E2 by the placenta/uterus myometrium which causes the secretion and release of oxytocin from the
maternal posterior pituitary gland and prostaglandin from the placenta. Furthermore, both oxytocin &
prostaglandin affect a group of involuntary muscles surrounding the uterus thus, stimulate rhythmic &
more powerful uterus contractions. Alternate waves of muscular contractions & relaxations will spread
down the walls of uterus, forcing the fetus towards the cervix.

The increase in prostaglandin secretion into the circulation inhibits Pg secretion from the
placenta/uterus myometrium. The induction of labor involves positive feedback whereby oxytocin &
prostaglandins cause uterine contraction which in turn stimulate the release of more & more oxytocin &
prostaglandins. The result is a steady increase in intensity, climaxing in forceful muscle contractions that
propel a baby from the uterus. Pg level drops & causes further stimulation of uterus contractions. Just
before the initiation of delivery, Pg level drops drastically, the contractions intensify & increase until the
baby is outside the birth canal Lactation .The secretion of milk from the mammary glands & it is an
aspect of postnatal care unique to mammals. The mammary glands develop during puberty under the
influence of sex hormones. During pregnancy, Pg & E2 from the placenta stimulate development of
these glands. At birth, the lost of placenta stimulates (decreasing levels of Pg) an increase in the
secretion of prolactin by the anterior pituitary. This hormone causes the mammary glands to produce
milk.

3.Discuss the Structure of The Sperm & Oocyte.

The sperm has to convey genetic material from the ♂ to ♀. The oocyte has to receive the
genetic material from the sperm & develops into a new individual. The sperm has a very short
lifespan, 48 hours It is differentiated into three main head, midpiece & tail.

The head is occupied by the nucleus which contains DNA conjugated with protein. The nucleus is
surmounted by a thin cap i.e. acrosome & contains enzymes which play an important part in
fertilization. Running down the centre of the midpiece & tail is an axial filament consisting of
two central microtubules surrounded by a circle of nine peripheral microtubules (9+2
structures).

The microtubules are surrounded by a circle of solid fibres which provide strength, & enclosed in
a sheath which is ribbed to permit flexibility. In the midpiece, the microtubules & strengthening
fibres are surrounded by closely packed mitochondria. Mitochondria - ensure an adequate
supply of energy from respiration for the hyperactivity of sperm, especially when it approaches
an oocyte inside the ♀ reproductive tract.

Midpiece is to provide motive power for making the tail wave. Secondary Oocyte It has to
contain nutrients & metabolites to help sustain itself through the earliest stages of its
development. A large haploid nucleus, situated slightly towards one end of the 2o oocyte which
is surrounded by cytoplasm. Beyond the plasma membrane is a glycoprotein coat - the jelly coat.
A small fluid-filled space separates the jelly coat from the plasma membrane, & in this space one
or two polar bodies may be seen.