Waste Management 79 (2018) 791–799

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Waste Management
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/wasman

Processing of biomedical waste in plasma gasifier

V.E. Messerle a,b, A.L. Mosse c,d, A.B. Ustimenko d,⇑
a
Combustion Problems Institute, Almaty, Kazakhstan
b
Institute of Thermophysics of SB RAS, Novosibirsk, Russia
c
A.V. Luikov Heat and Mass Transfer Institute, NAS of Belarus, Minsk, Belarus
d
Plasmatechnics R&D LLP, Institute of Experimental and Theoretical Physics, al-Farabi Kazakh National University, Almaty, Kazakhstan

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The problem of treatment of household and biomedical waste containing toxic substances is becoming
Received 26 March 2018 increasingly important. In contrast to the conventional incineration, plasma gasification of the waste pro-
Revised 25 July 2018 vides reliable destruction of highly toxic dioxins, benzo(a)pyrene and furans. This article presents the
Accepted 28 August 2018
results of thermodynamic analysis and experiments on gasification of the waste of various origins in
the plasma reactor. The calculations have shown that the maximum yield of synthesis gas in the waste
plasma gasification in the air and steam medium was achieved at a temperature not higher than
Keywords:
1600 K. It is shown that in the process of air-plasma and steam-plasma gasification of bone tissue, it is
Biomedical waste
Household waste
possible to obtain synthesis gas with concentrations 53.4 and 84.9 vol.% having heat of combustion
Plasma 3510 and 5664 kJ/kg, respectively. In the air and steam plasma gasification of household waste a high-
Processing calorific synthesis gas with concentrations 82.4 and 94.5 vol.%, respectively, can be obtained. Its heat
Numerical simulation of combustion amounts to 13,620 and 18,497 kJ/kg respectively for air and steam gasification. A compar-
Experiment ison between the experiment and the calculations showed a good agreement. According to the results of
investigations of the waste plasma gasification, no harmful impurities were detected. From the waste
organic and mineral mass, respectively, high-calorific synthesis gas and a neutral slag were obtained.
Ó 2018 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

1. Introduction
The problem of processing and utilizing wastes of various ori-
gins, including biomedical ones, is still very important (Stegman,
2017; Bidlingmeier, 2017). Biomedical waste (BMW) occupies a
special place among hazardous carbon-containing wastes. Until
recently, the problem of BMW utilization was not given due atten-
tion because of small volumes of produced BMW in comparison
with other types of waste. For example, in the Republic of Belarus
about 37 million tons of non-recycled wastes of the chemical
industry and 200,000 tons of petrochemical industry were accu-
mulated annually (Zhdanok and Mosse, 2008). The need for annual
neutralization or destruction of hazardous waste of medical and
biological origin is approximately 20 tons in the Republic of
Belarus and 35 tons in the Republic of Kazakhstan. Across the Euro-
pean Union more than 118 million tons of biological waste are pro-
duced annually (Bidlingmeier, 2017). Thus, it is obvious that an
increasing amount of accumulated BMW represents a serious envi-
ronmental hazard. For example, in the case of solid BMW contain-
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: ust@physics.kz (A.B. Ustimenko).
ing cytotoxic drugs, viruses, microbes, strains and antibiotics, their
danger is comparable to the risk of radioactive waste contamina-
tion of high and medium activity levels.
The BMW includes food waste, paper, wood, textiles, leather,
rubber, various types of plastics, glass, metal, ceramics, used ther-
apeutic medicines, including radioactive elements, as well as vari-
ous medical and chemical preparations. Any kind of waste
containing infectious (or potentially infectious) materials is
referred to BMW (Singh et al., 2001). It may also include the waste
associated with the generation of BMW that visually appears to be
of medical or laboratory origin (e.g., packaging, unused bandages,
infusion kits, etc.), as well research laboratory waste containing
biomolecules or organisms not allowed to be released to the envi-
ronment. Discarded sharps are considered BMW whether they are
contaminated or not, as they may be contaminated with blood and
may cause injury when not properly contained and disposed.
Examples of infectious waste include discarded blood, sharps,
adverse microbiological cultures and stocks, identifiable body parts
(including amputated parts), other human or animal tissues, used
bandages and dressings, discarded gloves, other medical supplies
that may have been in contact with blood and body fluids, and
the laboratory waste that exhibits the characteristics described
above. Waste sharps include potentially contaminated used (and

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2018.08.048
0956-053X/Ó 2018 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
792 V.E. Messerle et al. / Waste Management 79 (2018) 791–799
unused discarded) needles, scalpels, lancets and other devices cap-
able of penetrating skin.
BMW is generated from biological and medical sources and
activities, such as diagnostics, prevention, or treatment of diseases.
Common generators (or producers) of biomedical waste are hospi-
tals, health clinics, nursing homes, emergency medical services,
medical research laboratories, offices of physicians, dentists, and
veterinarians, home health care, and morgues or funeral homes.
The average calorific value of BMW varies from 12,550 to
16,740 kJ/kg (Messerle et al., 2015).
The increasing volumes of accumulated BMW represent a seri-
ous danger to humans and the environment. As a rule, the compo-
sition of such types of waste is very diverse and cannot be
accurately identified. To recycle such waste, special technologies
must be used. There are several technologies for the treatment of
medical wastes (Lee et al., 2004; Ghasemi and Yusuff, 2016).
According to the treatment studies of medical wastes, about
59–60% of them are treated through incineration, 37–20% by steam
sterilization (autoclaving), and 4–5% by other treatment methods
(landfilling, microwaving, plasma pyrolysis). Healthcare waste
incineration has been the major technique used worldwide for dis-
posing materials referred to BMW, including explosive materials
such as polyvinyl chloride plastics, papers, and discarded items
of equipment. Also, incineration is an engineering process designed
to treat healthcare waste by means of thermal decomposition via
thermal oxidation at high temperatures between 900 and
1200 °C destroying the organic fraction of the waste. However,
the incineration process has a potential risk to human health due
to formation of highly toxic dioxins, benzo(a)pyrene and furans.
Autoclaving is the second most commonly used waste treatment
method. An autoclave is a metal vessel designed to sustain high
pressures and temperatures, with a sealable door and an arrange-
ment of pipes and hatches through which steam is supplied into
and removed from the vessel. Microwave technology of clinical
waste treatment in the healthcare waste sector is considered an
alternative technology to the incinerator. It is a steam-based pro-
cess, and electromagnetic waves with frequencies between radio
and infrared waves use wet substances inside the wastes or an
additional steam to sterilize wastes and destroy infectious agents
and pathogenic organisms in the waste. The types of waste gener-
ally treated in microwave systems are the same as those treated in
autoclaves. Plasma pyrolysis is a modern technology for safe dis-
posal of healthcare waste. It is an environmentally friendly tech-
nology that transforms organic waste into useful products, and it
is another type of thermal parsing of carbonaceous materials.
A more promising technology for BMW processing is plasma
gasification (Fabry et al., 2013; Matveev et al., 2017; Messerle
et al., 2016, 2015; Mosse et al., 2006; Surov et al., 2017; Zhang
et al., 2012). Plants for BMW plasma utilization use high-
temperature pyrolysis and gasification processes, which, as a result
of chemical and physical transformations, lead to destruction and
decomposition of both organic and inorganic compounds in the
waste. In the process of plasma gasification at temperatures up
to 3000 K all materials, even highly resistant cytotoxic and cyto-
static drugs, are destroyed forming simple stable substances
(Fabry et al., 2013; Gorokhovski et al., 2005). It is one of the main
advantages of BMW plasma gasification. The use of electric arc
plasma guarantees a significant reduction in atmospheric emis-
sions of dioxins, furans and benzo[a]pyrene (the most toxic prod-
ucts of waste processing) to ecological and sanitary-hygienic
safety levels, as well as a decrease in the volume of ash and slags,
compared to incineration of waste. Due to the strong heat gener-
ated by the plasma, it can dispose all types of waste, including
municipal solid waste, biomedical waste, and hazardous waste in
a safe and reliable manner. The only disadvantage of the plasma
gasification technology is the use of electric power for plasma gen-
eration. However, the produced syngas can be used as a feedstock
in the Fischer-Tropsch process for liquid fuel production, a gas tur-
bine or a fuel cell for electricity production or chemical products
such as ammonia, methanol and hydrogen.
Plasma gasification of waste is a new technology and it is at the
initial stage of implementation. The current market for the plasma
technology is mainly shared by four companies: Westinghouse,
Europlasma, Tetronics and Phoenix Solutions Company (PSC)
(Fabry et al., 2013). Technical feasibility and economic viability
of plasma technologies have already been demonstrated for a large
range of hazardous wastes. This is a growing market and the effi-
ciency of the waste gasification by plasma seems to be validated
but the economic viability of this technology must be proven
before to be accepted by the industry. Presently, a strong expan-
sion in the world of numerous plasma gasification plants (projects
and operational plants) clearly shows that the first step has already
been made and in the future, plasma gasification will play a signif-
icant role in the field of renewable energy.
In plasma systems, electricity is used and an electric arc with a
temperature of up to 10,000 K is generated, producing a plasma
torch from any plasma-forming gases. In these plants BMW is
heated to 1550–2000 K or more, as a result of which potentially
pathogenic structures (microbes, viruses, strains, prions) are
destroyed, and the inorganic part of the waste is converted into
neutral slag and reduced metals. The resulting gases are inert
and non-toxic.
In this article we present the results of a thermodynamic anal-
ysis of the process of BMW thermal treatment and the description
of the plasma installation used for this purpose. Also, the results of
experiments on plasma gasification of various types of BMW with
production of a high-calorific synthesis gas and neutral slag are
presented. The results of calculations and experiments are com-
pared confirming technical feasibility and energy efficiency of
air-plasma BMW gasification.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Materials
The BMWs used in this research were bony tissues (bones of
animal origin) and averaged waste of healthcare facilities. A typical
carbonaceous waste from healthcare facilities can be classified as
household waste (HW) and composites of the following compo-
nents (wt.%): paper and paper board – 47, food waste – 21,
glass – 12, iron and ferric oxides – 3, plastics – 5, wood – 5, rubber
and leather – 3, textile – 2, and calcium carbonate – 2 (Mosse and
Savchin, 2015). The chemical composition of HW and the bony tis-
sue (BT), used for thermodynamic analysis of the plasma gasifica-
tion process, are presented in Table 1. This average composition
of HW was typical of the former Soviet Union Republics (Russia,
Belorussia, Kazakhstan, and Ukraine). Unfortunately, these coun-
tries did not use and still do not use separation and sorting of
the HW. Therefore, the HW composition used in the study differs
markedly from that in the developed countries.
2.2. Numerical simulation
To carry out the thermodynamic calculations, we used the
TERRA code (Gorokhovski et al., 2005). It was developed for com-
putations of high-temperature processes and in contrast to ther-
mochemical methods of equilibrium computation, using the
Gibbs energy, equilibrium constants and Guldberg and Vaage law
of acting mass, TERRA is based on the principle of maximizing
entropy for isolated thermodynamic systems in equilibrium.
TERRA has its own database of thermochemical properties for more
 V.E. Messerle et al. / Waste Management 79 (2018) 791–799 793

Table 1
Chemical composition of HW and BT, wt.%.

Waste C H O N S Cl P H2O Fe2O3 SiO2 CaCO3

HW 34.15 5.85 6.29 8.16 0.94 5.3 – 32.31 3.0 2.0 2.0
BT 9.0 2.21 1.99 4 1 – 16.02 – – – 65.78

than 3000 chemical agents for a temperature range from 300 to can only be specified in terms of weight (kg). Therefore, the gas
6000 K. The database contains thermochemical properties of ion- (air, steam) is also set in kg (Table 2).
ized components and electron gas, which are taken into account Fig. 1 shows the dependence of the concentration of gaseous
in thermodynamic calculations. It should be noted that although components on the temperature of BT processing (variant 1). The
the plasma reactor is opened, it is a not-isolated system, and there concentration of the synthesis gas (CO + H2) increases with tem-
is an exchange of energy and substance with the external medium, perature to a maximum value of 53.4 vol.% (28.7 vol.% of CO,
it is possible to use the methods of thermodynamic modelling for 24.7 vol.% of H2) at T = 1300 K, with the concentration of methane
solid waste gasification inside the reactor. First, at preparation of (CH4) rising to 0.01 vol.% and that of oxidizing carbon dioxide (CO2)
heat and material balance of the reactor actual heat losses are not exceeding 2.46 vol.% and steam (H2O) – 3.72 vol.% (Fig. 1a). On
taken into account and mass-averaged temperature in the plasma further increase in the temperature, the concentration of the syn-
reactor is determined as for thermodynamically isolated system. thesis gas does not practically vary, whereas that of the oxidizers
Secondly, the time the reagents stay in the reaction zone is about decreases slightly. The concentration of the ballasting nitrogen
1 s, which is many times longer than the thermodynamic equili- (N2) remains constant in the entire temperature range and is equal
bration time in the system at high temperature of the process. to 40.4 vol.%. At a temperature above 2150 K compounds of cal-
Thirdly, the plasma reactor is an entrained flow reactor, which cium, phosphorus, and sulfur appear in the gaseous phase
can provide quasistationary gasification. The calculations were (Fig. 1b). The maximum concentration of the phosphorus monox-
performed for temperatures up to 3000 K and pressure of ide (PO) is 0.52 vol.%, of phosphorus oxide (PO2) is 0.02 vol.%, of
0.1 MPa for the compositions of the technological mixtures shown atomic phosphorus (P) is 0.01 vol.%, of calcium (Ca) is 1.49 vol.%,
in Table 2. of calcium hydroxides CaOH is 0.51 vol.% and of CaO2H2 is
Variant 1 models a dry BT plasma processing, variant 2 – wet BT 0.17 vol.% at 3000 K. Fig. 2 shows variations in the concentration
processing, variant 3 – air processing of HW, and variant 4 – steam of gaseous components as a function of temperature of BT process-
processing of HW. ing (variant 2). The concentration of the synthesis gas increases
Note that the initial conditions for calculations under the TERRA with temperature to a maximum of 84.9 vol.% (38.1 vol.% of CO,
program are given by the weight composition of the thermody- 46.8 vol.% of H2) at T = 1300 K (Fig. 2a). The concentration of
namic system (waste and gasifying agent). Waste is a solid and methane (CH4) comes to 0.2 vol.% and that of oxidizer (CO2 + H2O)
does not exceed 0.25 vol.%. On further increase in the temperature,
the concentration of the synthesis gas remains practically constant,
Table 2 whereas that of the oxidizer increases. The concentration of the
Compositions of the technological mixtures.
ballasting nitrogen (N2) remains constant in the entire tempera-
Variant Type of Waste, Air, Steam, Mass ratios (waste/ ture range and is equal to 14.7 vol.%. Compounds of calcium, phos-
waste kg kg kg oxidant), kg/kg phorus, and sulfur appear in the gaseous phase at a temperature
1 BT 10 5 – 2 above 1600 K (Fig. 2b). The concentration of phosphorus anhydride
2 BT 10 1 0.5 10a; 20b (P2O3) passes through a maximum of 19.18 vol.% at T = 2350 K, of
3 HW 10 4 – 2.5
molecular phosphorus (P2) – 0.56 vol.% at 2150 K, of phosphorus
4 HW 10 – 1 10
sulfide (PS) – 0.22 vol.% at 2750 K, of atomic phosphorus (P) –
a
Mass ratio waste/air. 0.13 vol.% at 2850 K, of phosphorus monoxide – 2.14 vol.%, of phos-
b
Mass ratio waste/steam.
phorus oxide – 0.04 vol.%, of calcium – 1.2 vol.%, of calcium

Fig. 1. Equilibrium composition of organic (a) and mineral (b) parts of the gaseous phase versus temperature in the BT plasma processing (variant 1).
794 V.E. Messerle et al. / Waste Management 79 (2018) 791–799
Fig. 2. Equilibrium composition of organic (a) and mineral (b) parts of the gaseous phase versus temperature in the BT plasma processing (variant 2).
Fig. 3. Temperature dependence of concentration of condensed phase compounds
in the BT plasma processing (variant 1).
Fig. 4. Temperature dependence of concentration of condensed phase compounds
in the BT plasma processing (variant 2).
hydroxides CaOH – 0.69 vol.% and that of CaOH2 – 0.12 vol.% at
3000 K.
Figs. 3 and 4 show the dependence of concentration of con-
densed components on the temperature of the process. It is seen
from the figure that carbon is entirely converted into a gaseous
phase at a temperature above 1050 K for variant 1 (Fig. 3) and at
1600 K for variant 2 (Fig. 4), whereas tricalcium phosphate
(Ca3P2O8) is in the condensed phase up to the temperature of
3000 K for both variants. Calcium oxide (CaO) also preserves the
condensed phase up to T = 3000 K. Calcium sulfide (CaS) remains
in the condensed state up to T = 2350 K for variant 1 (Fig. 3) and
2700 K for variant 2 (Fig. 4).
An addition of steam to the system (Figs. 1 and 2) does not
cause a qualitative change in the behavior of the main components
of the gaseous and condensed phases and only affects the concen-
tration of hydrogen in the synthesis gas. Thus, processing of the BT
composed of organic materials mainly yields a synthesis gas with
the content of combustible components 53.4–84.9 vol.%, with the
mineral part not containing carbon and mainly represented by
stable compounds – tricalcium phosphate and calcium oxide.
Variations in the concentration of the gaseous component ver-
sus the temperature of the air and steam gasification of the HW
are shown in Figs. 5 and 6. In both cases, with an increase in tem-
perature, the synthesis gas concentration increases to a maximum
value at T = 1600 K (Figs. 5a and 6a). In the air gasification of the
HW, the maximum synthesis gas concentration reaches 82.6%
(CO – 31.7%, H2 – 50.9%), and in the steam gasification, it is as high
as 94.4% (CO – 33.6%, H2 – 60.8%). At this temperature, the concen-
tration of the oxidants (CO2 + H2O) does not exceed 0.13% (Figs. 5a
and 6a). With further temperature growth, the synthesis gas con-
centration decreases due to the appearance of atomic hydrogen
(H) in the gaseous phase, whose concentration reaches 10.3 and
11.3% in air and steam gasification of the waste, respectively
(T = 3000 K). The concentration of the ballast nitrogen (N2) remains
almost unchanged in the temperature range from 1200 to 3000 K,
where it amounts to 15.5% (Fig. 5a) and 3.5% (Fig. 6a). In the latter
temperature range, the concentration of hydrogen chloride (HCl)
shows weak variations ranging from 1.2 to 1.6% in both processes.
At temperatures below T = 1900 K, sulfur is represented by hydro-
gen sulfide (H2S), which dissociates at higher temperatures, yield-
ing sulfur (S) and atomic hydrogen (H). At temperatures above
1600 K, calcium chloride (CaCl2), iron (Fe), silicon monoxide (SiO)
and chlorine (Cl) with an integral concentration lower than 1%
appear in the gaseous phase (Figs. 5b and 6b). From Figs. 5 and
6, it follows that the synthesis gas concentration in steam gasifica-
tion is 11.8% higher, and the ballast-nitrogen concentration is 12%
lower than in the case of air gasification.
The heat of combustion of the synthesis gas obtained through
BT air gasification amounts to 3510 kJ/kg, and the heat of combus-
tion obtained through BT steam gasification is 5664 kJ/kg. Air
 V.E. Messerle et al. / Waste Management 79 (2018) 791–799 795

Fig. 5. Equilibrium composition of organic (a) and mineral (b) parts of the gaseous phase versus temperature in the HW plasma processing (variant 3).

Fig. 6. Equilibrium composition of organic (a) and mineral (b) parts of the gaseous phase versus temperature in the HW plasma processing (variant 4).

gasification of HW gives the heat of combustion of the synthesis

gas equal to 13,620 kJ/kg, whereas steam gasification of HW gives
18,497 kJ/kg. This combustible gas can be used as the working
body in gas-turbine plants and gas-powered electrical generators.
Figs. 7 and 8 show variations in the concentrations of con-
densed components versus the temperature of air and steam HW
gasification. From the figures, it is seen that in both cases, the car-
bon completely converts into the gas phase at temperatures above
1500 K, forming CO in the gas phase (Figs. 5a and 6a). In this case, a
hundred-per-cent carbon gasification is ensured. In the tempera-
ture range from 1200 to 2200 K, the HW mineral part mainly con-
sists of involves silicon dioxide (SiO2), calcium monosilicate
(CaSiO3), ferric carbide (Fe3C), and iron. At temperatures above
2150 K, the HW mineral components completely convert into the
gas phase, forming certain gaseous compounds (Figs. 5b and 6b).
A comparison between the data of Figs. 7 and 8 proves their qual-
itative and quantitative similarity. Note that the gaseous and con-
densed products of the HW plasma gasification process contain no
harmful impurities.
Fig. 7. Variation of the concentrations of the condensed components versus process
The specific power inputs QSP for BMW processing (Fig. 9) temperature in HW plasma processing (variant 3).
increase with temperature in its entire range for all four variants
used in our calculations. It is evident that the temperature depen-
dences of the power inputs at air and steam BMW gasification are within 0.76–2.12 kW h/kg. In this case, the minimum power inputs
quantitatively similar. In the range of optimal temperatures of correspond to variant 1 with the maximum fraction of air in the
BMW processing (T = 1200–1650 K), the specific power inputs vary system, which is connected with the compensation of the
796 V.E. Messerle et al. / Waste Management 79 (2018) 791–799
Fig. 8. Variation of the concentrations of the condensed components versus process
temperature in HW plasma processing (variant 4).
Fig. 9. Temperature dependence of specific power inputs for BMW plasma
processing: (1 – variant 1, 2 – variant 2, 3 – variant 3, 4 – variant 4).
endothermal effect of processing by heat release at the expense of
carbon oxidation reaction.
The degree of carbon gasification XC (Fig. 10) is determined from
the carbon content in the solid residue. In particular, XC is calcu-
lated using the following expressions: XC = (Cini Cfin)/Cini
100%,
where Cini is the initial amount of carbon in the waste, and Cfin is
the final amount of carbon in the solid residue. As seen from
Fig. 10 the degree of carbon gasification amounts to 100% at a tem-
perature 1200 K for variants 1–3 and at a temperature 1600 K for
variant 4. It means that carbon is completely transformed into
the gaseous phase forming CO at these temperatures (Figs. 3, 4, 7
and 8).
The obtained characteristics of the BMW plasma gasification
process in various gasifying agents were used in the development
of the experimental plasma facility.
2.3. Experimental setup
The experimental study of BMW gasification was carried out on
an experimental setup, the primary components of which were a
long-life direct current (DC) plasmatron with rated power of
70 kW and a plasma reactor whose output in terms of BMW was
up to 30 kg/h (Messerle et al., 2016).
Fig. 10. Temperature dependence of carbon gasification degree for BMW plasma
processing: (1 – variant 1, 2 – variant 2, 3 – variant 3, 4 – variant 4).
Fig. 11. Scheme of the plasma reactor for BMW gasification (cross section): 1 – an
inlet for loading briquetted BMW into the reactor, 2 – a plasma reactor, 3 – an
electric-arc DC plasmatron, 4 – a BMW gasification zone.
Apart from the reactor 2 with the plasmatron 3 (Fig. 11), the
experimental facility included a power supply system, a control
system of the plasmatron, gas and water supply systems for the
reactor with the plasmatron, and a purification system for off-
gases 6 (Fig. 12). The experimental facility was equipped with an
extraction system 9 of gaseous products of the BMW gasification
process for performing subsequent analysis of the products. Con-
densed products of the gasification process were accumulated at
the bottom of the reactor and analyzed after sampling.
The plasma reactor 2 was intended for plasma gasification of
BMW of various origins formed at medicinal institutions. Two
plasma reactors were designed. The height of the Reactor for BT
(RBT) gasification is 0.33 m, the length is 0.22 m, its width is
0.22 m, and the thickness of the refractory-lining with firebricks
is 0.04 m. The reaction volume of the reactor was 0.016 m3. The
mass of charged wastes was up to 7 kg.
 V.E. Messerle et al. / Waste Management 79 (2018) 791–799
Fig. 12. Scheme of the experimental facility for BMW plasma gasification: 1 – an
inlet for loading briquetted BMW into the reactor, 2 – a plasma reactor, 3 – an
electric-arc direct current plasmatron, 4 – a BMW gasification zone, 5 – an off-gas
cooling unit, 6 – a gas-cleaning unit with a bag filter, 7 – an exhaust gas tube with a
system for gas sampling and temperature measurement, 8 – an exhaust fan, 9 – an
exhaust tube.
The Reactor for HW (RHW) was designed as a cube refractory-
lined with firebricks 0.065 m thick; the size of the inner side of
the cube was 0.45 m. The reaction volume of the reactor was
0.091 m3. The reactor wall was provided with an inlet for loading
briquetted BMW into the reactor 1. The RBT and RHW walls were
provided with thermocouples and inspection windows admitting
pyrometric measurements of the reactor temperature. The plasma
unit can process small volumes of biomedical waste from the treat-
ment of patients in their own homes, or the additional feedstock of
several tonnes of biomedical waste from major hospital co-
mingled with their household waste stream.
2.4. Measurements
The BMW plasma gasification process included the following
stages. After ignition of the plasmatron 3 and heating of the reactor
2 to the brick-lining inner surface temperature of 1100 K as mea-
sured at a distance of 0.2 m from the reactor head, briquetted
BMW was loaded into the gasification zone 4 of the reactor through
the loading inlet 1. The mass of each briquette was 0.4 kg. The
BMW underwent gasification in the air plasma torch providing a
mass-mean temperature up to 1700 K in the reactor volume. The
formed gaseous products were extracted out of the reactor into
the cooling system for off-gases 5, while the condensed products
were accumulated in the slag formation zone at the bottom of
the reactor. The superimposition of the zone of heat release of
the plasma torch with the BMW gasification 4 and slag-
formation zones promoted intensification of the waste processing.
The cooled gaseous products entered the gas-cleaning unit 6 and,
afterwards, the gas was conveyed to the gas analyzer through
the exhaust gas tube with the system for gas sampling and temper-
ature measurement 7. The exhaust fan 8 provided rarefaction of
10 mm of water column at the inlet of the reactor.
The full cycle of BMW processing, taking into account cooling of
both reactors, is about 30 min. It is a well-known fact that, for com-
plete decomposition of dioxins, the gas has to be exposed, for a
period of two seconds, to a temperature not lower than 1500 K
(Zhdanok and Mosse, 2008). In our experimental facility, such a
temperature was ensured by the heating capacity of the plasma
torch from the plasmatron 3 (Fig. 11).
Table 3
Comparison of modelling and experimental results on BT plasma processing.
Method CO, vol.% H2, vol.% N2, vol.%
Experiment 63.4 6.2 29.6
Calculation (variant 1) 28.7 24.7 40.4
797
As a result of the experimental investigations, the regimes of
operation of the plasma reactors were determined, the effluent
gases, obtained samples of the condensed products extracted from
the reactor were analyzed, and their chemical composition was
determined using an SRI 8610C gas chromatograph.
To analyze condensed phase X-ray phase analysis of the sam-
ples was performed using a DRON-3 facility.
3. Results and discussion
In the experiments, the BT consumption GBT varied within
5.4–10.8 kg/h. The amount of the plasma-forming air Gg reached
3.6 kg/h. The ratio GBT/Gg is equal to 1.5–3.
BT of mass 5–7 kg packed up into bags or boxes are placed in
the chamber of the furnace, after which the loading hatch is closed.
Under the action of the air plasma torch the mean-mass tempera-
ture in the chamber rises up to 1800 K, the organic part of the BT is
gasified, whereas the inorganic part is melted. The synthesis gas
obtained is extracted through the cleaning and cooling system
and is continuously removed from the installation. The melted
mineral part of the wastes is taken out of the reactor when it is
stopped.
The effluent gas at the outlet from the plasma RBT is shown in
Table 3. The total concentration of the synthesis gas (CO + H2) was
69.6 vol.%, which agrees well with the results of calculation.
According to the calculation, the gas output at 1800 K was
53.4 vol.% (variant 1) and 85.2 vol.% (variant 2). The difference
between the experiment and calculations does not exceed 23%.
X-ray phase analysis showed that the sample taken in the reac-
tor after the experiment was composed of, wt.%: Ca – 54.6, P – 12.9,
O – 32, in the form of oxides, CaO – 76.4 and P2O3 – 22.9. The con-
tent of carbon in the sample was equal to 2.9 wt.%. It corresponds
to carbon gasification degree 79.3%. The difference between the
experimental and calculated data does not exceed 21%. Analysis
of the condensed products collected from the filter downstream
of the reactor showed the following content of elements, wt.%:
Ca – 41.5, P – 14.1, O – 33, and S – 1.1. All these elements are pre-
sent in the sample in the form of oxides (wt.%): CaO – 67, P2O3 – 25,
and SO2 – 1. These results for the stable nonvolatile components in
the condensed phase (CaO + P2O3) correlate with the results of cal-
culations: (CaO + Ca3P2O8) – 89.5 wt.% (variant 1) and 89.9 wt.%
(variant 2). The difference between the experimentally obtained
and calculated concentrations of calcium and phosphorous oxides
does not exceed 3%.
The experimental data on the specific power inputs for the BT
processing in the RBT vary from 3.5 to 4.6 kW
h/kg. Such a signif-
icant discrepancy between the calculated (Fig. 9) and experimental
values of specific power inputs for the process is attributed to the
fact that in the thermodynamic calculations we determine the
maximum possible energy expenditures in an isolated thermody-
namic system without accounting for the heat exchange with the
environment. In practice, both the plasma reactor itself and plas-
matron have considerable thermal losses into the surrounding
medium with cooling water.
Plasma processing of HW was carried out in the RHW. As the
gasifying agent, the plasma-forming air with mass-flow rate
12 kg/h was used. The plasmatron worked at 72 kW power
(240 A, 300 V). After 15 min of the RHW preheating, 20 HW
S, vol.% Ca, wt.% P, wt.% O, wt.% XC, % QSP, kWh/kg
0.15 54.6 12.9 32 79.3 4.0
0.2 40.9 18.7 40.4 100 1.7
798 V.E. Messerle et al. / Waste Management 79 (2018) 791–799

Table 4
Comparison of modelling and experimental results on HW plasma processing.

Method CO, vol.% H2, vol.% N2, vol.% Fe3C, wt.% CaSiO3, wt.% SiO2, wt.% Fe, wt.% XC, % QSP, kWh/kg
Experiment 26.5 44.6 28.9 63.0 21.0 13.0 3.0 91.8 3.3
Calculation (variant 3) 31.7 50.7 15.4 22.4 40.1 28.5 9.0 100 1.6

briquettes (Table 1) were loaded in succession into the RHW

through the loading inlet 1 (Fig. 11). The total mass of the bri-
quettes was 8 kg. Under the action of the air-plasma torch, the
mean-mass temperature in the HRW reached 1600 K; as a result,
the HW organic component underwent gasification while the inor-
ganic component, melting and subsequent accumulation in the
slag-formation zone at the bottom of the reactor. The obtained syn-
thesis gas was continuously extracted from the experimental facil-
ity through the cooling and cleaning systems. The melted mineral
component of the HW was removed from the reactor after the
plasmatron was shut down and the reactor cooled.
The results of the experimental study of the HW plasma gasifi-
cation process were used to determine the operating regimes of
the plasma reactor, to perform an analysis of off-gases, to obtain
samples of condensed products withdrawn from the slag formation
zone of the reactor, and to determine the residual carbon content
of the slag. The following Composition of the gas at the outlet of
the gas-cleaning unit is presented in Table 4. The integral synthesis Fig. 13. Scheme of heat and material balance of the plasma reactor.
gas concentration proved to be 71.1%, this value being in good
agreement with the thermodynamic calculations. The calculated
synthesis gas yield at a temperature of 1600 K proved to be
82.4% (CO – 31.7%, H2 – 50.7%). Thus, the discrepancy between Table 5
the experiment and the calculations in terms of the target yield Energy balance, MJ/h.

(synthesis gas) did not exceed 16%. The discrepancies in concentra- In Out
tions of CO and H2 (Tables 3 and 4) are due to the inability to Electric power 259.2 Produced gas calorific 337.6
achieve thermodynamic equilibrium in the experiment. value
The slag composition (Table 4) was found using X-ray phase BMW calorific value 234.3 Gas sensible heat 92.4
analysis. The absorption-and-weighing technique was employed Plasma forming air sensible 3.6 Slag sensible heat 1.1
heat Heat losses 64.8
to evaluate the carbon content in the slag specimens; this content Total 497.1 Total 495.9
was 2.8 wt.%, which value corresponded to the 91.8% carbon gasi-
fication degree of the HW. The discrepancy between the experi-
mental and calculated degree of carbon gasification did not
exceed 9%. The discrepancy in concentration of Fe3C is due to the be seen from Fig. 13 that a plasma-forming air with a temperature
inability to achieve thermodynamic equilibrium in the experiment. of 300 K enters the plasmatron. At the output of the plasmatron, a
According to gas and X-ray analyses no harmful impurities were plasma flame is formed with a temperature of 5000 K, providing a
found in the gaseous and condensed products of the HW plasma mean mass temperature in the reactor of 1700 K. These conditions
gasification. provide synthesis gas yield of 71.1 vol.% at BMW gasification.
The specific power input into the HW gasification process in the The mineral part of the waste, which is 7%, is converted into slag.
plasma reactor as estimated from our experiments varied from The thermal efficiency of the plasmatron was 90%. Heat loss in
2.25 to 4.5 kW
h/kg. In the calculations the power input into the the reactor amounted to only 10.8 kW.
HW air-plasma gasification at a temperature of 1600 K amounted The thermal and material balance of the reactor made it possi-
to 2.08 kW
h/kg (Fig. 9). The difference between the calculated ble to make the energy balance of the process (Table 5). The main
and experimental values of the specific power inputs into the pro- portion of the generated energy is the heat value of the produced
cess can be attributed to the fact that, in the thermodynamic calcu- fuel gas (68%) while sensible heat of the gas is 19%. 52% of the
lations, minimum possible energy inputs in the isolated incoming energy is the electrical energy supplied by the plasma-
thermodynamic system were determined without taking into tron. BMW plasma gasification process is characterized by a high
account the exchange of heat and work with the ambient medium. overall thermal efficiency 86.5%. The discrepancy in the energy bal-
In practice, both the plasma reactor itself and the plasmatron have ance does not exceed 1%.
considerable heat losses into the ambient medium with the cooling Comparison of plasma gasification and conventional incinera-
water. Besides, the energy spent on the reactor preheating prior to tion of BMW shows a higher energy efficiency of plasma technol-
the waste supply contributed to the experimentally evaluated ogy. As a result of plasma gasification of BMW, a fuel gas is
power inputs. In the second and subsequent cycles of the BMW produced having a calorific value of 337.6 MJ/h and sensible heat
processing, no additional input of energy for reactor preheating is of 92.4 MJ/h. The combustion of BMW produces an inert gas
needed. In the latter case, the difference between the experimental (CO2, H2O and N2) having only sensible heat of 145 MJ/h, which
and calculated values of the specific power inputs into the BMW was calculated by the code TERRA for thermodynamic calculations
plasma gasification process will be not more than 7%. (Gorokhovski et al., 2005). Thus, the useful thermal power of
Fig. 13 shows a schematic diagram of the material and heat plasma gasification products is three times higher than that of
flows in the plasma reactor for the air gasification of BMW. It can BMW incineration.
 V.E. Messerle et al. / Waste Management 79 (2018) 791–799
4. Conclusions
The thermodynamic calculations have shown that the maxi-
mum synthesis gas yield in the BMW plasma gasification in air
and steam medium was achieved at a temperature not higher than
1600 K.
The calculations revealed that in the air-plasma and steam-
plasma BT gasification, synthesis gas with concentrations
53.4 vol.% and 84.9 vol.%, respectively, can be obtained. Heat of
combustion of the synthesis gas obtained in the air gasification
amounts to 3510 kJ/kg, and in the steam gasification it is
5664 kJ/kg. At the temperature 1600 K the power input into the
air and steam BT gasification amounts, respectively, to 0.78 and
1.02 kW h/kg.
The calculations showed that in the air-plasma and steam-
plasma HW gasification, a high-calorific synthesis gas with concen-
trations 82.4 vol.% and 94.5 vol.%, respectively, can be obtained.
Heat of combustion of the synthesis gas obtained in the air gasifi-
cation of HW amounts to 13,620 kJ/kg, and in the steam gasifica-
tion process it is 18,497 kJ/kg. At the temperature 1600 K the
power input into the air and steam gasification of HW amounts,
respectively, to 1.64 and 2.08 kW
h/kg.
Experiments on plasma-air gasification of BT and HW showed
that total concentration of the synthesis gas was 69.6 and
71.1 vol.%, respectively. Carbon gasification degree reached 79.3
and 91.8% and the specific power inputs range within 3.5–4.6
and 2.25–4.5 kW
h/kg, respectively for BT and HW processing.
Based on the results of thermodynamic calculations and gas and
X-ray analyses, no harmful impurities were found in the gaseous
and condensed products of the plasma gasification process of
BMW. From the organic and mineral mass of BMW, respectively,
high-calorific synthesis gas and a neutral slag were obtained.
Energy balance and comparison of plasma gasification and con-
ventional incineration of BMW showed a higher energy efficiency
of plasma technology.
The obtained characteristics of the BMW plasma gasification
process in various gasifying agents can be used in developing
and constructing a plasma facility.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the Ministry of Education and
Science of the Republic of Kazakhstan in the form of program-
targeted financing (BR05236507 and BR05236498).
799
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