M17 Propellers Cat B1 V4.2 PDF

Aviation Technical Training
Training Fundamentals
Module 17. Propeller
Category B1 V4.2
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17.1 Fundamentals
Blade Element Theory
Part-66 M.17 Cat. B1
17.1 Fundamentals
Introduction
During the development of controlled flight every aircraft required a method
for converting engine power into thrust. In the early designs propellers were
used to provide the thrust required. During the late 19th century many
unusual and innovative propeller designs made their debut. These ranged
from simple wood and fabric paddles to complex multi-bladed wire-braced
designs; some of which were used successfully to propel dirigibles.
Over time, designs evolved from merely pushing the air rearwards to aerofoil
shapes that both pushed the air rearward and provided lift to move the
aircraft forwards by aerodynamic action. These type of propellers evolved into
the standard two-bladed style similar to those used on today’s light aircraft.
During World War I and the years immediately after, increases in aircraft size,
speed and engine power required further improvements in propeller design.
These designs included the four-bladed propeller, aluminium fixed pitch
propellers and the two-position controllable propeller.
With improved propeller designs, aluminium propellers were developed
with thinner aerofoil sections and greater strength. The advantage of being
able to alter the propeller blade angle in flight led to the acceptance of the
two-position propeller and the development of the constant-speed propeller
system. Further developments during the period leading up to, and during
World War II included the feathering propeller and the reversing propeller.
With the development of the gas turbine engine, propeller systems were
adapted for these engines to allow for efficient operation at medium altitudes
and speeds.
Today, propeller designs continue to evolve with new aerofoil shapes,
composite materials and multi-blade configurations.
© LRTT Ltd. Trading as Resource Group Page: 1 expert solutions, adding value
17.1 Fundamentals
Figure 1: Evolving Propeller Designs
17.1 Fundamentals
Nomenclature • Plane of rotation The plane in which the propeller rotates. This is
90° to the engine centreline.
Before beginning any training concerning aircraft propellers, it is necessary to
define some basic terminology to avoid confusion and misunderstanding. • Pitch Distance advanced in one complete revolution.
• Pitch Change Mechanism Device to alter blade angle.
• Propeller A device, consisting of a rotating hub with two • Hi Pitch Large blade angles. Also referred to as Coarse
or more radiating blades; used to propel an pitch (British).
aircraft. • Lo Pitch Small blade angles. Also referred to as Fine
• Blade Aerofoil section attached to the hub. pitch (British).
• Blade Root/Shank The thickened portion of the blade nearest to • Tractor propeller Propeller mounted in front of the leading edge
the hub. of the wing or on the nose of the aircraft.
• Blade Station A distance measured from the centre of • Pusher propeller Propeller mounted behind the trailing edge of
rotation, normally measured in inches or the wing or at the rear of the fuselage.
centimetres. • Reverse pitch Turning the propeller blades to a negative angle
• Blade Butt The base of the propeller blade where the root to produce a braking or reversing thrust.
ends. • Spinner An aerodynamic fairing which covers the centre
• Master Reference Station A distance measured from the centre of rotation of the propeller.
where all measurements are taken from.
Normally 75% from the centre of rotation on a
fixed pitch propeller and can be 50% to 75% on
a variable pitch propeller.
• Hub Central portion of a propeller which carries the
blades.
• Dome Assembly Encases the pitch change mechanism.
• Face The flat thrust producing side of a propeller
blade.
• Back The curved side of the propeller blade facing the
direction of flight.
• Blade Angle The angle between the blade chord line and the
plane of rotation.
17.1 Fundamentals
PROPELLER
 Part-66 M.17 Cat. B1 PART
 66

M17.1
 PROPELLER
 FUNDAMENTALS

M17
 CAT
 B1

  
  
© LRTT
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 
  
   
    
 


 Only
 Purposes
 
For Training

  
   
Figure 2: Nomenclature  5
Page: 
August 2012
PROPELLER
 PART
 66

M17.1

M17
 CAT
 B1

   
17.1 Fundamentals
           Part-66  M.17 Cat. B1
           
               
© LRTT
               
Theory
ofOperation
          
A propeller
 works on the reaction
   principle.
  The air mass
  flowing through 
 the
propeller plane 
  is accelerated by the differential
   velocity
  Av. 
  This acceleration
  


of the 
air mass 
is the  
change 
in velocity  
in front of and behind  the
 
propeller
plane, which occurs as a result of the air flowing around the propeller blade 
      
aerofoil. As a reaction to the accelerating forces, propeller thrust is created.
The air mass
also receives an accelerating component in the direction of the
  
circumference, the   away
air mass spirals 
from  
the propeller  
plane.  of
Because
the  
higher velocity of 
the  
Airflow  
propeller wash  the
behind 
propeller 
plane,
 
its cross section is          
reduced there.
Note:  
A propeller 
converts engine  
torque to thrust.  
  
As the pressure differences on the propeller blades are small by nature, the
acceleration of the air mass is also small. This leads to low down-wash speeds
 
with high propulsive efficiency at low to medium airspeeds (Mach 0.5 to 0.6).
Note: A propeller accelerates a large mass of air slowly rearwards.
 
 
For Training
 
Purposes Only
2012
August     6
Page:
© LRTT
17.1 Fundamentals

 
NOTE: η (eta) is the Greek
symbol utilised in Propulsion 
Efficiency   

  
  



Purposes Only
 

  
  
For Training
Figure 3: Propulsive Efficiency of the Propeller


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17.1 Fundamentals
Propeller Blade Angles and Rotational Speed

Blade Angle β (beta)
The angle between the propeller chord and the rotational plane of the
propeller is known as the blade angle or on a fixed pitch propeller it can also
be called the angle of incidence. The blade angle is not constant over the
whole length of the propeller due to the twist of the propeller blade.
In practice the angle always refers to the pressure side of the blade (face),
even if the profile chord differs from this. As the blade angle is not constant
over the whole length of the blade, a particular part of the blade is termed the
reference blade station. This station can be anywhere between 0.5 and 0.75 of
the radius of the propeller.
Angle of Attack α (alpha)

The angle of attack is the angle between the profile chord line and the relative
air flow towards it. With the blade angle running the length of the blade, the
desired lift distribution is achieved from the resulting angles of attack.
As the propeller moves on a plane which is perpendicular to the forward
movement of the aircraft, two velocities, perpendicular to each other will
define the angle of attack:
• The air flow velocity, resulting from aircraft airspeed v
• Propeller rotational velocity u
Both velocities produce the resultant relative airflow (RAF) w and determine
direction and magnitude of the velocity w.
Angle of Advance or Helix Angle φ (phi)

The angle of advance φ is the angle between the rotational plane of the
propeller and the relative airflow (RAF) w. The angle of advance increases with
increasing airspeed v.
Note: Blade angle = helix angle + angle of attack
17.1 Fundamentals
Figure 4: Propeller Blade Angles
17.1 Fundamentals
Propeller Brake Moment
Airflow onto a Propeller Blade Propeller Brake Moment

At a constant rotational speed the sum of propeller brake moment and engine
Influences on Blade Angle of Attack
torque is zero. In simple terms Propeller Brake moment can be considered to
A change in airspeed or a change in rotational velocity will result in a change be the effort with which is required to be able to spin the propeller.
of the relative air flow direction and velocity.
These changing parameters can lead to a negative angle of attack. If, for Effect of Changing Airspeed
example, during descent with idle power selected, the increased aircraft speed As we can see in the left hand illustration below, with a given fixed pitch when
will cause the angle of attack to decrease. This means that the airflow will now Airspeed (v) is increased this has a direct effect on Angle of Attack.
drive the propeller which will then drive the engine (wind-milling) and produce A reduction in airspeed increases the angle between Relative Air Flow (RAF)
a negative torque. and the Chord Line (CL) this as we know is the Angle of Attack (AoA). Therefore
As a certain angle of attack is optimal for any given propeller, fixed pitch we can say that as airspeed decreases, AoA increases resulting in an increase
propellers can only operate efficiently within a given aircraft speed range. in Brake Moment which would decrease RPM (u) for a given power setting.
Therefore, fixed pitch propellers are designed for a particular type of flight We can therefore also say that with increasing airspeed AoA decreases
regime. For example: resulting in a reduction of Brake Moment which, for a given power setting
• Good climb performance would increase RPM (u). This scenario can be considered dangerous if
uncontrolled as the propeller could exceed its maximum permissible
• High cruising speeds rotational speed.
• Towing
Effect of Changing RPM
The right hand illustration below demonstrates how changing RPM affects
the angle between RAF and CL. We can see that with increasing RPM for a
propeller with a given pitch at a constant airspeed AoA increases and similarly
when RPM is reduced at a constant airspeed AoA is reduced.
17.1 Fundamentals
PROPELLER
 PART
 66

M17.1
 Part-66 M.17 Cat. B1
M17
 CAT
 B1

© LRTT
 
 
  

 



  
 

   
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           

2012
  
Figure 5: Influences on the Angle of Attack of a Propeller Blade  11
Page: 
August
17.1 Fundamentals
Brake Moment when Changing the Blade Angle

A reduction in blade angle leads to a reduction the brake moment. With
constant motive power the rotational speed will increase.
An increase in pitch has the opposite effect.

If the pitch is adjusted to a changing airspeed, the magnitude of brake
moment can be maintained. This leads to a constant rotational speed without
changing engine power and to almost constant propeller thrust.
In this way propeller efficiency improves for the whole of the aircraft’s speed
range. Thus with the same engine power higher airspeeds can be achieved
than in the case of a fixed propeller.
17.1 Fundamentals
Figure 6: Brake Moment and Blade Angle
17.1 Fundamentals
Aerodynamic, Centrifugal, and Thrust Forces
Forces Acting on a Propeller

As a propeller rotates, various forces interact to cause torsion, tension,
bending and compression loads which the propeller must be designed to
withstand. These can be sub-divided into six separate loadings; five static and
one dynamic:-
Static Loads
1. Centrifugal Force is the greatest load felt on the propeller, trying to pull
the blades out of the hub assembly. The amount of load created can be
more than 7 500 times the weight of the propeller blade.
2. Thrust Bending Force attempts to bend the propeller blade tips forwards.
This is due to the lift (thrust) flexing the thin blade section.
3. Torque Bending Force (Braking moment) tends to try and bend the blade
against the direction of propeller rotation. This creates a resistance to the
torque being produced by the engine.
4. Aerodynamic Twisting moment (ATM): The centre of pressure, being
forward of the blade’s centre of rotation, will try to turn the blade to a higher
(coarser) blade angle.
5. Centrifugal Twisting moment (CTM): The mass of the blade is thrown out
from the blade’s centre of rotation trying to turn the blade to a lower (finer)
blade angle. CTMs will always oppose ATMs and CTMs are always greater
than ATMs.
All of these loads are all felt at the blade root. Therefore, the greatest stresses
will occur in this area as well as on the hub.
Note: No damage or repair work is permitted within the blade root area.
M17.1

M17
 CAT
 B1

17.1 Fundamentals
© LRTT
  
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For Training
  


    

Figure 7: Propeller Static Loads
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Module 17. Propeller PROPELLER

17.1 Fundamentals M17.1

Dynamic Loads
    
The maximum dynamic loading on a propeller blade will occur within its   
© LRTT
natural frequency range. These vibrations are the result of the operating
strokes of a piston engine or the dynamics of the propeller reduction gearbox.
Additionally they will be induced by aerodynamic and mechanical forces felt  
on the propeller blades.
If the aerodynamic and mechanical effects are not compensated for in the
design then excessive flexing and work hardening of the metal will lead to
structural failure during operation.
Aerodynamic forces have a greater vibration effect at the tip of the blade
where the effects of transonic speeds cause buffeting and vibration. Any  
vibrations may be decreased by the use of the correct aerofoil shape and tip  
design.
The natural frequency of a propeller blade will depend on its length, shape,
blade root and material. The basic frequency ranges from 20 Hz (metal) to
60 Hz (wood). The blade’s natural frequencies will also change over the RPM
range due to differing centrifugal loads.
 
The highest vibrational loads are felt in the area of about 80% of the blade
length, making this region particularly susceptible to failure.
Any damage caused by nicks, scratches, corrosion or tip strikes can severely  
affect the durability of a metal propeller.
Therefore it is essential to look for such damage during blade inspections.
Damage must be rectified strictly in accordance with the Maintenance Manual.

 Only
The red area on the graph shown shows the rev range to be avoided due to it
causing the highest vibrational load.

For Training


Figure 8: Propeller Dynamic

Loads   
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17.1 Fundamentals
Power Absorption
Aircraft powered by piston or turboprop engines often feature different
numbers of propeller blades, ranging from two or three on many light general
aviation aircraft to four or more on transport aircraft. The maximum number
of blades ever used on a propeller is probably eight. The reason why propeller
design varies is most often related to the power produced by the engine it is
fitted to; more powerful engines require more propeller blades.
A propeller must be tailored to the specific needs of the engine it is fitted to.
The propeller must absorb the power produced by the engine and transmit
that power to the air flow passing through the propeller disc. Energy is added
to the air to speed it up and generate a thrust force on the propeller blades.
If the propeller and engine are not properly matched, then depending on the
power of the engine, both become inefficient and performance suffers.
As engine power increases, there are a limited number of options to design a
propeller capable of efficiently absorbing that greater power:
1. Increase the blade angle (or the pitch) of the propeller blades. This will
increase the angle of attack of the blades allowing them to impart greater
energy to the air flow.
2. Increase the diameter of the propeller disc. This makes the blades longer.
They will therefore transfer more energy by affecting a larger volume of air.
3. Increase the RPM of the propeller. The same amount of energy is
transferred to the air but in a shorter time.
4. Increase the camber of the blade. Increasing the camber of the blade
creates a greater thrust force just like increasing the camber of a wing
creates a greater lift force.
5. Increase the chord of the propeller blades.
6. Increase the number of blades.
17.1 Fundamentals
Contra-Rotating Propeller
Contra-rotating Coaxial
Propeller
Figure 9: Power Absorption
17.1 Fundamentals
Unfortunately, most of these options are impractical for a variety of reasons. The two final options are increasing the blade chord or the number of blades.
1. Blade angle: The pitch of the blade is set by the angle that optimizes the Both the blade chord or the number of blades will have the effect of
aerodynamic efficiency of the blade. If this angle is changed, one kind of increasing the solidity of the propeller disk. Solidity simply means the area of
efficiency is lost in order to gain another. This trade-off makes changing the the propeller disk occupied by the blades in relation to area open to the air
blade angle a very unattractive alternative. flow. As solidity increases, a propeller can transfer more power to the air.
2. Blade length: While increasing tip speed is a significant issue, size While increasing the blade chord is the easier option, it is less efficient
constraints are usually the biggest problem with this option. As the propeller because the aspect ratio of the blades is decreased resulting in some loss
size increases, the landing gear must become longer to avoid scraping the of aerodynamic efficiency. Therefore increasing the number of blades is the
blade tips on the runway. This change has a domino effect on a number of most attractive option.
other structural and weight issues. As the power of engines has increased over the years, aircraft designers have
Any increase in diameter, therefore, is restricted by the need to maintain adopted increasingly more propeller blades. Once they ran out of room on the
adequate ground and fuselage clearance. Typical minimum clearances are: propeller hub, they adopted twin propellers on the same engine rotating in
• Propeller Tip to Fuselage 1 inch (25.4mm) opposite directions.
• Propeller to Nose wheel 1/2 inch (13.7mm)

• Propeller Tip to Ground (Nose wheel) 7 inches (17.78cm)
• Propeller Tip to Ground (Tail wheel in flight attitude) 9 inches (22.86cm)
• Propeller Tip to Water (Float-plane) 18 inches (45.72cm)
Certification Specification (CS) 25.925 refers.
3. Revolutions per minute: For the same propeller diameter, the blade tips
travel faster and faster as the rotational speed increases. Eventually the
blade tips become supersonic where shock waves form, drag increases
substantially, and efficiency plummets.
4. Aerofoil camber: The blade aerofoil are chosen for optimum aerodynamic
efficiency. By changing sections, one kind of efficiency is again sacrificed for
another. Increasing camber may also result in blade structural problems.
17.1 Fundamentals
9’’
1’’
18’’
7’’
0.5’’
Figure 10: Minimum Propeller Blade Clearances
17.1 Fundamentals
Geometry of the Propeller Blade

Because a propeller blade is a rotating aerofoil, it produces lift by
aerodynamic action. The amount of lift produced depends on the aerofoil
shape, RPM and angle of attack of the blade sections.
The further that a profile section of the propeller blade is from its rotational
axis, the greater will be its peripheral velocity at a constant rotational speed.
Therefore, to ensure a nearly constant angle of pitch is maintained, the
propeller blade must be twisted from the root to the tip.
The blade angle becomes smaller the further it is from the centre axis in order
to keep a nearly constant angle of attack. This is known as pitch distribution.
In practice the angle of incidence running the length on the blade determines
the angle of pitch in such a way that an optimal distribution of lift results.
In addition to the angle of incidence, the profile shape also changes for static
and aerodynamic reasons.
Root Losses
A thickened root area can withstand high stresses but loses aerodynamic
efficiency. Airflow at the root is affected by the engine.
Tip Losses
Tip vortices and induced drag cause tip losses at high rotational speeds.
Further losses are caused by compressibility effects.
Blade Washout
To maintain a constant angle of attack at differing rotational speeds along the
blade, the leading edge of the propeller blade is twisted downwards from root
to tip.
17.1 Fundamentals PROPELLER
 PART
 66

Aerodynamic, Centrifugal,
M17.1
 andPROPELLER
Thrust Forces FUNDAMENTALS
  Part-66 M.17 Cat. B1
M17
 CAT
 B1

 
© LRTT


 Only
 
For Training

Figure 11: Blade

  Washout
 
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17.1 Fundamentals
Propeller Pitch Propeller Efficiency

Propeller pitch is defined as the distance that a propeller will move forward Propeller efficiency is, in basic terms, the performance produced by the
in one revolution. This is based on the blade angle at the 75% blade station. propeller in relationship to its motive performance.
Master Reference Station. Motive performance is the same as the output power of the engine, which for
a piston engine is brake power and for a turboprop is shaft power.
Geometric Pitch
If the propeller were to spiral through the air on a course, where the angle The performance produced is the thrust performance of the propeller. Thrust
of pitch equalled the blade angle, the propeller would, in one rotation, have performance can be calculated from thrust and airspeed. Propeller efficiency
moved forward axially by the geometric pitch. can also be calculated by dividing effective pitch by geometric pitch.
In this case, if the aircraft moved through the air according to the geometric Normal propeller efficiency ranges are in the region of 0.8 to 0.9 (80% -90%).
propeller pitch, the propeller angle of attack would be zero. This is the The usual symbol for propeller efficiency is the Greek symbol η (eta)
theoretical, or design pitch and will only occur if the propeller was 100%
efficient.
Effective Pitch
The actual helical path on which the propeller moves through the air has an
angle of pitch which corresponds to the angle of advance.
This means that one revolution of the propeller will move the aircraft forward
by the effective pitch. All propellers will lose a certain amount of efficiency due
to aerodynamic and compressibility losses.
Slip
Slip is the difference between geometric pitch and effective pitch which is,
in effect, the efficiency losses of the propeller. Efficiencies can vary from
between 50% to 90% depending on the amount of slip.
PROPELLER
 PART
 66

M17.1

M17
 CAT
 B1

17.1 Fundamentals
© LRTT

 
 
 
For Training
 
Purposes Only
Figure 12: Propeller Pitch

   
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17.1 Fundamentals
Brake Moment when Wind-milling

With a constant pitch if airspeed increases rapidly or rotational speed is
greatly reduced, the angle of attack will reduce and can become negative. The
flow of air to the propeller now causes the propeller to windmill. In this case
the Brake moment works in the direction of rotation and begins to drive the
propeller.
As the thrust is relatively large in this situation and directed against the
direction of flight, the aircraft drag is considerably increased by the wind-
milling propeller.
This increased drag can be greatly reduced if the propeller is driven into the
feathered position so that the leading edge is presented into the oncoming
airflow.
KEY:
FD = Drag
FT = Brake Moment
FS = Thrust
FL = Lift
FR = Resultant Force
U = Rotational Speed
V = Airspeed
W = Relative Airflow (RAF)
17.1 Fundamentals
Brake Moment at Reverse Thrust

If the blade angle is reduced to such an extent that the angle of attack is less
than the zero lift angle of attack (as seen in a wind-milling propeller), thrust
acting against the direction of flight results. The partial force ∆FT acts contrary
to the direction of rotation, so that the brake moment it causes must be
overcome by the drive. The brake moments, which occur very quickly, become
very large when the blade angle is moved into reverse pitch. Therefore a
corresponding increase in engine power must be readily available to maintain
the propellers rotational speed.
As the mass of air that is flowing through the propeller plane is not
accelerated but decelerated, maximum achievable brake thrust increases with
airspeed and can, under certain circumstances, even exceed take-off thrust.
KEY:
FD = Drag
FT = Brake Moment
FS = Thrust
FL = Lift
FR = Resultant Force
U = Rotational Speed
V = Airspeed
W = Relative Airflow (RAF)
17.1 Fundamentals
Torque
Torque To compensate for this, some of the older aircraft are rigged in such a manner
as to create more lift on the wing that is being forced downward, while more
Aircraft Effect modern aircraft are designed with the engine offset to counteract this torque.
Effect of Engine Torque on the Aircraft Generally, the compensating factors are permanently set so as to compensate
for this force at cruise, since most of the aircraft’s operating lift is at that
Torque reaction involves Newton’s Third Law of Motion; for every action,
speed. However, aileron trim tabs permit further adjustment for other speeds.
there is an equal and opposite reaction. This means that as the internal
engine parts and propeller are revolving in one direction, an equal force is When the wheels are on the ground during taxi and the take off roll, an
trying to rotate the aircraft in the opposite direction. When airborne, this force additional turning moment around the vertical axis is induced by this torque
is acting around the longitudinal axis, tending to make the aircraft roll. reaction. If the left side of the aircraft is being forced down, more weight is
placed on the left main landing gear. This results in increased ground friction,
or drag,on the left tyre than on the right, causing a further turning moment
to the left. The magnitude of this moment is dependent on many variables,
including:
• Size and horsepower of engine,
• Size of propeller and the RPM,
• Size of the aircraft,
• Condition of the ground surface.
This yawing moment on the take off roll is corrected by the pilot’s proper use
of rudder or rudder trim.
17.1 Fundamentals
Torque
The Twist Effect of the Propeller Wash.

The high speed rotation of an aircraft propeller gives a spiralling rotation to
the slipstream. At high propeller speeds and low forward speed (as in take off,
approaches and power on stalls), this spiralling rotation is very compact and
exerts a strong sidewards force on the aircraft’s vertical tail surface.
When this spiralling slipstream strikes the vertical fin, it causes a turning
moment about the aircraft’s vertical axis. The more compact the spiral, the
more prominent this force is. As the forward speed increases, however, the
spiral elongates and becomes less effective.
To compensate, the vertical stabiliser is mounted obliquely 1° or 2° to the
aircraft’s longitudinal axis. This aerodynamic compensation is only ideal for
one operational regime (normally cruise).
The corkscrew flow of the slipstream also causes a rolling moment around
the longitudinal axis in the opposite direction to the one caused by torque
reaction.
In effect one may be counteracting the other. However, these forces vary
greatly and it is up to the pilot to apply proper corrective action by prudent
use of the flight controls at all times.
In addition, there are other effects of the propeller wash which are of
note. If the propeller is mounted in front of a wing and rotates clockwise
(as seen from behind), the propeller wash is deflected to the left. Rotating
anticlockwise, the deflection is to the right. The main reason for this is the
circulation around the wing, which through the super positioning with
the propeller air stream increases the rate of flow in the upper propeller
semicircle while reducing it in the lower.
17.1 Fundamentals
Torque
Figure 13: Propeller Wash
17.1 Fundamentals
Torque
Gyroscopic Effect
Before the gyroscopic effects of the propeller can be understood, it is This change in pitch attitude has the same effect as applying a force to the
necessary to understand the basic principle of a gyroscope. top of the propeller’s plane of rotation. The resultant force acting 90° ahead
All practical applications of the gyroscope are based upon two fundamental causes a yawing moment to the left around the vertical axis. The magnitude
properties of gyroscopic action: rigidity in space and precession. The one of of this moment depends on several variables, one of which is the abruptness
interest with regard to propellers is precession. with which the tail is raised (amount of force applied).
Precession is the resultant action, or deflection, of a spinning rotor when a However, precession occurs when a force is applied to any point on the rim of
deflecting force is applied to its rim. the propeller’s plane of rotation; the resultant force will still be 90° from the
point of application in the direction of rotation.
Depending on where the force is applied, the aircraft will yaw left or right,
pitch up or down, or in a combination of both.
It can be said that as a result of gyroscopic action, any yawing around the
vertical axis results in a pitching moment, and any pitching around the lateral
axis results in a yawing moment.
To correct for the effect of gyroscopic action, it is necessary for the pilot to
properly use elevator and rudder to prevent undesired pitching and yawing.
As can be seen in the above figure, when a force is applied, the resulting force
takes effect 90° ahead of and in the direction of rotation.
The rotating aircraft propeller makes a very good gyroscope and has similar
properties.
Any time a force is applied to deflect the propeller out of its plane of rotation,
the resulting force is 90° ahead of and in the direction of rotation and in the
direction of application, causing a pitching moment, a yawing moment, or
a combination of the two depending upon the point at which the force was
applied.
This element of torque effect has always been associated with and considered
more prominent in tail wheel aircraft, and most often occurs when the tail is
being raised during the take off roll.
17.1 Fundamentals
Torque
Figure 14: Gyroscopic Effect
17.1 Fundamentals
Relative Airflow on the Blade of Angle Attack

Commercial aircraft the engines will have sufficient power ensuring that the
Asymmetric loading (P-factor) minimum speed will be high enough to keep the aircraft flying on one engine.
When air flows towards the propeller during horizontal flight, it is the same
In the case of small twin-engined aircraft the flight performance is usually too
for all blades and the centre of balance of thrust lies in the middle of the
low if the critical engine fails. This situation can be somewhat improved by
propeller.
having the propellers turn in opposite directions (inboard downwards). In this
In climbing attitude the direction of airflow is obliquely from below. Thus the way the yaw moments will be smaller if one engine fails and therefore flight
downward moving blade has a greater angle of attack than in horizontal flight, performance will be improved.
while the upward moving blade has a smaller one. In this situation the centre
of total thrust is no longer in the middle of the propeller. It moves away from
the middle towards the blade with the larger angle of attack.
Depending on the direction of rotation the shift will occur to the right or to
the left. When both propellers of a two-engine aircraft are turning in the same
direction, the force acting on the aircraft is slightly asymmetrical.
The lack of symmetry is no problem when both engines are operating.
If, however, one engine fails, yaw moments of differing amounts arise,
depending on which engine fails. The engine which would produce the
smallest yaw moment, should the other engine fail is known as the critical
engine.
17.1 Fundamentals
Figure 15: Critical Engine P-Effect
17.1 Fundamentals
Vibration and Resonance

e. Noise caused by inconsistent Airflow
Propeller Noise Normally the vortices leave the trailing edge and blade tips in such a way
The Components of Propeller Noise that they do not affect the following propeller blade. The latter can then work
in an undisturbed airflow. This is not the case with variable pitch propellers
If propeller noise is analysed, it can be broken down into the following when the angle of pitch is negative and the propeller has zero thrust then the
components. vortices of the preceding blade hit the leading edge of the following blade.
a. Rotation Noise This results in noise. A similar occurrence is possible if the airflow on the
The rotating pressure field of the propeller produces rotation noise. At preceding blade stalls as a result of excessive load.
Mach (M) numbers of the blade tips between M = 0.5 and M = 0.85 and
an undisturbed flow of air to the blade this noise exceeds all other noise
components.
b. Vortex Noise
This noise is caused by the vortices leaving the blade tip and blade trailing
edge. Its maximum value is found in the plane of rotation of the propeller.
c. Displacement Noise
The origin of this noise is the displacement of the air by the propeller blades
as they have a finite thickness. It first becomes critical at higher Mach
numbers at the propeller tips. At blade tip Mach numbers above 0.9 this noise
source equals that of rotation noise.
d. Blade Vibration Noise
This noise occurs with periodic stalls, for example when the stall limit of the
blade is alternately exceeded and fallen below. The rotors of helicopters are a
good example of this phenomenon.
17.1 Fundamentals
Figure 16: Propeller Noise
17.1 Fundamentals
Influences on the Level of Noise

a. Influence of Power e. Influence of Propeller Blade Shape
Doubling of the power causes an increase in the noise level by approximately With the same power, blade area, profile type, camber, profile section, ratio
5 dB. This value will be exceeded if the airflow stalls. This can happen if at a and diameter a scimitar-shaped propeller produces the least noise, and one
given power setting the number of blades and/or the RPM becomes too low, with straight tips the most. This favourable effect of the sabre-shape is due to
or if the blade profile is susceptible to stalls. It should therefore be ensured the increasing outward sweep of the propeller blade as the locally occurring
that neither the load per unit of blade nor the dynamic pressure of air flowing effective Mach number is reduced by the factor cos φ (φ = angle of sweep).
to it is too low. The following list shows by about how much propeller noise can be changed
b. Influence of the Propeller Diameter by various influencing factors:
If the propeller diameter is doubled at constant peripheral speed, propeller • Blade tip shape: 3 - 6 dB
noise is reduced by 6 dB. But if the propeller diameter is increased with • Profile type: 2 - 3 dB
rotational speed remaining constant, the noise level increases.
• Blade contour: 1 - 2 dB
c. Influence of Number of Propeller Blades
• Blade twist: 1 - 2 dB
If with constant RPM, the same power and the same propeller diameter the
• Profile camber: 1 - 2 dB
number of blades is increased from 2 to 3, noise is reduced by about 1.1 dB
(A). Increasing the number of blades from 3 to 4 or from 4 to 6 has the same • Profile section ratio: 1 - 2 dB
result. Apart from the higher manufacturing costs, the additional weight of a f. Influence of Material
propeller with more blades must also be taken into account. For example, a
4-blade propeller weighs about 35% more than a 3-blade propeller, and the If the blades are not made of metal but of wood or composite construction,
difference between a 2 and 3 blade propeller is as much as 50%. they have a more favourable vibrational behaviour due to better self-damping
properties. The noise caused by blade vibrations is lower in the case of such
d. Influence of Blade Tip Mach Number blades. Also by using composite construction more aerodynamic and low-
An increase in the airflow Mach number of the propeller blade tips from noise blade shapes can be realised without problems regarding strength and
M=0.63 to M=0.87 with propeller data and power remaining constant leads to stiffness occurring.
an increase in noise level of about 6 dB (A). The Figure shows how the noise The SAAB 2000 propeller is a good example of this. Its construction was
level is dependent on the Mach number for 2, 3 and 4-blade propellers. optimised with a view to the influences described above. In order to keep
noise development as low as possible, this composite propeller rotates when
cruising at only 950 RPM.
PROPELLER
 PART
 66

M17.1

Module 17. Propeller M17
 CAT
 B1

17.1 Fundamentals
© LRTT
 
  
  
  
  
 
For Training 
Purposes Only
   


Figure 17: Propeller

 Blade Shapes
   
2012
August     39
Page: 
17.2 Propeller Construction
Construction Methods and Materials Used
17.2 Propeller Construction A protective metal tipping strip is rebated into the leading edge of the
propeller to prevent damage from small stones during ground operations. The
metal used is brass, stainless steel, monel (nickel/copper alloy) or terneplate
Construction Methods and Materials Used (steel coated with a lead/tin alloy).
Propellers are categorised according to the material used for their blades.
The tipping is secured to the blade using countersink screws at the thick blade
These are:
section and copper rivets near the tip, all are safetied in place with solder.
• Wooden propellers.
Three small #60 (0.04 inch or 1.016 mm) size holes, 3/16-inch deep are drilled
• Metal propellers. in each tip for the purpose of releasing any moisture and allowing the wood to
◦◦ Aluminium Alloy. breathe. The propeller is then balanced and the finishing coats of varnish are
applied.
◦◦ Steel.
Some propellers do not use doped cotton fabric, but are coated with plastic
• Composite propellers.
before the metal tipping is applied. This provides protection and added
strength.
Wooden Propellers
Some types of propeller have a final coating of polyurethane paint which
Wood is often used on older fixed pitch propellers and some controllable provides mechanical and UV ray protection.
pitch propellers fitted on vintage aircraft. Most have a natural wood finish
while others use a grey or black plastic coating. Wood blades for controllable pitch propellers are constructed in a similar
manner to fixed pitch propellers except that the blade shank is secured
Construction into metal sleeve using lag screws. ( Lag screw or coach bolt - a heavy duty
wood screw with a square or hexagonal head that is driven in with a wrench;
Wooden propellers consist of several layers of wood bonded with a
designed for metal to timber connections).
waterproof resin glue (aero-glue). Birch is the most commonly used wood,
but mahogany, cherry, ash, beech, oak and walnut can also be used. At least 5
layers of wood are laid down and when glued together they form a blank.
The blank is roughly shaped and allowed to rest for a week to allow the equal
distribution of moisture through all the layers; after which it is known as a
white.
The white is finished to the exact aerofoil and pitch dimensions required for
the propellers desired performance characteristics. At the same time the
centre bore and bolt holes are drilled out.
Lag screw/Coach Bolt
A cotton fabric sheathing is then applied to the outer 12 to 15 inches (30 to
38 cm) of the tip to reinforce the strength of the thin sections at the tip. The
fabric is doped to protect it from deterioration by the weather and the sun’s
ultraviolet (UV) rays.
PROPELLER
 PART
 66

Construction Methods and
M17.2
 Materials Used
PROPELLER
 CONSTRUCTION
 Part-66 M.17 Cat. B1
M17 CAT
B1
 
© LRTT
 
    
 
  

 
Purposes Only
   


      

2012
August     41
Page: 
Figure 18: Production of a Wooden Propeller
Metal Propeller Blades Steel Propellers

Metal propellers are used on aircraft with greater engine power and are Steel propellers are not in common use. They are found on some older
constructed from either aluminium alloy or steel. aircraft or on some transport aircraft. Steel blades are normally hollow, but
there are also blades which are solid. The primary advantage of hollow steel
Aluminium Propellers blades is their reduced weight.
These propellers are the most widely used propellers in aviation. Aluminium Construction
alloy is more durable than wood because thinner, more efficient aerofoils may
Hollow steel propellers are made from folded sheet welded over a ribbed
be constructed without sacrificing structural integrity. Better engine cooling is
structure which is foam filled in the outer section of the blade. In this way the
also achieved (reciprocating engines) by carrying the aerofoil shape nearer the
profile shape remains intact and any blade vibrations can be dampened.
hub to direct more airflow over the engine. Due to their durability they require
less maintenance which reduces their operating costs. Solid blades are forged and machined to the desired contours and then
twisted to achieve the required pitch.
Construction
Aluminium propellers are made from extruded formers of aluminium alloy
and are finished to the desired aerofoil shape by Machine and manual
grinding, using a master blade as a template.
Once the propeller has been ground to its final shape the blades are finally
finished and balanced by hand. The blade surfaces are finished by plating,
chemical etching and/or painting. Anodising is the most commonly used
finishing process.
Composite Propeller Blades Construction of Composite Propellers with a Metal Spar

Composite propellers are lighter in weight and stronger than metal propellers. Composite propeller blades can be constructed in the manner shown in
With new methods of lay-up, these propellers are taking over from metal the following picture. The spar, made from titanium, aluminium alloy or
blades. stainless steel, runs through the centre of the blade, with low density foam or
Nickel or stainless steel erosion shields are bonded to the leading edges to honeycomb in front and behind as a filling material. The fibreglass, kevlar or
protect from impact damage. Some designs incorporate a stainless steel carbon fibre shell is then constructed around these parts.
wire mesh in the laminations to inhibit blade tip erosion. A metal foil mesh The spar absorbs the centrifugal forces and the bending loads whilst the shell
may also be incorporated on the surface of the blade to limit lightning strike gives the propeller the necessary torsional rigidity.
damage. There is a heating element on the inner part of the surface of the leading edge
Most composite blades use an external boot for de-icing but some blades and a metal guard on the outer part. The surface is protected by a coat of
have been introduced with internal heating elements. conducting polyurethane paint. This serves as protection against erosion and
prevents the blade becoming statically charged.
Figure 19: Composite Blade with Metal Spar
Construction of Composite Blades without Metal Spar

The following picture illustrates a blade without a metal spar.
The two carbon fibre components in the blade form the spar and the hollow
centre is filled with a polyurethane foam.
A composite shell surrounds the spar.
At the root of the blade the spar is attached to the metal blade-root
components. The operating pin is inserted into a pitch change mechanism.
Figure 20: Composite Blade without Metal Spar (Dowty F50)
Propeller Assembly
Propeller Assembly
Blade Retention
There are numerous methods of attaching variable pitch propeller blades to
the hub; the most common methods being:-
Split Hub
The propeller hub is manufactured in two halves which are bolted together
around a widened blade root. A spider assembly is inserted between the two
hub halves. The spider incorporates trunnions which engage in the blade root
and are designed to give additional support.
Split Rings
The propeller hub is made in one piece and the blade root is inserted through
a hole in the hub. A split ring is placed around the blade root, inside the hub,
to secure the blade in position.
Split Collars
This method is similar to the Split Hub. The blade root is positioned over a
trunnion incorporated on a solid hub. A two piece collar is then clamped
around the hub and blade root to secure the blade.
Threaded Blade Retainers

A method that uses threaded blade root rings which screw into threads
formed in the propeller hub. These are then torque loaded and locked into
position.
Propeller Assembly
PROPELLER
 Part-66 M.17 Cat. B1 PART
 66

M17.2
 PROPELLER

M17 CAT
B1
© LRTT
 




   


Purposes Only
 
   

For Training
 
  


   

2012
August    Figure 21: Blade Retainers  49
Page: 
Propeller to Engine Attachment
Propeller to Engine Attachment pressed into the holes.

The method used to attach the propeller assembly to the engine crankshaft The propeller and drive shaft flanges must be cleaned and inspected for
(piston engine) or propeller shaft is varied according to type. The most damage. A run-out check using a dial test indicator may be required to check
commonly used arrangements are as follows:. for distortion of the drive shaft flange plate.
A light coating of oil or anti-seize compound should be applied to the flange
Tapered Crankshaft surfaces. This will protect the hidden flange surfaces from corrosion as well as
Usually found on older, low powered, piston engines. This type of crankshaft from seizure.
requires the use of a hub to adapt the propeller to the shaft. A keyway is
The propeller is then offered up to the drive shaft ensuring that it is in the
provided to ensure correct positioning of the propeller hub to the crankshaft.
correct position. If a locating dowel is fitted this will indicate the position. In
Prior to installation of this type of propeller, all mating surfaces and the absence of this, the position dictated by the maintenance manual must be
components must be cleaned and inspected, including the shaft, hub and adopted.
locking threads. Particular attention must be taken during the cleaning and
The faceplate bolts and washers are then inspected, installed and torque
inspection of the keyway seating, as this area is prone to cracking. Inspections
loaded. A tracking check is then required and if satisfactory, the bolts are
are carried out using a dye penetrant process.
locked in position.
The fit of the hub onto the engine driveshaft must be checked. This is carried
Once this has been carried out an engine ground run is required to check for
out using a thin coating of Engineer’s Blue applied to the tapered section of
reference performance and vibration.
the drive shaft. The propeller is then installed with the key in place and the
retaining nut tightened to the correct torque value. The propeller is then Splined Shaft
removed to ensure that the ink transfer to the hub seating is a minimum
Splined crankshafts are found on many types of engine including radial, in-line
of 80%. High spots on the shaft can be removed using a fine oil-stone. This
and horizontally opposed piston engines, as well as many turboprop engines.
contact check is repeated until the required contact area is achieved.
The splines and grooves are generally of equal size but a master spline is
Note: The instructions for some installations may require a higher value of incorporated to ensure correct positioning of the propeller assembly on the
contact, therefore the propeller section of the aircraft maintenance manual shaft.
must be consulted.
Whenever a propeller is installed on a turboshaft engine with a splined drive
Once the contact check is satisfactorily completed, the propeller hub and shaft, the front and rear faces of the propeller hub are tapered and sat on a
engine shaft should be thoroughly cleaned before assembling in accordance pair of split cones positioned on the shaft, in front of and behind the splines.
with the maintenance manual. These cones are used to centre the propeller on the hub. Both cones are serial
numbered as a matched pair and must be replaced as such. The front cone
Flanged Shaft comprises of two half cones made of steel and the rear cone is a single piece
These are used on most horizontally opposed piston engines and some manufactured from bronze.
turboprops. A flange is formed on the front of the engine shaft to which
the propeller is attached. Holes Machined in the flange allow attachment of
propeller securing bolts or dowel pins. Some types have threaded inserts
Propeller to Engine Attachment
Figure 22: Propeller to Engine Attachment
Propeller/Spinner Installation
Propeller/Spinner Installation 6. Turn the blades to the feathered angle and fit the pitch change mechanism.
Care should be taken to ensure that the pitch change mechanism is in the
Propeller Installation correct blade angle position.
The method of installation will depend on the type of the propeller, the 7. Install the brush gear and check for correct contact between the brushes and
appropriate maintenance manual should be carefully followed. The the slip rings.
instructions provided may include; specific checks to be carried out, 8. Fit the spinner and turn the blades through their full pitch range to check for
lubrication instructions, torque loading and the locking of retaining parts. The fouling.
following procedures are applicable to most propellers.
1. Remove all protective covers and plugs and clean parts which have been
covered with a protective coating. Lubricate parts with a recommended
lubricant before installation.
2. Fit the electrical brush gear housing to the engine reduction gear casing and
check that its square with the propeller shaft, using a DTI.
3. Fit the sling to the propeller and lightly smear the rear cone seating with
engineers blue. Temporarily fit the propeller to check the contact area of
the cones. Tighten the hub retaining nut by hand and rotate the propeller
at least one revolution. Remove the propeller and check the extent of the
bluing of the cones. If the contact area is less than 80%, high spots may
be removed by light stoning or, where permitted, by lapping on a suitable
mandrel. Clean the cones and cone seating.
4. With hydraulically operated propellers, fit and lock the oil tubes in the engine
shaft.
5. Refit the propeller, lubricating the splines, cone bore and threads with the
specified lubricants. Cone faces should not normally be lubricated as this
may result in looseness of the propeller when the oil film is lost. Lubricating
the propeller bore, instead of the shaft, will prevent any lubricant from being
displaced onto the cone face when the propeller is being installed. Torque
load the propeller retaining nut and fit the necessary locking devices.
PROPELLER
 PART
 66

M17.2
 PROPELLER
 Part-66 M.17 Cat. B1
M17 CAT
B1
© LRTT
 
  




   

Purposes Only


 
 
For Training

     

Figure
  23: Seating
 Cones
 & Propeller
  Installation

2012
August     53
Page: 
Spinner Installation
Spinners are mounted for reasons of better aerodynamics, as a mechanical
protection for the hub and for aesthetic reasons.
They are usually manufactured in one piece from spun aluminium alloy or
glass fibre composites and are attached to the spinner backplate (or spinner
bulkhead). There is normally a support at the front end of the propeller hub
for centring purposes.
The dynamic load on the spinner is extremely high. If there are cracks on the
blade recesses or in the spinner mounting then the parts are to be replaced.
Repairs are limited (mostly drilling to stop a crack is allowed).
On installation it must be ensured that no noticeable wobble is present.
Balanced spinners which are identified as such must be installed in
accordance with the identification.
Spinner and Backplate
Figure 24: Spinner Backplate & Support
17.3 Propeller Pitch Control
Speed Control and Pitch Changing Methods
17.3 Propeller Pitch Control Take Off Speed

At low forward airspeeds,maximum RPM is not obtainable because of the
Speed Control and Pitch Changing Methods large angle of attack which also puts a large load on the engine. .Higher
engine RPM increases the angle of attack, resulting in increased resistance to
General rotation and increased load on the engine. An increased angle of attack also
causes a loss of thrust. This means the propeller is inefficient resulting in a
Propellers are designed as either pusher or puller (tractor) propellers, which longer take off run.
are then subdivided into fixed pitch propellers, adjustable pitch propellers,
controllable and constant speeding propellers. Maximum Forward Speed
Constant speed propellers are further categorised according to the method of When the angle of attack is at its optimum of 4º then maximum RPM is
pitch change used, for example hydraulic, mechanical or electrical. available. During take off and at low airspeeds a fine (low) blade angle is
required, whereas when flight speed has been obtained a coarser (higher)
Fixed Pitch Propellers blade angle is needed.
Fixed pitch propellers are used for up to about 200 kW (250 hp) performance
and speeds in the region of 250 km/h (160 mph). The blade angle (pitch) Power Required To Maintain A Constant RPM.
cannot be changed and is determined in accordance with the purpose it is to The density of the air, and therefore its weight per unit volume, will have an
be used. For steep climbing and towing low (fine) pitch is needed and for more effect on the amount of power that the propeller will absorb. If the density
gradual climb and cruising flight a higher (coarse) pitch is preferred. Greater of the air increases, the greater weight of air will absorb more engine power
efficiency can only be achieved over a small range of speeds. Fixed propellers causing the RPM to decrease. Therefore, to maintain a constant RPM the
are favourable with regard to production and maintenance costs. propeller will require more power (to double the RPM the power must be
The fixed pitch propeller has a thick hub to create a smooth transition from quadrupled). With decreasing air density the propeller will require less power
the thick aerofoil section at the blade root (with its high blade angle) to the to maintain a constant RPM.
hub. In most cases these propellers can be attached directly to the engine
with bolts. To maintain a larger distance from the engine flange, which allows
for a more favourable engine cowling, spacers are used, which are available in
different thicknesses.
Blade Angle
With a fixed pitch propeller, the blade angle is set for one specified engine
speed, airspeed and altitude only. This is generally the blade angle best suited
for cruising conditions, when the propeller is at its most efficient.
Disadvantages Of A Fixed Pitch Propeller

The disadvantages of a fixed pitch propeller may be summarised as follows:
• Maximum propeller efficiency is possible only at one predetermined RPM
and airspeed.
• The power available at take off is reduced because of the lower RPM.
• The continual changes in RPM with every variation of altitude and airspeed is
detrimental to the efficiency and life of the engine.
Therefore it follows that a different blade angle is required for every variation
of aircraft speed, attitude, altitude and airspeed. Because of this requirement
constant speed variable pitch propellers were developed thereby relegating
fixed pitch propellers to low powered light aircraft.
Figure 25: Fixed Pitch Propeller
Ground-Adjustable Propellers Blade Angle Adjustment

Ground-adjustable propellers are designed so that their blade angles can be The blades of the ground-adjustable propeller are mounted in a radially split
adjusted on the ground to give the desired performance characteristics for hub which is manufactured from aluminium alloy or steel and is a matched
various operational conditions (low blade angle for short field take-offs or pair.
hi blade angle for economical cruise speed). The adjustable characteristics Grooves in the hub mate with shoulders on the blades. If steel blades are
also allow one propeller design to be used on aircraft designs with varying used, the hub is joined together using bolts. If wood or aluminium alloy blades
performance, but using the same engine model. are used then the hub halves are held together using either bolts or clamp
These type of propellers are generally found on older aircraft of low to rings.
moderate performance. Before adjusting the blade angles check the AMM to find the blade angle
Nowadays these propellers have declined in popularity and are only used in range for the particular aircraft type. The angle range is normally between 7
special cases due to the time-consuming certification process and vibration and 15 degrees. The adjustment can be carried out either on the aircraft or on
analysis. a propeller bench.
Before loosening the hub retaining devices the relative position of the hub
and blades should be marked with a red lead, white lead or grease pencil. Do
not use a graphite pencil This is to allow the change in blade position to be
observed and aid in the initial movement of the blades to the new blade angle.
The propeller is placed in the horizontal position and the hub securing devices
are loosened until the blades are free to rotate in the hub (If carried out on
the engine the propeller retaining nut will also have to be loosened). The
blades are then turned to the desired angle using a propeller paddle. The
blades should be jiggled to prevent binding.
Check the new blade angle, using a propeller protractor at the master
reference station, and tighten the hub securing devices. Recheck the blade
angles as they can alter when the securing devices are tightened. If incorrect
readjust taking into account the displacement caused by tightening the hub
and remeasure the blade angles.
Generally, the difference between the blade angles of the individual blades
should be no more than 0.1 degrees and the blades should be within 0.1
degrees of the desired blade angle.
The installation is then torqued, tracked, safetied and all reference marks
removed.
Figure 26: Blade Paddle Use on a Ground-Adjustable Propeller
Controllable-Pitch Propellers
Cockpit Control
General
Pitch change is initiated in the cockpit by a crank handle which directly drives
In this type of propeller the arrangement allows the pilot to change the
a pinion gear through a flexible cable. In more sophisticated designs a toggle
pitch of the blades in flight irrespective of the aircraft operating conditions;
switch is used to operate an electric motor to drive the pinion gear. Limit
therefore, they are referred to as controllable-pitch propellers.
switches are fitted at the maximum and minimum pitch stops to shut off the
The number of pitch positions at which the propeller can be set may be electric motor.
limited, such as a two-position propeller with only high or low pitch available.
Many other propellers, however, are variable pitch, and can be adjusted to Operation
any pitch angle between a minimum and maximum pitch setting. The mechanism is operated by turning the cockpit mounted crank handle.
This type of design has allowed light aircraft with as little as 65 horsepower This turns the pinion gear which is engages with a drive gear fitted around the
to take advantage of the benefits of variable pitch without the expense and engine crankshaft but mounted on the crankcase. The drive gear can rotate
complexity of a constant speed system. through a limited range on its mount.
An airplane equipped with a controllable-pitch propeller has two controls: The drive gear is grooved internally with spiral slots which mate with the outer
race of the actuator (the outer and inner races of the actuator are connected
1. A throttle control which controls the power output of the engine which is
through ball bearings so that the inner race can rotate with the propeller). As
registered on the manifold pressure gauge.
the drive gear is rotated by the pinion gear, the actuator moves forward or
2. A propeller control which regulates the engine RPM and in turn the propeller rearward as the lugs move in the drive gear spiral slots.
RPM. The RPM is registered on the tachometer.
The inner race of the actuator rotates with the propeller and incorporates two
The pilot can set the throttle control and propeller control at any desired arms which extend forward into the propeller hub. The arms are connected to
manifold pressure and RPM setting within the engine operating limitation. actuating pins mounted in the blade butts. As the actuator moves, the inner
A controllable-pitch propeller permits the pilot to select the blade angle that race moves with it, causing the propeller blades to move to the new pitch
will result in the most efficient performance for a particular flight condition. angle.
A low blade angle or decreased pitch, reduces the propeller drag and allows
more engine power for take-offs. After airspeed is attained during cruising
flight, the propeller blade is changed to a higher angle or increased pitch.
Consequently, the blade takes a larger bite of air at a lower power setting, and
therefore increases the efficiency of the flight.
This process is similar to shifting gears in an automobile from low gear to high
gear.
One of the most popular design used today is the Beech-Roby propeller
system.
Figure 27: Beech-Roby Pitch Change Mechanism
Constant Speed Variable Pitch Propellers Feathering

In the event of an engine failure, centrifugal turning moments CTM’s tend to
Pitch Change Range move the propeller blades into a fine (low) pitch. Eventually this will result
In the range between the low (fine) pitch stop (for low airspeeds) and the high in a negative angle of attack and cause a large drag force similar to ‘Discing
(coarse) pitch stop (for high airspeeds) the propeller can be adjusted to any Braking’. The torque force is reversed and this will cause the airflow to drive
angle. the engine in the normal direction of rotation.
In the case of multiple engine aircraft and motorised gliders an engine should To prevent this undesirable condition, the propeller blades are moved
produce as little drag as possible when it is shut down. Therefore their blades through maximum coarse pitch until the blade chord line is approximately 90º
can also be moved into the feathering position (least drag). to the plane of rotation. This feature is known as FEATHERING and reduces
the drag by placing the leading edge directly into the oncoming airflow.
With large aircraft the production of reverse thrust is intended to shorten the
distance on landing. For this purpose the propellers are turned into reverse
pitch, where air is accelerated forwards while the propellers continue to turn
Blade Ranges
in the same direction. Thus reverse thrust is produced. BETA Range Pilot controls the pitch on the ground.
The following types of propeller commonly have hydraulic pitch change Ground Fine Pitch Used for engine starting & discing braking.
mechanisms: Negative (Reverse) Pitch Used for power-on braking & manoeuvring.
• Constant speed propellers (pitch change from low (fine) to high (coarse) ALPHA Range Also known as the constant speed range. The
pitch) propeller governor controls the pitch.
• Constant speed propellers with feathering position Max Fine Pitch Used for rapid acceleration during take off
• Constant speed propellers with feathering and reverse (for turboprop allowing a shorter take off run.
engines) Coarse (High) Pitch Used for high forward speed.
Discing Braking Note: The propeller pitch cannot be selected between Max coarse pitch
Some propellers can move their blades to a very fine (low) pitch on landing. and feather. In the event of engine failure, the propeller moves to feather
This causes a negative angle of attack and thus a braking force. This force is in one step.
proportional to the forward speed of the aircraft. The pitch change mechanism can be further categorised as:
Power ON Braking .’Reverse Pitch’ • Moving piston
Some propellers are able to move their blades so that the blade angle • Moving cylinder
becomes negative and offers a resistance to rotation. This allows power to be
applied to obtain a proportional and controllable braking force.
Figure 28: Comparison of Blade Angles
Moving Piston
Moving piston pitch change is a self explanatory expression to indicate that
a piston is attached to the propeller blade lugs and moves within a cylinder.
The motive power used is oil pressure directed to one side or the other of
the piston, although in some cases spring pressure is used on one side of the
piston.
Note: Spring pressure, used in the context of propeller pitch change, can
mean mechanical springs, compressed gas or even a combination of the two.
Moving Cylinder
Moving cylinder pitch change is, again, a self explanatory expression to
indicate that the cylinder is attached externally to the propeller blade and
moves in response to the pressure felt on one side of a fixed piston. A balance
weight is used to turn the propeller blade in the opposite direction.
Moving cylinder application are generally found on smaller aircraft propellers.
Single Acting Propellers

Some propeller systems operate in such a way that oil pressure changes the
pitch in one direction only. Movement in the opposite direction is the result of
spring force and the torsion moments of the blades themselves.
Propellers which utilise such a pitch change mechanism are called single
acting propellers.
Single Acting Propellers for Single Engine Aircraft

With these propellers the oil pressure moves the blades in the direction of
high (coarse) pitch and the spring moves it towards low pitch. After engine
shut-down the blades are in the lowest (fine) pitch stop position, which is
optimal for restarting the engine. Should the engine fail during flight, this
blade position is favourable for wind-milling, which makes it easier to restart
the engine.
PROPELLER
 PART
 66

Speed Control and Pitch Changing
M17.3
 Methods PITCH
PROPELLER
  CONTROL
 Part-66 M.17 Cat. B1
M17 CAT
B1
  
© LRTT
   


Purposes Only
   

 
For Training
Figure 29: Single Engine Pitch Change Mechanism


      

© LRTT Ltd. Trading as Resource

August 
2012 Group
  Page: 62 expert solutions, adding value

Page: 
65
PROPELLER
 PART
 66

M17.3
 PROPELLER
 PITCH
 CONTROL

M17 CAT
B1
   Part-66 M.17 Cat. B1
   
© LRTT
Single Acting Propellers for Multi-Engine Aircraft

If single acting propellers are used on multi-engine aircraft, oil pressure
moves the blades in the direction of low (fine) pitch. The springs and torsional
moments of the blades, move the blades towards high pitch. If engine failure   
occurs during flight with decreasing oil pressure the blades move in the high
(coarse) pitch direction. In this way they have already covered part of the
transition to the feather position.
PROPELLER
 PART
 66

M17.3
 PITCH
 
 M17 CAT
B1
  

   
© LRTT
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  


Purposes Only
 
 
    

For Training
    

 

    

    Figure 30: Single Acting Propeller  67
Page: 
August 2012

 Only

poses
Centrifugal Force Pitch Change Moments

The centrifugal force of the propeller blade mass (CTM) produces a pitch
change moment which turns the blade in the direction of low (fine) pitch. The
creation of this natural pitch change moment (or fly-moment) is due to the
distribution of the propeller blade mass.
The mass elements not lying on the blade axis create a proportion of
centrifugal force, the effect of which is at a small angle away from the blade
axis. Thus this force has a component in radial direction FZR and one in
tangential direction FZT. The latter component is at right angles to the blade
axis. This tangential force component affects the blade laterally to its axis.
This means that the force components work with a lever on the blade axis, on
which the blade turns, and therefore produce torque in the direction of low
(fine) pitch.
If the propeller blade is to turn towards high (coarse) pitch as a result of
centrifugal force then a flyweight must be attached to the blade root. The
creation of the pitch change moment from the centrifugal force of the
flyweight is based on the same principles as for the propeller blade. The
torque in the direction of high (coarse) pitch produced by the flyweight is as a
rule twice the amount of the natural torque in the direction of low pitch.
PROPELLER

Module 17. Propeller PART
 66

M17.3
17.3 Propeller Pitch Control PITCH
  CONTROL

M17 CAT
B1
© LRTT

 
For Training
 
Purposes Only
Figure 31: Flyweight and its Moment

     
2012
August     69
Page: 
Double Acting Propellers

Large propellers are generally constructed with pitch change mechanisms
where oil pressure leads to pitch change in both directions. These are called
double acting propellers. The valve for controlling the flow of oil to the two
ends of the piston is mounted either behind the gearbox or in the propeller
hub.
If the control valve is mounted behind the gearbox in the PCU, the propeller
shaft must have two oil transfer tubes, one for the front and one for the back
of the piston. These oil tubes are constructed as coaxial tubes .
PROPELLER
 PART
 66

M17.3
17. Propeller PITCH

Module  CONTROL

17.3 Propeller Pitch Control M17 CAT
B1
© LRTT 
Purposes Only
Moving Piston Propeller Moving Cylinder Propeller

 
     

For Training
Figure 32: Pitch Change using Co-axial Tubes


For Training Purposes Only       

August 2012    71
Page: 
Propeller Governor
On turboprop and reduction geared piston engines, a propeller governor is
mounted on and driven by the reduction gearbox. Direct drive piston engines
may have the governor mounted on the front of the engine crankcase and
driven by the camshaft, or mounted on and driven by the accessory gearbox.
Depending on the manufacturer, the propeller governor may be classified
as a Constant Speed Unit (CSU), a Propeller Control Unit (PCU) or a Propeller
governor.
Irrespective of the terminology used, the operation is basically the same.
The governor assembly consists of:
1. A spur gear type pump to provide a positive operating pressure for the
system. The pump incorporates non-return and pressure bypass valves.
Generally the pump is incorporated into the governor assembly itself but on
some installations it may be mounted separately.
2. A pilot valve to control the oil flow to and from the pitch change mechanism.
The valve is subjected to spring pressure, from a speeder spring, which tends
to push it down and cause the blades to move to a finer (lower) blade angle.
Also affecting the valve are centrifugal flyweights, sensitive to propeller
RPM, which oppose the spring pressure and move the valve up to select a
coarser (higher) blade angle. The spring pressure can be adjusted to permit a
constant RPM range to be set.
Additionally, a safety spring is fitted at the top of the governor so that in the
event of a control lever failure, the spring will drive the governor to the low
(fine) pitch position there by enabling thrust to be maintained.
Pilot inputs to the governor may be by either the power lever linkage (single
lever control) or a separate propeller conditioning lever (twin lever control).
Speed ControlPROPELLER
and Pitch Changing Methods PART
 Part-66 M.17 Cat. B1  66

M17.3
 PITCH

M17 CAT
B1
© LRTT
For Training
 
 Only
   


August   
2012 Figure 33: Propeller Governor  73
Page: 
On-speed Condition
The governor assembly is in a neutral position when the tension of the
speeder spring is equal to the centrifugal force required to keep the flyweights
in the vertical position.
Vertical flyweights maintain the pilot valve in a position that allows no oil to
flow into or out of the governor assembly, creating a hydraulic lock.
Propeller RPM is determined by the balance between the engine power
produced and the braking moment of the propeller blades.
Figure 34: On-speed Condition
Under-speed Condition
If the pilot requires a higher propeller RPM the propeller control lever
(conditioning lever) is moved forwards to the new selected speed. This exerts
more tension on the speeder spring overcoming the centrifugal force on the
flyweights and forcing the pilot valve down.
By moving the pilot valve down, oil trapped in the pitch change cylinder now
drains away. This allows the pitch change piston to move rearwards under the
influence of the pitch change spring, reducing the propeller brake moment,
allowing the RPM to increase to the new selected value when the speeder
spring tension and centrifugal force are again balanced, centring the pilot
valve and creating a hydraulic lock for the new on-speed condition.
Figure 35: Underspeed Condition
Over-speed Condition
If the pilot requires a lower propeller RPM the propeller control lever
(conditioning lever) is moved rearwards to the new selected speed. This
reduces the tension on the speeder spring allowing the centrifugal force on
the flyweights to lift the pilot valve up.
By lifting the pilot valve up, pressurised oil is directed into the pitch change
cylinder overcoming the influence of the pitch change spring, increasing the
propeller brake moment, allowing the RPM to decrease to the new selected
value when the speeder spring tension and centrifugal force are again
balanced, centring the pilot valve and creating a hydraulic lock for the selected
on-speed condition.
Figure 36: Overspeed Condition
Operation
Operation Feathering
In the event of an engine stopping in flight, the propeller must be feathered to
Engine Stopped prevent wind-milling. This is achieved by the pilot selecting FEATHER by:
No centrifugal force is acting on the flyweights, therefore the speeder spring 1. Twin Lever Cockpit - moving propeller conditioning lever to FEATHER.
loading pushes the landed valve down. Oil is trapped in the cylinder between
the piston and the oil pump. 2. Single Lever Cockpit - moving the HP cock through OFF to FEATHER.
This mechanically lifts the pilot valve, bleeding away fine (low) pitch oil
Start Up to Idle Plus pressure and allowing spring or gas pressure (assisted by counterweights) to
As engine RPM is increased it causes the flyweights to move outwards until move the blades to the feather position.
the constant speed condition is reached. i.e. Flyweight load equals speeder
spring load, pilot valve in central position. Propeller still in fine pitch. Governor Over-speed and Under-speed
The propeller governor moves to the over-speed condition for three main
Engine Power increased to Cruise reasons:-
Increased power will tend to increase propeller RPM. This causes centrifugal 1. Aircraft goes into a dive increasing forwards speed; AOA is decreased.
force to overcome spring force. Pilot valve moves up bleeding away fine (low)
pitch oil. Propeller blade angle increases causing a decrease in propeller RPM 2. When speeder spring force on flyweights is reduced.
until flyweights and speeder spring force are again in balance. The pilot valve 3. When pilot increases fuel flow by moving the throttle forward.
has returned to the central position holding the blades at their new blade
The under-speed condition results from the reverse of the above.
angle. Constant speeding has been maintained.
Engine Power increased to Take off

When the power lever or propeller conditioning lever is moved to the take
off position, the input lever forces the speeder spring down against the
flyweights. Fine (low) pitch oil pressure now moves the blades to a finer
(lower) pitch for take off (Still constant speeding).
Take-Off
As forward speed increases the angle of attack decreases. Propeller load
decreases and the propeller tries to over-speed. This is sensed by the
flyweights which overcome the speeder spring, lifting the pilot valve and
bleeding away fine pitch oil. (Still constant speeding).
Operation
Figure 37: Governor Operating Conditions
Operation
Unfeathering Accumulator
After feathering a propeller in flight, the pilot may wish to attempt an engine
restart. To carry this out, the propeller must be moved to fine (low) pitch. On
many small engines, this is done by moving the power lever to a higher RPM
position and turning the engine on the starter motor to allow sufficient oil
pressure build up to move the blades to a fine (low) pitch.
Some systems however, are equipped with an unfeathering accumulator to
provide a reserve of pressure. The accumulator is charged through a non-
return valve during normal operation. When required, unfeathering can be
achieved by moving the power lever to a higher RPM position and releasing
the pressure stored in the accumulator. Dependant on type, the pressure may
be released by an electrically operated solenoid valve or a mechanical input
which unseats the non-return valve.
Operation
Figure 38: Unfeathering Accumulator
Operation
Centrifugal Latches
When an engine fitted with a single acting propeller is shut down, oil
pressure is trapped in the cylinder. Should there be any leakage of oil within
the governor, the propeller blades will be forced towards coarse pitch by
the spring or gas pressure in the pitch change cylinder. This would put an
unacceptable load on the starter system.
Centrifugal latches prevent this from occurring by mechanically locking the
piston in the fine (low) pitch position when the engine is not rotating. The
latches are engaged by spring pressure at low RPM (typically 700 to 1 000
RPM) and disengaged by centrifugal force as the RPM increases.
Operation
Figure 39: Centrifugal Latches
Operation
Turboprop Variable Pitch Propellers

Characteristics of Turboprop Engines
The efficiency of the compressor and turbine is dependent on RPM. For this
reason turboprops can only supply the power required over a small RPM
range. As the maximum output power of the engine at any given RPM is only
a little above the brake power of the propeller, an increase in RPM would
take place only slowly. Therefore the propeller of a turboprop rotates with a
constant RPM within its operating ranges. Changes in power are achieved by
changes in torque. To adjust the brake moment to drive moment over the
total range of performance, the propellers of turboprops have a greater range
of pitch change than those of piston engines.
Operation
Figure 40: Comparison of Blade Angles
Operation
General
A turboprop engine is a gas turbine engine driving a fully variable pitch
propeller. The propeller wastes less kinetic energy in its slipstream than a
turbojet does in its exhaust. Turboprops are generally used where flight
speeds do not exceed 450 mph and economy is a large consideration.
Because gas turbine engines only operate efficiently at high RPM ( typically
8/10 000 RPM while smaller engines can be as much as 40 000 RPM), however
propellers are only efficient at relatively low RPM (usually in the region of
about 1 000 to 1 200 RPM) due to their large diameters which limit their tip
speeds. This means that to match the propeller to the engine a reduction
gearbox is required; usually some form of compound epicyclic design with
reduction ratios of between approximately 6:1 and 20:1.
Operation
Figure 41: Pratt & Whitey Two Stage Reduction Gear Box
Operation
Engine Arrangements Free Power Turbine Engine

There are three basic engine arrangements related to turboprop engines:. The compressor and propeller are mounted on different shafts and driven
• Direct Connected (Integrated). by independent turbines. The power lever provides direct control of the gas
generator fuel flow while the conditioning lever controls the propeller RPM.
• Compounded.
• Free Power Turbine. Advantages
• Easier starting
Direct Connected • Independent control of engine and propeller
The turbine of this type drives the compressor through the reduction gearbox, • Engine and propeller can both operate at optimum speed which gives lower
the propeller. A single power lever controls both the engine fuel flow and the fuel consumption.
propeller pitch.
Disadvantages
• Requires fine (low) pitch stop for starting.
• Complex interconnection between throttle and propeller control.
• May be unstable with sudden changes in load due to the attitude of the
aircraft.
Compound Engine
A twin spool layout where the HP turbine drives the HP compressor and the
LP turbine drives the LP compressor and propeller reduction gearbox.
Power is controlled by a lever which selects blade angle, and various
automatic systems maintain RPM by adjusting fuel flow.
Disadvantages
• Only suitable for large engines
Advantages
• Engine free from surge.
• Good flexibility.
• Good acceleration
• Low power starting due to twin spools.
Operation
Figure 42: Turboprop Arrangements
Operation
Turboprop Ratings
3. Direct Control of Blade Angle
Shaft Horsepower (SHP)
Can be used on any type of turboprop engine. The power lever selects a
Defined as the power available from the engine at the propeller drive shaft.
blade angle and various automatic systems adjust the fuel flow to keep the
Equivalent Shaft Horsepower (ESHP) propeller RPM constant.
Although most of the energy of the gasses are used to drive the compressor The direct control of blade angle in a free power turbine system is also
and propeller, there will still be some residual thrust available from used on some helicopters. Operation of the collective pitch lever adjusts
the exhaust. The sum of the SHP and thrust is termed Equivalent Shaft fuel flow/engine RPM to suit the selected requirements.
Horsepower. This indicates total power available from the engine.
4. Twin Lever Control
For static conditions, 1 Horsepower is considered to be the equivalent of 2.5
Installed on aircraft with single acting propellers. The engine is controlled
lbs of thrust. Therefore:
by the power lever and the propeller RPM is dependently selected using
ESHP = SHP + Residual Thrust / 2.5 the propeller conditioning lever.
Control Arrangements
The turboprop engine operates at high RPM for maximum efficiency.
Reduction in RPM reduces pressure ratio and affects specific fuel
consumption. Most turboprop gas generators run at, or near 100% RPM.
There are four major methods of controlling the RPM and power:
1. Integrated Control of both Propeller RPM and Fuel Flow.
Suitable for direct coupled and compound engine types. Propeller RPM is
selected by the power lever which simultaneously adjusts fuel flow thereby
ensuring the correct fuel flow for a selected propeller RPM.
At maximum RPM, further increases in power are achieved by increasing
the fuel flow. The Constant Speed Unit (CSU) increases the blade angle to
absorb the extra power to keep the propeller RPM constant.
2. Direct Control of Fuel Flow
Suitable for use on a free power turbine. The gas generator is controlled in
the same manner as a turbojet. The propeller is maintained at a constant
selected RPM by the CSU.
Operation
1. Integrated - Controls both 2. Direct Control of Fuel Flow - Prop follows
3. Direct Control of Blade Angle - Engine follows 4. Twin Lever Control
Figure 43: Control Arrangements
Operation
Typical Turboprop Propeller System (Rolls Royce Dart)

General
A four bladed variable pitch propeller is fitted to all marks of Dart engine and
is hydraulically controlled by a Propeller Control Unit (PCU).
System Requirements:
1. Must provide constant speed control (PSU)
2. Provide minimum drag on a failed engine (Feather)
3. Minimum rotational drag during starting and acceleration from ground idle.
4. Create high drag on landing for aircraft retardation ( Discing braking).
5. To limit the degree of fine pitch and incorporate safety features for:
◦◦ Engine failure.
◦◦ Propeller control.
◦◦ Control unit failure.
6. Prevention of excessive RPM and propeller drag by:
◦◦ A flight fine pitch stop (FFPS).
◦◦ A hydraulic pitch lock.
◦◦ An electro-hydraulic stop.
◦◦ Automatic coarsening circuits.
Operation
Figure 44: Simplified Single Stop Propeller System
Operation
Ground Fine Pitch Stop

A fixed abutment stop on the operation piston which allows the propeller
to take up a zero degree position. This is known as the Discing position and
is used for starting and initial acceleration. The blades move to this position
when the power lever in the cockpit is moved to ground idle.
Flight Fine Pitch Stop (FFPS)

This is a retractable stop used to limit the fine (low) pitch available during
flight. It is always in the engaged position during take off and cruise power
settings.
The FFPS is locked in position automatically as the power lever is advanced to
take off. This stop is operated by oil pressure but controlled electrically via a
cockpit located FFPS lever with two positions, ENGAGED and WITHDRAWN.
Requirements
• To energise both engine lock withdrawal solenoids.
• To provide cockpit indication that the circuit is energised.
• To de-energise the electro-hydraulic stop circuit when the FFPS circuit is
energised.
Operation
Figure 45: Basic F.F.P.S. Circuit
Operation
Electro-Hydraulic Stop
A pitch coarsening mechanism to prevent the propeller drifting below flight
fine pitch should a failure of the FFPS occur. The system is activated by a micro
switch which will energise the system if the propeller blade angle should
decrease below the FFPS by 2 degrees.
The system is ARMED when the FFPS lever is ENGAGED and DISARMED when
the FFPS lever is WITHDRAWN.
Pitch coarsening is controlled by a Piston Valve Lift Solenoid.
Hydraulic Pitch Lock

A spring operated valve which is designed to prevent the propeller from
moving to a finer (lower) pitch in the event of an operating oil supply failure.
The valve is positioned in the coarse (high) pitch oil line and in the event of
an oil pressure failure, the spring will overcome and close the valve thereby
trapping the oil in the coarse (high) pitch oil line (Figure below).
Operation
Figure 46: Simple Electro-Hydraulic Stop
Feathering and Reverse Pitch
Feathering
Feathering is selected to prevent excessive drag and negative torque (wind-
milling ) in the event of an engine failure. Selection of feathering is carried out
manually but can also be activated automatically during certain flight phases if
certain conditions are met.
Manual
Operation of manual feathering is achieved by selecting the feathering lever
which is interconnected to the engine HP cock. The purpose of this is to
ensure the engine is shut down before the propeller is feathered to prevent
overheating of the engine.
Selection of the feathering lever overrides the propeller control unit (PCU)
centrifugal flyweights by lifting the pilot valve to direct oil, supplied by an
electric feathering pump, to the coarse (high) pitch line and driving the
propeller to the feather position.
Automatic (Auto-Coarsening)
This system is used to provide automatic operation of the feathering system
during take-off and cruise.
In the event of an engine failure the centrifugal flyweights are automatically
overridden and the electric feathering pump runs driving the propeller to the
feather position.
System Requirements
• To automatically feather the propeller if an engine failure occurs in the cruise
to take off power range.
• To provide a cockpit indication when the feathering pump is operating.
• To isolate other engines from the auto-feather system.
Figure 47: Simplified Automatic Feathering Circuit
Power Lever Operation

When an aircraft is stationary with an engine at idle power, fuel flow is too
low to achieve the RPM selected by the PCU. The PCU is in an under-speed
condition keeping the propeller in fine (low) pitch against the ground fine pitch
stop. This causes the propeller to act like a fixed pitch propeller causing the
RPM to vary with fuel flow.
Lever Movement from A to B

This will have no effect on the control spring, the propeller will remain in fully
fine (low) pitch. The RPM will increase with the fuel flow and at position B
minimum constant speeding will occur causing the propeller to move off the
ground fine (low) pitch stop.
Lever Movement from B to C

The PCU is now governing the propeller. As the fuel flow is increased the blade
angle will increase to absorb the increased engine power and maintain a
constant RPM. Minimum constant speed is the minimum RPM selected by the
PCU and allows a rapid acceleration in the event of an emergency.
Lever Movement from C to D

Because fuel flow increases the RPM will increase to maintain the optimum
blade angle for the power being produced. Therefore the blade angle will alter
to maintain the selected propeller RPM.
Lever Movement from D to E

When the lever is moved towards take off a greater increase in RPM is
required. The lever causes the speeder spring in the PCU to depress which
reduces the blade angle allowing the propeller RPM to increase.
Figure 48: Power Level Movement Effects
Reverse Pitch Propellers

Beginning at power lever positions just αft of flight idle, propeller blade pitch
Beta Range Propellers angles become progressively finer with aft movement of the power lever until
The BETA range is used to describe the range of blade angles which can they go beyond maximum ground fine (low) pitch and into negative pitch,
be obtained when the aircraft is operating on the ground. It is, generally, resulting in reverse thrust. While in a direct coupled/ constant-speed engine,
associated with propellers which have a reverse pitch capability. the engine speed remains largely unchanged as the propeller blade angles
In reverse pitch the engine/propeller turns in the same direction as in the achieve their negative values. On a free power turbine engine, as the negative
normal (forward) pitch position, but the propeller blade angle is positioned 5° position is reached, further αft movement of the power lever will also result
to the negative side of ground fine (low) pitch. In reverse pitch, The negative in a progressive increase in engine RPM until a maximum value of about
blade angles combined with the engine power being produced will force negative 15° of blade angle and 85% N1 are achieved.
the airflow forwards through the propeller creating a variable braking force Operating in the beta range and/or with reverse thrust requires specific
(reverse thrust). It is used for backing away from obstacles when taxiing, techniques and procedures as well as specific engine parameters and
controlling taxi speed, or to aid in bringing the aircraft to a stop during the limitations for operations within this area that must be adhered to.
landing roll.
Reverse pitch does not mean reverse rotation of the engine. The engine Advantages
delivers power just the same, no matter which side of ground fine (low) pitch • Reduce Landing Roll.
the propeller blades are positioned. • Reduce Brake wear.
With a turboprop engine, in order to obtain enough power for flight, the • Improve manoeuvrability on the ground.
power lever is placed somewhere between flight idle and maximum. The
• Reversing of the aircraft during taxiing.
power lever directs signals to a fuel control unit to manually select fuel. The
propeller governor selects the propeller pitch needed to keep the propeller/ Disadvantages
engine on speed. This is referred to as the propeller governing or alpha mode
of operation. When positioned aft of flight idle, however, the power lever • Reduced engine cooling when in reverse pitch.
directly controls propeller blade angle. This is known as the beta range of • Increased blade damage.
operation. • Complicated control system.
The beta range of operation consists of power lever positions from flight idle
to maximum reverse.
Beta Mode
In beta mode the blade angle is changed directly with the power lever, so that The RPM is selected for the governor inside the control unit with the condition
any angle between zero thrust and flight idle (or full reverse) can be selected. lever and then remains constant. In this operational range the prop governor
Here control of the blade angle works in the form of follow up control. For is ineffective.
this purpose the power lever works directly on the beta valve. On reaching
the position selected for the propeller blades, resetting of the beta valve takes
place through mechanical feedback, via a beta ring, from the propeller to the
beta valve.
Over-speed Protection
Electronic Pitch Control

General
Modern aircraft propeller pitch control systems have evolved into electronic
control systems in the same way as engine hydro-mechanical fuel systems
evolved into FADEC control.
Electronic pitch control consist of:
• Integrated High Pressure PCU Pump and Over-speed Governor Unit.
• Pitch Control Unit (PCU)
• Propeller Electronic Control Unit (PEC).
Integrated High Pressure PCU Pump and Over-speed Governor Unit

The high speed PCU Pump/Propeller Over-speed Governor Unit provides the
PCU with high pressure engine oil to facilitate pitch change of the propeller.
The pump is a fixed displacement spur gear pump driven directly from the
reduction gearbox. The Propeller Over-speed Governor Unit is a mechanical
flyweight governor, driven by the PCU pump, used to protect the propeller
from over-speeding.
PROPELLER
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17.3 Propeller
Pitch
M17.3 Control
PROPELLER
 PITCH

Over-speed Protection M17 CAT
B1
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Figure 49: Over-speed Governor

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Pitch Control Unit (PCU)

The hydro-mechanical PCU, which is mounted on the reduction gearbox is
designed to control the pitch of the propeller by directing oil to either side of
the pitch change piston through a dual concentric beta tube.
The PCU is commanded electrically by the PEC and provides the facilities for:
• Governed Constant Speed Operation
• Beta Range control
• Manual Feather
• Unfeather
• Synchrophasing
Figure 50: Propeller Control Unit
Propeller Electronic Control Unit (PEC)

The PEC, normally mounted in the engine nacelle, is a dual channel
microprocessor based controller utilising inputs from the aircraft, propeller
control system sensors and the engine control system to control propeller
pitch and RPM.
Each PCU also has an independent circuit, isolated from the basic control
functions, to perform safety functions that include Auto-feathering and under-
speed propeller control. An UPTRIM command is also provided to the other
engine PEC and FADEC in the event of an auto-feather.
Inputs to the PEC are provided by:
• Conditioning Lever.
• Power lever via FADEC.
• Magnetic Pick-up unit for RPM and Blade Balancing.
• Beta feedback transducer
• PCU
• FADEC
Figure 51: Propeller Control Block Diagram (Q400 Next Gen)
Autofeather
The autofeather system provides automatically initiated propeller feathering, The auxiliary feather pump provides a backup source of oil pressure to the
and good operating engine power uptrim following an engine failure during propeller pitch-change mechanism. The pump is supplied with oil from an
take-off. Autofeather is selected on for take-off only, using the Auto-feather auxiliary oil reservoir built into the propeller RGB to permit autofeather in the
switch light on the engine instrument panel. This causes the SELECT light to event of loss of engine oil pressure. The respective feathering pump advisory
turn on, and displays A/F SELECT on the engine display (ED). The ARM light will light in the FTHR switch light turns on when the auxiliary feathering pump is
turn on when both engine torques exceed a minimum value of 50% and both producing pressure.
power levers are advanced beyond 60° PLA. The autofeather system can be disarmed by:
Uptrim is triggered (regardless of Autofeather selection) when: • Pushing OFF the autofeather switch light
• Torque of the local engine falls below 25% • Retarding one or both power levers to flight idle
• NP (as indicated by the torque sensor) falls below 80% • Both engine torques dropping below approximately 50%.
• PLA is in the rating detent The propeller speed (NP) under-speed cancel signal prevents the FADEC
• MTOP is not set from raising engine speed (NH) (if the engine is running in the case of an
unscheduled feather command) in an attempt to maintain propeller RPM, as
Either of the first two conditions must be confirmed by both torque sensor
the feathered propeller decreases below 660 RPM.
signals. The low speed condition accommodates the failure case of a propeller
auto coarsening or inadvertently feathering, causing loss of thrust but not Autofeather test is automatic on selection.
low torque. Uptrim is also directly signalled when an autofeather occurs. Dual
uptrim signals are sent to the FADEC of the surviving engine to increase its
power by 10%. The effect of this is to replace normal take-off power (NTOP)
with maximum take-off power (MTOP).
Autofeather is triggered from the armed state when the torque of the local
engine, as indicated by both torque signals, falls below 25% for at least three
seconds. Following a 3-second delay, an overriding drive coarse signal is input
on both active and standby Control Lanes; the servo valve then select coarse
pitch. When one propeller is autofeathered, the autofeather function of the
other propeller is automatically disarmed. The auxiliary feathering pump is
also activated for approximately 30 seconds. This makes sure adequate oil
pressure is available for propeller feathering.
17.4 Propeller Synchronising
Synchronising and Synchrophasing Equipment

Master Engine Selector
Used on some 4-engined aircraft to allow the pilot to select the master engine
to be used (normally #2 or #3). This provides an alternative engine master in
General the event that the engine being used as the master becomes inoperative.
A propeller synchronising system is used to set all propellers, installed
on a multi-engined aircraft, at exactly the same RPM, thereby eliminating Resynchronisation Button
beat vibration and excess noise. This is achieved by adjusting the propeller This is used by some systems to interrupt the synchronisation system
governors which can be either mechanical or electrical. operation and allow the slave governor synchronisation mechanisms to
The synchronisation system is normally used for all flight phases except centre, providing for full travel (100 RPM) towards the master engine RPM.
take off and landing. A master engine (normally the left hand one) is used to This control is used if one or more slave engines are more than a 100 RPM
establish the RPM to which all other engines (slaves) will adjust. different from the master engine without the need to operate individual
toggle switches.
System Components
4.1.2 System Operation
Tachometer or Frequency Generator As previously stated, the system is not used during take off and landing. If
These are used with each engine to generate a signal proportional to the RPM the system were used, failure of the master engine would result in the slave
of the engine. The tachometer is usually mounted on the accessory gearbox engines trying to follow the master and thereby causing a loss of power by
while a frequency generator may be part of the propeller governor. 100 RPM.
If a tachometer is used, the signal voltage is directed to a differential motor to During normal operation, the slave engines are near the master engine RPM
compare the master engine RPM and the slave engine RPM. The engine that when the system is switched on. The comparison unit senses any differences
generates the higher voltage will determine the direction that the differential in RPM and causes the slave engine governors to adjust to the same RPM as
motor will rotate and adjust the governor setting of the slave engine. the master engine.
If a master control system is incorporated with the synchronisation system the
Comparison Unit
master control can be used at any time to adjust the RPM of all engines. As the
The comparison unit is used to compare the RPM signal of the slave engine(s) master control lever is moved, the synchronisation system is interrupted and
to the RPM signal of the master engine. the engines may go out of synchronisation for a few seconds. When the lever
If a frequency generator is used, the engine signals are sent to an electronic stops moving the system returns to synchronisation.
unit which compares the frequencies and sends a correcting signal to the
slave engine governor control mechanism.
Comparison Units have a limited range of operation and the slave engines
must be within approximately 100 RPM of the master engine RPM for
synchronisation to occur.
17.4 PropellerPROPELLER
Synchronising
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
SynchronisingM17.4
and Synchrophasing
PROPELLEREquipment
SynChROniSing
   Part-66 M.17 Cat. B1
M17 CAT
B1
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  

 
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   


Figure
 52:
 Synchroniser
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Propeller Synchrophasing
Synchrophasing is a refinement of synchronisation and allows the pilot to set
the blades of the slave engines a number of degrees in rotation behind the
blades of the master engine.
Synchrophasing is used to further reduce the noise created by the engines.
The synchrophase angle can be varied by the pilot to adjust for different flight
conditions and still achieve a minimum noise level.
Synchrophaser with Mechanical Governing System

Through a synchrophaser the system receives a phase signal from the
propellers in addition to the RPM signal through the RPM pickup or additional
pick-ups. The system then sets the slave propeller to the determined phase
position. The phase position of the slave propeller is some degrees off that
of the master propeller. This offsetting is programmed in such a way that
vibrations in the cabin are kept to a minimum. Thus the synchrophaser sets
the slave propeller to a constant phase displacement.
17.4 PropellerPROPELLER
Synchronising
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SynchronisingM17.4
and Synchrophasing
 Equipment
PROPELLER SynChROniSing
 Part-66 M.17 Cat. B1
M17 CAT
B1
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 

Figure 53: Simple Synchrophase System

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Synchrophaser with Electronic Governing System

The RPM of the propeller is governed by the propeller electronic control
units (PEC) with the left propeller being nominated as the master for
synchrophasing. As the PECs control propeller RPM very exactly (+/- 0.2%), the
difference in RPM is very small when synchrophasing.
The synchrophasing function is automatically activated to reduce propeller
noise. if the power lever is at CLIMB or CRUISE and the difference in RPM is
less than 1 min-1 .
Synchrophasing acts to reduce the cabin noise by ensuring that the relative
position, or phase difference, between the slave propeller and master
propeller is controlled to a demanded angle. The phase angle is calculated
by timing the differences between the master and slave propeller Magnetic
Pickup Unit (MPU) signals over a complete propeller revolution. The phase
demand is determined from either the condition lever angle (CLA) position, or
the output from the Active Noise and Vibration Suppression System (ANVS).
Magnetic Pickup Unit (MPU)

The purpose of the dual channel MPU is to provide the PEC with an Np
indication and determine the phase of the propeller.
The speed and phase is detected by 6 of the 7 targets located on the de-
icing slip-ring while the seventh is used as a master reference for balancing
purposes.
MPU Index Target

(Typically 7 Index targets)
PROPELLER
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
M17.4
 PROPELLER
 SynChROniSing

M17 CAT
B1
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 
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 
 
 
For Training
 
Purposes Only
      

2012
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Figure 54: Synchrophasing with Electronic Prop Control
17.5 Propeller Ice Protection
Fluid and Electrical De-icing Equipment
17.5 Propeller Ice Protection The disadvantages of this system are:

• The weight of fluid to be carried.
Fluid and Electrical De-icing Equipment • The amount fluid must be constantly monitored.
Effects of Propeller Ice • The system must be operated before icing occurs.
Ice formation on a propeller when in operation produces a distortion to the • It is not able to remove impacted ice once it has formed.
aerofoil section, vibrations and lower propeller efficiency. When an aircraft is
flying under icing conditions, icing protection is necessary to prevent the build
up of ice on the propeller blades. The regions most at risk from icing are, the
propeller blades, the spinner and the engine air intake.
It is important to note that when visible moisture is present in the air, icing
can occur in these areas at ambient air temperatures up to +10°
There are two main ice protection methods employed:
• The fluid anti-icing system
• The electrical de-icing system
Fluid Anti-icing System

This type of system is generally found only on piston engined aircraft. The
fluid that is used could contaminate the compressor blades of gas turbine
engines and is therefore not suitable for turboprop aircraft
A very simple and problem-free method of preventing ice formation using
an alcohol based fluid (Iso-Propyl-Alcohol). The fluid is stored in a reservoir
housed within the airframe. A pump, whose speed is controlled by a rheostat
in the cockpit to suit the severity of the icing conditions, injects filtered fluid
through a fixed nozzle on each engine into a ‘U’ shaped slinger ring on each
propeller. From there the fluid is forced by centrifugal force onto grooved
anti-icing rubber boots.
Ice Accumulation On A Propeller
PROPELLER
 PART
 66

M17.5
 PROPELLER
 ICE
 PROTECTION
 Part-66 M.17 Cat. B1
M17 CAT
B1
 
© LRTT

 
Purposes Only
Figure 55: Fluid Anti-Icing System

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121
Fluid Anti-icing-System Maintenance Inspection

The blade overshoes should be inspected for cuts, blisters and signs of
Slinger Ring separation at the edges. If stone impact damage is apparent then the
Ensure the alignment of the fluid discharge nozzle with the slinger ring. The shoes can be cut back slightly in accordance with the maintenance manual.
pipe must be positioned so that it has sufficient clearance to avoid contact The troughs in the overshoe must be checked for cuts and distortion. A
with the ring, taking into account any possible vibration that may occur when reinforcing bead wire is fitted on their rim, if this is broken, the trough must
the engine is running. be replaced. If the system has been operated then the blades should be
cleaned using methylated spirit or warm soapy water as recommended by the
Flow Test manufacturer.
This test is required after reassembly of the system filter to re-establish the
fluid flow rate to the propeller and to compare it with the figure specified in
the maintenance manual. On multi-engine aircraft, a flow test must be carried
out simultaneously on each engine to check that the delivery distribution rate
to each engine is balanced.
When the test is carried out on a multi-engine aircraft, the difference in the
distribution of fluid to each engine should be within the limits specified.
Functional Test
To check the distribution of fluid over the blade surfaces, must be carried
out with the engine running. Generally, the test is only required on blades
that are not fitted with overshoes but the requirement will vary with different
manufacturers.
Cleaning
Because of the thixotropic properties of the fluid, the system and components
require cleaning a regular intervals. The system is cleaned by flushing it
through with a mixture that consists of 95% methylated spirits and 5%
distilled water. After carrying out the procedure the blades are washed with
methylated spirit or warm soapy water. The system filter, which is cleaned
periodically,is cleaned using methylated spirit.
Electrical De-Icing System Slow Cycle

Heating boots/mats containing electrical elements are bonded to the inner
third of each propeller blade.
Electrical power is supplied from the aircraft system and is transferred from
the engine(s) by spring loaded carbon brushes rubbing against copper slip
rings attached to the back of the rotating propeller hub.
Leads connected to the slip ring attach to the de-icing boot/mat element(s)
on the propeller blade. The heater element may be single, or segmented into
two parts. A single element boot/mat will have two electrical leads while a twin
element will have three leads (2 Live & 1 Earth).
Cyclic heating is employed to lessen the load on the aircraft electrical system
and also to prevent a condition known as run-back. Continuous heating of the
element would cause water to be carried rearward by the airflow, which would
then freeze on the trailing edge of the blade.
The use of cyclic heating allows a thin layer of ice to form on the heater
mat. This forms a thermal barrier so that when the element is energised its Fast Cycle
temperature rapidly rises. The ice melts where it contacts the mat, causing it
to loosen and be dispersed by centrifugal force.
On propellers with an even number of blades, opposite blades are heated
simultaneously to maintain propeller balance. A cyclic timer, installed in
the cockpit controls the whole process. It is either an electric motor driven
contactor or an electronic timer. The period for which the heating elements
remain energised is dependent on timer selection and may be between 15
and 30 seconds, with a complete cycle of 2 to 6 minutes.
Fast Cycle
• Approximately 2 minutes. Used for atmospheric temperatures of +10° C
down to minus 6°C.
Slow Cycle
• Approximately 6 minutes. Used for atmospheric temperatures below minus
6°C.
Figure 56: Electrical De-Icing System
System Tests Inspection

The brush gear is subjected to periodic inspection to establish the brush
General length and that the brushes are not jamming in their holders. Operation in
Prior to installation of a propeller, continuity and resistance checks are damp and dusty conditions will accelerate brush wear. In this case the brush
required on the propeller blade heating elements. An insulation resistance wear check must be carried out at shorter intervals. The brush blocks are
check must also be carried out periodically to ensure that the heating cleaned with dry lint-free cloth or a soft brush. Solvents must never be used.
elements are adequately insulated from the blades and the spinner. Moisture The slip rings must be cleaned to remove any build-up of carbon and grease.
absorption from the atmosphere into the overshoes will gradually reduce an Cleaning is done using white spirit and a lint free cloth is used for drying.
element’s insulation resistance. When new brushes have to be fitted, they must be checked for satisfactory
alignment and for contact on the slip ring. The contact area minimum
Functional Test
requirement is 80%. Contact is checked by hand turning the propeller through
It is important to comply with the maintenance manual limitations on several revolutions. The brush faces can then be checked for witness marks.
operating the heating elements on the ground. The engine must be kept When new brushes have been fitted an initial engine run is carried out to bed
running at a given speed to ensure that a sufficient airflow is maintained. in the brushes prior to conducting a functional test of the system.
Some systems have an air/ground mode that reduces the power consumption
on the ground. When checking the function of the system, the flight deck The overshoes must be inspected for cuts, blisters, wrinkling, lifting and signs
ammeter readings will indicate the current consumption for each cycle and a of overheating. It is also important to look for signs of corrosion occurring
test switch can be used to check the current being drawn off each phase. under the boot. This can reveal itself by failure of the adhesive bonding. If
a heater element is exposed, or the overshoe is sticky, swollen or affected
by contaminants, the overshoe must be replaced. If the overshoe has been
rejected for overheating, the propeller blade must be examined for evidence
of damage resulting from burning.
The blade overshoe electrical supply cables are particularly prone to damage.
These must be inspected for signs of strain at the connections to the blade
overshoe and the terminal block on the spinner back-plate.
17.6 Propeller Maintenance
Static and Dynamic Balancing
17.6 Propeller Maintenance Static Balance

A body capable of rotating about a fixed point is said to be in static balance
Static and Dynamic Balancing when its centre of gravity lies on the axis of rotation. If a body is in static
balance, each time it is rotated it will come to a stop in a random position.
All propellers vibrate to some extent during operation. Assuming that the
engine itself is not at fault, propeller roughness may be caused by bent Static balancing is carried out, off the aircraft, either at the manufacturer,
blades, blades out of track due to improper mounting of the prop on the overhauler or in an approved propeller repair facility. The propeller is
engine shaft, imbalance, a propeller loosely mounted on engine shaft, blade mounted on a mandrel which is placed across stable and perfectly levelled
angles between blades out of tolerance with respect to each other and knife edges or rollers. The balance is checked in two planes, one horizontal
spinner imbalance due to improper mounting or to dirt, snow or ice inside the and the other vertical.
shell.
Fixed Pitch Wood Propellers
Propeller Balance Horizontal imbalance can be corrected by applying small amounts of varnish
or paint to the light blade or if larger amounts are required then solder can be
General applied to the metal tipping of the lighter blade.
When working with propellers three different types of balancing are of Vertical imbalance can be corrected by adding weights to the hub.
importance. These are:
Fixed Pitch Metal Propellers
• Static Balancing.
Fixed pitch metal propellers are statically balanced by removing some metal
• Dynamic Balancing. from the heavy side and then refinishing the propeller using a non-anodic
• Aerodynamic Balancing. protective coating such as Alodine ®
Static and dynamic imbalance are caused by unequal mass distribution while Note: For propellers of aircraft up to 5 700 kg the generally permissible
aerodynamic balancing is to ensure each blade delivers an equal amount of tolerance is 2 gm. However the specifications of the manufacturer are
thrust. binding.
In most cases static balancing will be sufficient. Only with larger propellers or
with fast running propellers may dynamic balancing be necessary.
PROPELLER
 PART
 66

M17.6
Module 17. PROPELLER
 MAINTENANCE
Propeller
 
17.6 Propeller Maintenance M17 CAT
B1
© LRTT
 

 

Purposes Only


 
 
For Training
Figure 57: Static Balancing

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Static and DynamicPROPELLER

Balancing PART
 66

M17.6 Part-66 M.17 Cat. B1
 PROPELLER

© LRTT M17 CAT
B1
 
  
 
  
  
 
Purposes Only
 
  
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     

2012
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Page: 
Metal and Composite Variable Pitch Propellers

These types of propellers are balanced by placing lead washers onto a
balancing stud within the hollow blade root/shank for horizontal balance while
lead washers are placed in recesses of the hub for vertical balancing.
Minor adjustments to the propeller balance are corrected by placing lead wool
into the balancing tube located within the hollow root of the blade.
On smaller propellers the lead wool can be placed in the counterbored area
of the hub bolt heads. These bolts are known as Welch bolts because of the
Welch plug used to cap the bolt when lead wool is installed. Welch plugs
should be in the bolt head regardless of whether or not lead wool is inserted
in the bolt. If a Welch plug is missing then the propeller is considered out of
balance. Adjustment to balance using lead wool and Welch plugs is normally
carried out in an overhaul facility.
PROPELLER
 PART
 66

ModuleM17.6
17. Propeller

17.6 Propeller Maintenance M17 CAT
B1
© LRTT

 

    
 
 
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Figure 59: Variable Pitch Propeller

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Dynamic Balancing
Balancing the propeller to reduce the moment of imbalance is known as Dynamic Balance Summary
dynamic balancing. This must be carried out on a running engine. Here the
There are four steps used to dynamically balance a propeller:
moment of imbalance which is caused by the lateral shift of the centres of
gravity of the blades is eliminated. The term ‘balancing’ is not completely 1. Obtain in-flight vibration information.
correct, because it cannot be done on all inertial axes as a change in mass is 2. Ensure vibration is greater than permitted limits.
only possible in specific areas (blades, hub, spinner). There are cases where
smooth running is achieved on the ground but there are vibrations in flight, 3. Calculate the mass and location to reduce vibration to an acceptable level.
and vice versa. In which case vibrations during flight should be reduced to a 4. Install balance weight(s) and confirm vibration levels are within limits.
minimum since this is the usual operational condition.
Electronic equipment of various types and different methods are used. One
method is a vibration pick-up on the engine and a defined weight which is
attached alternately to each blade. In accordance with the result a polar
diagram is drawn. The balancing weight is then attached at the position of
greatest imbalance and a further ground run is carried out to ascertain the
lowest level of vibration. For this balancing cruise RPM and cruise power are
chosen.
Small propellers are not normally dynamically balanced as any shift of the
centres of gravity is only small.
Propeller Balancing Systems

Modern electronically controlled Turbo prop systems use some form of
Propeller Balance Monitoring System (PBMS).
The information required to provide a balance solution is derived from data
provided by a Magnetic Pickup Unit (MPU) and the Active Noise Control Unit
(ANCU) controller. This information together with engine RPM and aircraft
altitude is processed to determine the level of propeller imbalance.
The PBMS terminal can be interrogated to provide vibration levels and
calculate balance solutions. The balance solutions define the distribution of
balance weights to bring the propeller balance back into defined limits.
PROPELLER
 PART
 66

M17.6

M17 CAT
B1
 
© LRTT


    

  
 
 
 
Purposes Only
   

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     

Figure 60: Static and Dynamic Imbalance
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Aerodynamic Balancing
Propellers can be affected by vibrations because of the differing aerodynamic
loads of the blades resulting from the different blade angles. In this case the
blades produce individual thrust forces of different values. The sum of the
individual thrust forces of the blades (total thrust of the propeller) no longer
lies at the propeller’s axis of rotation. Total thrust, being off-centre, rotates
with the propeller leading to vibrations.
Aerodynamic balancing is only necessary for propellers with high
performance. Manufactured blades are compared individually with a
master blade and receive, according to deviation from the zero lift angle, an
aerodynamic correction factor in the form of a reference to the blade angle
difference necessary to the basic setting, and the whole process is also known
as blade indexing. The correction factor is usually marked on the blade root.
PROPELLER
 PART
 66

M17.6
 Part-66 M.17 Cat. B1
M17 CAT
B1
© LRTT

 

 
 
 
Purposes Only
   

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Figure
61: Aerodynamic Balancing
  
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Universal Blade Protractor

The protractor is used to measure the propeller blade angle at a specific blade To zero the protractor you must loosen the ring-to frame lock, align the
station to determine if the propeller is properly adjusted. The blade angle Is zeros on the disc and the ring, and then engage the disc-to-ring lock. Place
referenced from the propeller plane of rotation, which Is ninety degrees to the one edge of the protractor on a flat propeller hub surface that is parallel or
crankshaft centreline. perpendicular to the crankshaft centreline. Turn the ring adjuster until the
spirit level in the centre of the disc is level. (The corner spirit level should also
The frame of the protractor is made of aluminium and has three sides which
be level.) Now, tighten the ring-to-frame lock and release the disc-to-ring lock.
are ninety degrees to each other. A level is mounted on one corner of the
The protractor is now aligned with the engine centreline.
front of the frame. This corner spirit level swings out and is used to Indicate
when the protractor is vertical. A movable ring is located in the frame and is Place one blade of the propeller horizontal and move out to the reference
used to set the zero reference angle for blade angle measurements. The ring station marked on the face of the blade to measure the angle. Stand on the
is engraved with index marks which allow readings as small as one-tenth of a same side of the airplane, facing in the same direction as when establishing
degree. A centre disc is engraved with a degree scale from 0 to 180 degrees the zero with the protractor, otherwise the measurements will be incorrect.
positive and negative and contains a spirit level to Indicate when the disc is Place the edge of the protractor on the face at the reference station and turn
level. the disc adjuster until the spirit level centres and read the blade angle using
the zero line on the ring as the Index.
When using this device and before measuring the angle of a propeller blade,
the reference blade station must be determined from the propeller or aircraft Tenths of degrees can be read from the vernier scale. Rotate each blade to
manufacturer’s maintenance manual. This station will normally be at the 30- the same horizontal position and measure the angle. The amount of allowed
inch, 36-Inch, or 42-inch reference station. The reference station should be angle variation among the blades will vary with each design.
marked with a chalk or grease pencil on the face of each blade. If the face of the blade is curved, use masking tape to attach a piece of 1/8-
The next procedure is to establish the reference plane from the engine shaft inch rod (drill bits) 1/2-inch from the leading and trailing edges and measure
centreline. The reference plane is not based on the airframe attitude because the angle with the protractor resting on the rods.
of the canted Installation of some engines.
PROPELLER
 PART
 66

M17.6
 Part-66 M.17 Cat. B1
M17 CAT
B1

 
© LRTT
 
 

 
   

   


 
 
 
   
  
 

Purposes Only
 
   

For Training


  

    

2012
August    Figure 62: Universal Blade Protractor  139
Page: 
Blade Tracking
Blade Tracking Maintenance, Inspection & Repair

The propeller is a critical component which is subject to extremely high loads.
Blade Tracking In particular, the influence of stresses at points for which the propeller is not
Blade tracking is the ability of one blade to follow the other in the same plane designed are critical. Therefore, it is not permissible to push or pull smaller
of rotation. Tracking is held to reasonable limits to prevent roughness. To aircraft by the outer parts of the propeller.
check tracking, place a smooth board just under the tip of the lower blade. Influences of the environment, such as corrosion, erosion or stone strikes
On controllable props, move the tip fore and aft carefully through its small together with high dynamic loads create stress risers from where cracks
range of motion, making small pencil marks at each position. Centre the blade can propagate. In the case of variable pitch propellers, water caused by
between these marks and draw a line the full width of the blade. Repeat this condensation in the lubricants can lead to corrosion, with the result that
procedure with another blade tip. The lines should be separated by not more propeller blades may become jammed and leaks occur. For these reasons
than 3 mm. the instructions of the propeller and aircraft manufacturers must be strictly
Differences greater than 3mm may be an indication of bent blades, improper adhered to.
installation or foreign particles between the hub and crankshaft mounting
faces.
Another method can be the ‘Stick Method’ the stick (heavy wire or small rod) is
fitted to the aircraft wing in a fixed position and the propeller blade manually
rotated until it lightly touches the blade face near the tip of the blade. (See
Figure)
Rotate the propeller until the next blade is in the same position as the first
blade and measure the distance between the rod and blade. Continue this
process until all blades have been checked.
Blade Tracking
PROPELLER
 PART
 66

M17.6

M17 CAT
B1
© LRTT
   
 
 
 
For Training
 
Purposes Only
    

2012
August     141
Page: 
Figure 63: Blade Tracking Methods
Assessment of Blade Damage, Erosion, Impact Damage, Delamination
Assessment of Blade Damage, Erosion, Impact Damage, Inspections of Wooden Propellers

Delamination Wooden propeller should be checked for:
• Delamination
Wooden Propellers • Surface damage (damage to the protective coating will allow the wood to
Inspection and repair become damp).
When examining the blades the surface protection coating must be inspected. • Protective strip damage and loose screws or rivets.
It must be 100% intact so that no moisture can penetrate. Cracks at the • Root/shank damage (no repairs are permitted).
beginning of and along the metal tipping are usually insignificant and caused
• Distortion of the propeller mounting boss.
by differing expansion of the material.
• Damage or distortion to mounting bolt holes.
Cracks in the paint across the blade are signs of flexural vibrations. Cracks
through the leading edge tipping are the result. If the tipping is cracked in • Blade warp.
this way, it must be replaced immediately. In the case of riveted tipping, loose • Chips or splits.
rivets are a sign that the wood beneath it is damaged. The propeller should be
Surface damage to propeller blades can be repaired using a wood filler or a
taken out of service immediately.
mix of sawdust and aero glue (casein). On completion of the repair the blades
Less significant damage on the trailing edge or on the blade can be filled with surface finish must be restored. All work must be carried out in a warm dry
plastics. Indentations in the metal tipping can be filled by soldering. In this atmosphere.
case the use of any significant heat is to be avoided and balance must be
Casein cement (Aerolite 306) is a two part mix which sets quickly but requires
taken into consideration. Perforated tipping must be replaced.
an 8 hour cure time.
When checking the surface for damage, attention should be paid to any signs
The following damage cannot be repaired and renders the propeller unusable:
of delamination of the layers of the wood.
• Cracks across the grain
After installation of a new fixed pitch wood propeller the attachment bolts
must be re-tightened after 25 hours with the torque prescribed. After the • A splintered blade
initial re-tightening the torque must be checked at least every 50 hours as • Delamination
humidity will cause the wood to shrink and expand.
• Missing material
• Cracks in the hub
• Enlargement of the hub shaft bore
• Elliptical bolt holes
PROPELLER
 PART
 66

M17.6

M17 CAT
B1
  

   
 
    

  
Figure 64: Typical Damage on a Wooden Propeller
For Training Purposes Only        
2012
August     143
Page: 
Metal Propellers Repair of Damage

Metal propellers are particularly subject to metal fatigue. This is caused by the Information on permissible repairs can be found in the manufacturers
high dynamic loads they are subjected to. Scratches, hairline cracks, impact manuals.
marks and the effects of corrosion are potential stress risers for cracks. As a If no information is available, the following source can be used:
result of additional bending and centrifugal forces the crack extends, usually
Certification Specification (CS) CS-SR801a which refers to FAA Advisory Circular
over the matt black sprayed back side of the propeller blade.
(AC) AC 4313-B Aircraft Inspection and Repair
Care of Metal Propellers Permissible repair on the blade width is normally 1.2 mm from the root to
In order to avoid a failure of the propeller blades the following measures are 0.6 R and from 0.6 R to blade tip 2.4 mm, however not under the permissible
recommended: blade width.
1. Maintenance instructions and intervals are to be strictly observed. Permissible repair on the blade thickness is 0.7mm over the whole blade,
however not under the minimum blade thickness nor across the whole of the
2. RPM limitations are to be observed. blade.
3. Never taxi at high power if sand, stones or other material can be sucked into
the propeller. No repair whatever is permissible on the blade root
4. Clean the propeller regularly (not with alkaline cleaning agents) and rub with Nicks must be worked out with a large radius (10 x depth of nick for the
an oily cloth or car polish. leading edge and 30 x the depth). The profile shape of the leading edge must
remain intact. The place repaired must be checked for cracks and the surface
5. Do not cover the propeller (moisture forming can cause corrosion). smoothed with fine abrasive cloth. This prevents cracks extending from marks
6. When pulling small aircraft do not use the outside of the propeller blades left by tools. Working and polishing must always be done in the direction
but the propeller root. of the blade axis. Repair also includes removing any compressed material
7. Carry out careful pre-and after-flight inspections for nicks, scratches and beneath the nick.
other damage. Deep nicks must be repaired immediately according to When repairing the blade tips the minimum permissible diameter must be
manufacturer’s instructions. observed. In no case is it allowed to apply material using heat treatment or
8. Every 100 hours or at least at every annual check inspect the propeller to fill nicks with plastics. All types of cold working are also prohibited. On
thoroughly for damage after cleaning. In case of doubt use a magnifying completion of the repair the surface is to be appropriately protected.
glass or other methods of checking for cracks (using dye penetrant). After material has been removed, a ground run should be conducted to check
whether the propeller has become unbalanced. In the case of a two-blade
propeller the removal of about 2 - 3 gm is noticeable as a vibration. When in
doubt, the propeller must be rebalanced.
PROPELLER
 Part-66 M.17 Cat. B1 PART
 66

M17.6

M17 CAT
B1
         

    
© LRTT
          

     
      
    
    
   
    
  
   

Purposes Only
   

 
    

  
   
For Training
Figure 65: Example of Blade Repair Limits


© LRTT Ltd. Trading as Resource Group   

Page:140
   expert solutions, adding value

For TrainingAugust 
Only 
2012
Purposes  145
Page: 
Steel Propellers Inspection of the hub

Steel propellers are extremely durable and resistant to damage, but any During periodical inspections the hub must be checked for cracks and
damage is critical due to the brittle metals used. Consequently, damage must corrosion. Exterior parts of the change mechanism and the hub should be
be located and corrected as soon as possible. freed of corrosion. Grease leaks point to damage to the blade attachment
seals. Oil leaks are a sign of damaged seals in the pitch change cylinder
Note: All repairs to steel propellers and blades, including slight dents and or of damage to the blade attachments (oil-smeared blade bearings). As a
nicks, are major repairs and must be performed at an approved repair protection against corrosion lubricant spray can be applied to the hub after
facility. cleaning.
Permissible Bending of Metal Blades If there is excessive play on the blade tips or the blade angle, the cause may
If a blade has been bent, the angle of the bend and the blade station of the be damage to the blade attachment or the pitch change mechanism. It is
bend centre can be measured and, by using the proper chart, an evaluation equally serious if the blades stick (stiffness can be due to construction).
can be made as to the repairability of the blade.
In order to correctly establish the position of the damage, firstly identify the
centreline of the bend, then measure from the centre of the boss (or use the
blade master station mark) to determine the blade station.
Next, mark the blade one inch on each side of the bend centreline and
measure the degree of bend by using a protractor similar to the one shown in
the following figure. (Be sure to have the protractor tangent to the one-inch
lines when measuring the angle.)
Use the appropriate chart to determine if the bend is repairable. When
reading the chart, anything above the graph line is not repairable. If the
proper chart is not available, take the measurements and contact an
overhaul facility for a decision before sending the propeller to the facility for
straightening.
Figure 66: Bend Angle Protractor & Chart
Composite Propeller
Inspection & Repair
When inspecting a composite blade, this should be checked in the same
fashion as all other composite structures.
Damage is classified as either skin perforated damage and skin not
perforated damage.
Skin not perforated damage:
• Abrasion
• Scratches
• Gauges
• Nicks
• Debonding
• Delamination
• Dents
Skin perforated damage:
• Lightning strike
• Holes
In addition the condition of the tipping on the leading edge and the heating
element (if present) are to be checked.
When the propeller remains attached, only minor repairs are possible, such as
the re-coating of the polyurethane finish.
If struck by foreign material the edges may be smoothed and the missing
material replaced.
17.6 Propeller PROPELLER
Maintenance
 PART
 66

Assessment ofM17.6
Blade Damage,
 Erosion,
PROPELLER
 Impact Damage, Delamination
MAINTENANCE
 Part-66 M.17 Cat. B1
M17 CAT
B1
  

  
© LRTT






 

   
 
For Training
 
Purposes Only
     

2012
August    Figure 67: Inspection of Composite Blades  149
Page: 
Propeller Engine Running

These checks can be carried out using the electric feathering pump to
Propeller Engine Ground Running pressurise the oil to move the pitch change mechanism. It should be noted
that, when using this method to move the propeller blades, oil being returned
Introduction from the propeller pitch change mechanism cannot be returned to the engine
As previously mentioned, propellers are not limited to piston engine aircraft oil tank because the oil scavenge pumps will not be rotating. To prevent
but are also used on some types of gas turbine engines, namely turbo-props. flooding the engine with oil, a dry motoring cycle will be required to operate
Because of this, some knowledge is required of engine ground running for the scavenge pumps.
both piston and turbo-prop engines. These static checks will normally be carried out prior to an engine ground run
Before carrying out a ground run certain checks need to be carried out with following:
the engine not running. Therefore, these checks are known as Static Checks. • Engine Installation
• Propeller Installation
Static Checks
Certain checks on the propeller and control system can be carried out without • Propeller Governor installation
the need to run the engine. These checks are: • Propeller control adjustments
• Flight Fine Pitch Stop (FFPS) • When called for by the servicing schedule
• Auto-Coarsening
• Manual Feather
• Autofeather
• Unfeather
PROPELLER
 PART
 66

M17.6

Module 17. Propeller M17 CAT
B1
© LRTT 
Purposes Only

 
  

  
 
    
 
For Training
Figure 68: Piston Engine Propeller Controls


     

© LRTT Ltd. Trading Page: 146

August  as
2012
Resource
  Group expert solutions, adding value
 151
Page: 
Propeller/Piston Engine Ground Running

It is not necessary to run at maximum power because there is a relationship
General between every power setting for a particular propeller pitch. Similarly, a fixed
Piston engines, otherwise known as reciprocating engines, are further pitch propeller will have its reference RPM checked at a particular manifold
classified as normally-asperated or supercharged engines. The power pressure.
developed by these engines (power ratings) are related to the air pressure
To compensate for an airfields height above sea level and temperature
in the engine air induction manifold. This is known as Manifold Air Pressure
differences, reference RPM corrections can be found in Ch 71 of the A.M.M.
(M.A.P.).
The M.A.P. produced in a normally aspirated engine will always be below
ambient air pressure whilst that of a supercharged engine (known as boost
pressure) can be greatly in excess of ambient pressure. This means, for
example, that a boost pressure of +4psi would equate to 18.7psi, and a
boost pressure of 2psi would equate to 12.7psi if the ambient pressure was
14.7psi. Consequently, Zero boost would be ambient pressure. American
engines measure their boost pressure in inches of mercury (in. Hg.) where the
standard atmospheric pressure of 14.7psi is taken as 29.92 in.Hg. Therefore,
1psi equals approximately 2.04 in Hg.
At any given air density a propeller at a fixed pitch will always stabilise at a
particular RPM to absorb the engine power. This means that if the engine
throttle is advanced, then as well as the RPM increasing the M.A.P. will
increase allowing the performance of the engine/propeller combination to be
checked using known reference figures at the reference RPM.
Reference RPM
Piston engines will produce a specific RPM for any given engine manifold
pressure. To check this reference RPM, it is simply a matter of setting the
propeller to fine pitch, advancing the throttle until the manifold pressure
reads zero boost and checking that the RPM is the same as that published for
the reference RPM. This is called the reference power check.
PROPELLER
 PART
 66

M17.6

M17 CAT
B1
 
© LRTT
  RPM Control

    
(Propeller)
 
Throttle Levers Mixture Control

 Only
(Manifold Pressure)
For Training
 

    

2012
August     153
Page: 
Figure 69: Control & Indication
Engine Ground Test (EXAMPLE) For this example reference RPM is 2 200 RPM +/.50 RPM, maximum take off
RPM is 3 000 RPM.
The propeller used in this example is a variable pitch, constant speed,
manually feathered propeller fitted to a supercharged engine with a • Move the RPM lever to the constant speed range, the RPM should reduce
maximum M.A.P. of +8psi. slightly and then stabilise. Advance the throttle forward an inch (2.4 cms)
then retard it the same amount and check that the boost pressure increased
It is assumed that all general pre-running procedures including chocking the
then decreased while the RPM remained constant. This proves that the
wheels, applying the parking brake have been carried out.
propeller governor is controlling the constant speed.
• Determine the ambient pressure, temperature and humidity at the aircraft,
• Move the RPM lever back to fine pitch and select the mixture control to fully
not in it.
rich.
• Ensure the engine is facing into wind and the wind speed is steady and
• Advance the throttle to the maximum boost of +8 psi and note the RPM. It
below the maximum allowed, usually 25 kts. A tail wind will reduce the RPM.
should have settled just below maximum RPM at 2 250 RPM. Remain at this
• If the air temperature is below +10 deg C with visible moisture in the air RPM just long enough to note the reading then return the throttle to idle and
then air inlet icing should be ON and will prevent an accurate reference RPM note the RPM.
check.
• Shut down the engine.
Note: If inlet icing is selected this will heat up the air passing into the
Note: Fixed pitch propellers will not attain maximum RPM when ground
manifold and reduce the air’s density, thereby reducing the map. Ideally,
run in nil wind conditions This is to prevent over speeding during take off.
the conditions should be such that the air inlet control should be set to
cold.
• Set RPM lever to high RPM (Fine Pitch) and Mixture strength to fully rich.
• Start engine and idle until engine temperature has reached NORMAL.
• Select mixture strength to auto-rich.
• Advance throttle lever slowly until ZERO boost is achieved.
• Individually select each magneto OFF and then back ON to ensure both sets
of spark plugs are working. A faulty set will cause a drop in RPM and affect
the power check.
• Move the RPM lever to low RPM (coarse) and return to high RPM. REPEAT.
This will exercise the pitch change mechanism with warm oil.
• Ensure ZERO boost and steady and note the engine RPM is within the
tolerance given in the Reference RPM chart.
Figure 70: Piston Propeller Running
Turboprop Engine Ground Running

General
Turboprop engine power is measured in shaft horsepower (SHP) and
determined by the amount of torque produced. Where as a piston engine
uses boost pressure to determine RPM a turboprop should produce a
selected RPM for a given torque. To determine that the engine is operating
correctly then the engine exhaust gas temperature (EGT) and fuel flow (Wf)
must be monitored against the referenced torque and RPM. This allows the
relationship between the propeller and engine to be checked.
Performance Checks
As with piston engine propellers, performance checks are required to ensure
the continued safe operation of the Propeller/Engine combination. However,
unlike piston engine reference RPM checks, Performance checks can be
carried out at the maximum power setting or a lower value. The important
point to note is there will always be a relationship between the torque, RPM,
Fuel Flow and EGT.
This will be the same whether the operation of the engine/propeller is by
single or twin lever operation.
Figure 71: Turboprop Engine Running
Example Engine Ground Test OUT. Check for any vibration and record Np RPM. At this time the propeller
is against the FFPS.
The engine/propeller combination in this example is a theoretical free power
turbine (gas coupled) fitted with a Fully Feathering, Reverse Pitch, Constant • With the condition lever at high RPM (fine) move the power lever to
Speed Propeller controlled with a Twin Lever Arrangement. Maximum Take off ensuring no surge or vibration.
Again, as for piston engine ground running, it is assumed that all general • Return power lever to CRUISE and move the conditioning lever until cruise
pre-running procedures including chocking the wheels, applying the parking RPM (Np) is indicated. Trim fuel to reduce fuel flow and check Ng reduces
brake, have all been carried out. while Np remains constant, then trim fuel flow back to original value and
ensure Ng recovers to original RPM and Np remains constant (propeller is
• Determine the ambient pressure, temperature and humidity at the aircraft,
constant speeding).
not in it.
• Return conditioning lever to high RPM position, Power lever to Max Take off
• Ensure the engine is facing into wind and the wind speed is steady and
power and check Np, Ng, EGT, Fuel Flow and Torque.
below the maximum allowed, usually 25 kts. A tail wind will reduce the RPM.
• Return Power lever to cruise and conditioning lever to selected Np.
• If the air temperature is below +10 deg C with visible moisture in the air then
air intake and propeller anti-icing should be ON and will prevent an accurate • Performance check completed.
performance check. • Check Mechanical Pitch Lock by operating test switch. Trim fuel to reduce
Note: If intake anti-icing is selected this will heat up the air passing into fuel flow and ensure Np decreases. Cancel test switch and observe Np
the engine and reduce its density. this will reduce the power of the engine returns to original RPM. Continue to reduce fuel flow and ensure Np remain
causing the fuel control to compensate by adding extra fuel which in turn constant. Restore fuel flow to original value.
will cause a rise in egt. • Move conditioning lever to high RPM, select FFPS to GROUND and move the
• Ensure conditioning lever is at high RPM (Fine) and the power lever is at power lever to Ground Idle. The EHPS and FFPS lights should illuminate.
GROUND IDLE. • Move Power lever to FULL REVERSE and check Torque and Np then return
• Start the engine and allow to settle at Ground Idle. Carry out post start up Power lever to Ground Idle.
checks. • Check Auto-Coarsening circuit by operating the test switch. This withdraws
• Move the power lever towards reverse, to further fine the blades to allow the the FFPS and activates the EHPS. Check the FFPS withdrawn light is ON and
centrifugal latch to disengage, then return to Ground Idle. the EHPS warning light is FLASHING. Cancel the test and ensure both lights
extinguish.
• Check that the Electro-Hydraulic Pitch Stop (EHPS) light is ON and the FFPS
withdrawn light is ON. Move the power lever to just below FLIGHT IDLE and • Manually Feather the propeller at Ground Idle by moving the conditioning
check Np RPM remains constant While Ng increases; also check that the lever to FEATHER and operate the feathering pump. To unfeather move
EHPS and FFPS warning lights have remained ON. When moving the power conditioning lever into the constant speed range and operate the feathering
lever always monitor the engine indications to ensure serviceable operation. pump.
• Select FFPS to flight and move the power lever into the constant speed range • Allow the engine to run at Ground Idle to permit the casing temperatures to
before returning it to Flight Idle. Check that the EHPS and FFPS lights are stabilise. Shut Down and Apply propeller Brake.
Figure 72: Four Engined Cockpit Arrangement
Trouble-shooting General (Constant Speed Propellers) Maximum RPM Too Low

• Check setting of Maximum RPM stop on PCU
Vibration
• If Maximum RPM stop correctly set, check range of movement of controls.
1. Incorrect Blade Angle (Aerodynamic balance).
• Check each blade at the Master Reference Station with a Blade protractor. Maximum RPM Too High
2. Out of Track • Maximum RPM stop incorrectly set.
• Check that each blade tip is passing through the same plane, using a Propeller Control Unit (PCU) Fails To Control
recognised method.
• If new installation, check quill drive.
3. Bearing Grease Leakage
• PCU seizure, sheared quill drive.
• Small streaks will probably be apparent after the initial ground run. Large
• Pressure relief valve (PRV) open producing low oil pressure.
streaks may mean blade removal, cleaning, examination and re-greasing.
• Stiff operation of blade bearings or linkages.
4. Propeller Security.
Note: Stiff operation of PCU or propeller moving parts may produce RPM
• Check for Play.
surges.
• Remove propeller and check splines on shaft and hub.
Turbo-propeller Engines
• Check cones and seating for fretting.
High Torque with normal EGT and Fuel Flow (Wf)
5. Damaged Blade Bearings
• Suspect Torque Indication.
• Damage or incorrect assembly will lead to slackness, vibration or seizure
(blade rock and rotation in the hub). Low Torque with Low EGT and Low Fuel Flow (Wf)
• Over-speed Governor.
Minimum RPM too low
Low Torque with High EGT and Low Fuel Flow (Wf)
• PCU valve sticking in high (coarse) pitch position.
• High ambient air temperature.
• PCU speeder spring weakened, allowing centrifugal weights to operate
earlier.
Minimum RPM Too High
• PCU valve sticking in low (fine) pitch position.
• Restriction may prevent minimum RPM position being reached by PCU.
Trouble-shooting Piston Engine Propellers

Engine will not attain reference RPM at Zero boost.
• Engine power low.
• Incorrect blade angle (Coarse).
• Weak governor speeder spring.
Advancing the throttle until reference RPM is reached will indicate how low
the engine performance is.
Engine attains reference RPM before Zero boost.

• Incorrect blade angle (Fine).
• Incorrect propeller governor setting.
• High ambient temperature.
Maximum take off RPM low

• Maximum RPM stop on governor incorrect
• Tail wind
17.7 Propeller Storage & Preservation
Propeller Preservation and Depreservation
17.7 Propeller Storage & Preservation Installed Propellers

Periods up to 3 Months
Installed wooden propellers must be kept in a clean condition and inspected
Introduction at regular intervals.
Propellers that are taken out of service for any period of time need to be Wooden fixed pitch propellers should be placed in a horizontal position to
protected against the environmental effects of corrosion, moisture and ensure that there is even moisture distribution. They should be cleaned with a
foreign debris ingress. mild solution of soap and water and inspected for damage. Any deterioration
The preservation and de-preservation procedures and storage periods for in the surface finish should be restored to prevent the ingress of moisture.
both serviceable and unserviceable installed propellers are found in the The blades should be adequately ventilated and, if possible, the storage area
Aircraft Maintenance Manual (AMM) while uninstalled propeller preservation, should be clean, warm, dry, dark and well ventilated as well as free from
depreservation procedures and storage periods are found in the Propeller corrosive vapours. Ideal storage temperatures are between 10° C and 20° C.
Maintenance Manual (PMM). The procedure for metal fixed pitch propellers is similar but with the addition
Storage periods for propellers are typically divided up into periods of up to:- of regular corrosion inspections.
• 3 months - short term Variable pitch propeller pitch change mechanisms need to be exercised to
circulate the oil in the pitch change mechanism prior to engine shut down. On
• 6 months - long term completion of the ground run, the propeller should be cleaned using a mild
• 12 months - long term solution of soap and clean water and inspected for signs of corrosion.
• 3 years - long term Periods up to 6 Months
If the propeller is to be stored on the wing for periods in excess of 3 months
then the pitch change mechanism should be flushed using an inhibiting oil
and then covered with waxed paper.
All external parts should be treated with Lanolin or an approved anti-corrosive
treatment and inspected regularly for corrosion.
Note: Ensure that lanolin does not come into contact with the de-icer
boots
Correct Incorrect
Figure 73: Short Term Storage
Preservation of Uninstalled, Assembled Propellers Long Term Storage up to Six Months.

The procedure for wooden propellers remains the same as for short term
Short Term Storage up to Three Months. storage up to three months.
Wooden propellers should be stored in a horizontal position to maintain even For metal, variable pitch propellers the procedure is the same as for short
moisture distribution. The storage area should be clean, dry, dark and well term storage up to three months, with one exception:
ventilated, free from corrosive vapours. To prevent rot, the propeller should If the propeller blades have pre-loaded bearings, the blades must be rotated
not be wrapped in any way that would seal it off from the air. Storage area to prevent the bearings brinelling. This should be carried out at the six months
temperatures should be within 10°C to 20°C. point.
If a wooden propeller has an automatic pitch change mechanism, the hub The rotation procedure is carried out by marking the blade positions relative
should be filled with oil. The propeller should be turned every two weeks to their bearings prior to rotating each blade with an approved turning
to ensure that the internal surfaces of the hub are coated with oil. Regular paddle. The blade is turned through its full range of travel at least three times.
inspections should be made for signs of deterioration. While the rotation procedure is in progress, the blade should check for signs
Variable pitch propellers should have been exercised prior to their removal. of tightness or roughness. Oscillating the blade paddle should quickly relieve
If they remain assembled, they should be cleaned and then stored in a warm, any initial friction. If there is any sign of roughness, the bearing should be
dry and dust free environment, free from corrosive vapours. Ideal storage removed and inspected.
temperatures are between 10°C and 20°C. If the check is satisfactory, the blade should be left at a position at least one
Propellers with metal blades should be stored in an upright position on stands inch away from its original position.
where the hub is supported by a mandrel.
The external surfaces of the propeller should be coated with lanolin or an
approved corrosion inhibitor. The pitch change mechanism should be drained
of oil and flushed with approved inhibiting oil. The pitch change mechanism
surface should be coated in lanolin and the mechanism should be wrapped in
waxed paper.
The oil transfer tubes and the propeller attachment parts should be cleaned,
coated in lanolin and wrapped in waxed paper.
Note: All parts used to secure the propeller to the engine, including the
oil transfer tubes, retaining nut assemblies and the location cones are
considered to be propeller parts and must accompany it both into storage
and while in transit.
Preservation of Uninstalled, Assembled Propellers cont. Long Term Storage over Twelve Months.
The storage procedure remains similar to that of the three, six and twelve
Long Term Storage up to Twelve Months. month examples. However, each year, the blades require exercising at the
The storage procedures remains the same as for the three and six month six months and the nine months stage, followed by bearing removal and
examples except that, for pre-loaded blades, the blades will require exercising inspection at the twelve months point. The propeller will require re-inhibiting
after six months and nine months. At twelve months , the bearings must at each twelve months point. At the three year stage the propeller must
be removed and visually examined for signs of “brinelling” and corrosion. If be sent for overhaul. The overhaul will include a hub/blade inspection as
satisfactory, the bearings must be cleaned, greased and reassembled on to required by AWN75.
the blades. The propeller must then be re-inhibited and re-protected.
Bearing Brinelling
Long Term Preservation of Uninstalled, Dismantled 4. All electrical connections and slip rings should be cleaned and coated in
Propellers petroleum jelly. Each part should be sealed in a moisture vapour proof bag.
• Long term storage up to six months. 5. All propellers or propeller components retained in storage should be suitably
labelled to show their part number, modification standard and original date
• Long term storage up to twelve months. of storage.
• Long term storage up to three years. All the propeller parts should be wrapped in waxed paper and packed into the
approved crate. The crate should be labelled with:
Long Term Storage up to Six Months, Twelve Months and Three Years
(Unistalled and Dismantled) • The propeller type and serial number
If the propeller is dismantled and remains in its original manufacturers’ • Component part numbers
packing it will not require re-inhibiting every twelve months. However, if the • The modification standard
blade bearings are in a pre-loaded condition, they will still be subject to the • Original date of preservation
requirement for exercising at the six month and nine month periods each
year and the annual dismantling and inspection procedure. Providing these • The dates of the blade bearing exercise and inspections if applicable
requirements are met, the propeller can remain in storage for up to three Providing the propeller remains in its packing, it may remain in storage for up
years, at which time it must be returned for overhaul. to three years prior to being overhauled.
If the propeller is dismantled following removal from the aircraft, it is to be Note: All parts held in storage require an EASA form 1 - certificate of
prepared for long-term storage as follows: conformity, and a valid certificate of release to service
1. The exposed hub bore, splines and other hub internal exposed surfaces are
to be cleaned and treated with corrosion inhibitor. This may be a mineral
jelly or a storage wax compound.
2. The pitch change mechanism should be immersed in inhibiting oil and then
drained and wrapped in waxed paper. The oil transfer tubes, propeller
attachment parts and location cones should be coated in a corrosion
inhibitor such as a mineral jelly or wax compound and then be individually
wrapped in waxed paper or sealed in moisture vapour proof bags.
3. The blades should be coated in lanolin and then be wrapped in greaseproof
paper.
Table of Contents Propeller/Spinner Installation 49

Propeller Installation 49
17.1 Fundamentals 1 Spinner Installation 51
Blade Element Theory 1
17.3 Propeller Pitch Control 53
Introduction 1
Speed Control and Pitch Changing Methods 53
Nomenclature 3
Controllable-Pitch Propellers 57
Theory of Operation 5
General 57
Propeller Blade Angles and Rotational Speed 7
Constant Speed Variable Pitch Propellers 59
Airflow onto a Propeller Blade 9
Pitch Change Range 59
Propeller Brake Moment 9
Blade Ranges 59
Aerodynamic, Centrifugal, and Thrust Forces 13
Propeller Governor 69
Forces Acting on a Propeller 13
Operation 77
Power Absorption 17
Unfeathering Accumulator 79
Torque 28
Turboprop Variable Pitch Propellers 83
Relative Airflow on the Blade of Angle Attack 33
General 85
Vibration and Resonance 35
Engine Arrangements 87
Propeller Noise 35
Direct Connected 87
Influences on the Level of Noise 37
Compound Engine 87
17.2 Propeller Construction 39 Free Power Turbine Engine 87
Construction Methods and Materials Used 39 Turboprop Ratings 89
Wooden Propellers 39 Typical Turboprop Propeller System (Rolls Royce Dart) 91
Metal Propeller Blades 41 Feathering and Reverse Pitch 97
Aluminium Propellers 41 Feathering 97
Steel Propellers 41 Power Lever Operation 99
Propeller Assembly 45 Reverse Pitch Propellers 101
Propeller to Engine Attachment 47 Beta Mode 102
Over-speed Protection 103 Steel Propellers 141

Electronic Pitch Control 103 Composite Propeller 143
Pitch Control Unit (PCU) 105 Propeller Engine Running 145
Propeller Electronic Control Unit (PEC) 107 Propeller Engine Ground Running 145
Autofeather 109 Introduction 145
17.4 Propeller Synchronising 111 Propeller/Piston Engine Ground Running 147
Synchronising and Synchrophasing Equipment 111 Engine Ground Test (EXAMPLE) 149
General 111 Turboprop Engine Ground Running 151
System Components 111 Example Engine Ground Test 153
4.1.2 System Operation 111 Trouble-shooting General (Constant Speed Propellers) 155
17.5 Propeller Ice Protection 117 Trouble-shooting Piston Engine Propellers 156
Fluid and Electrical De-icing Equipment 117 17.7 Propeller Storage & Preservation 157
Fluid Anti-icing-System Maintenance 119 Propeller Preservation and Depreservation 157
Electrical De-Icing System 121 Installed Propellers 157
System Tests 123 Preservation of Uninstalled, Assembled Propellers 159
17.6 Propeller Maintenance 124 Short Term Storage up to Three Months. 159
Static and Dynamic Balancing 124 Long Term Preservation of Uninstalled, Dismantled Propellers 161
Propeller Balance 124

Dynamic Balancing 129
Aerodynamic Balancing 131
Universal Blade Protractor 133
Blade Tracking 135
137
Wooden Propellers 137
Metal Propellers 139
Table of Figures Figure 26: Blade Paddle Use on a Ground-Adjustable Propeller 56
Figure 1: Evolving Propeller Designs 2 Figure 27: Beech-Roby Pitch Change Mechanism 58
Figure 2: Nomenclature 4 Figure 28: Comparison of Blade Angles 60
Figure 3: Propulsive Efficiency of the Propeller 6 Figure 29: Single Engine Pitch Change Mechanism 62
Figure 4: Propeller Blade Angles 8 Figure 30: Single Acting Propeller 64
Figure 5: Influences on the Angle of Attack of a Propeller Blade 10 Figure 31: Flyweight and its Moment 66
Figure 6: Brake Moment and Blade Angle 12 Figure 32: Pitch Change using Co-axial Tubes 68
Figure 7: Propeller Static Loads 14 Figure 33: Propeller Governor 70
Figure 8: Propeller Dynamic Loads 15 Figure 34: On-speed Condition 72
Figure 9: Power Absorption 18 Figure 35: Underspeed Condition 74
Figure 10: Minimum Propeller Blade Clearances 20 Figure 36: Overspeed Condition 76
Figure 11: Blade Washout 22 Figure 37: Governor Operating Conditions 78
Figure 12: Propeller Pitch 24 Figure 38: Unfeathering Accumulator 80
Figure 13: Propeller Wash 30 Figure 39: Centrifugal Latches 82
Figure 14: Gyroscopic Effect 32 Figure 40: Comparison of Blade Angles 84
Figure 15: Critical Engine P-Effect 34 Figure 41: Pratt & Whitey Two Stage Reduction Gear Box 86
Figure 16: Propeller Noise 36 Figure 42: Turboprop Arrangements 88
Figure 17: Propeller Blade Shapes 38 Figure 43: Control Arrangements 90
Figure 18: Production of a Wooden Propeller 40 Figure 44: Simplified Single Stop Propeller System 92
Figure 19: Composite Blade with Metal Spar 42 Figure 45: Basic F.F.P.S. Circuit 94
Figure 20: Composite Blade without Metal Spar (Dowty F50) 43 Figure 46: Simple Electro-Hydraulic Stop 96
Figure 21: Blade Retainers 46 Figure 47: Simplified Automatic Feathering Circuit 97
Figure 22: Propeller to Engine Attachment 48 Figure 48: Power Level Movement Effects 100
Figure 23: Seating Cones & Propeller Installation 50 Figure 49: Over-speed Governor 104
Figure 24: Spinner Backplate & Support 52 Figure 50: Propeller Control Unit 105
Figure 25: Fixed Pitch Propeller 54 Figure 51: Propeller Control Block Diagram (Q400 Next Gen) 108
Figure 52: Synchroniser 112

Figure 53: Simple Synchrophase System 114
Figure 54: Synchrophasing with Electronic Prop Control 116
Figure 55: Fluid Anti-Icing System 118
Figure 56: Electrical De-Icing System 122
Figure 57: Static Balancing 125
Figure 58:Static Balancing - Wood 126
Figure 59: Variable Pitch Propeller 128
Figure 60: Static and Dynamic Imbalance 130
Figure 61: Aerodynamic Balancing 132
Figure 62: Universal Blade Protractor 134
Figure 63: Blade Tracking Methods 136
Figure 64: Typical Damage on a Wooden Propeller 138
Figure 65: Example of Blade Repair Limits 140
Figure 66: Bend Angle Protractor & Chart 142
Figure 67: Inspection of Composite Blades 144
Figure 68: Piston Engine Propeller Controls 146
Figure 69: Control & Indication 148
Figure 70: Piston Propeller Running 150
Figure 71: Turboprop Engine Running 152
Figure 72: Four Engined Cockpit Arrangement 154
Figure 73: Short Term Storage 158

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Aviation Technical Training

An EASA Part-147 Approved Training Organisation Approval No UK.147.0046

For training purposes and internal use only.

Resource Group - Aviation Technical Training

© LRTT Ltd. Trading as Resource Group expert solutions, adding value

Module 17. Propeller

© LRTT Ltd. Trading as Resource Group expert solutions, adding value

Figure 1: Evolving Propeller Designs

   

Figure 3: Propulsive Efficiency of the Propeller

© LRTT Ltd. Trading as Resource Group   

Propeller Blade Angles and Rotational Speed

Angle of Attack α (alpha)

Angle of Advance or Helix Angle φ (phi)

Figure 4: Propeller Blade Angles

Airflow onto a Propeller Blade Propeller Brake Moment

  

           

Brake Moment when Changing the Blade Angle

An increase in pitch has the opposite effect.

Figure 6: Brake Moment and Blade Angle

Aerodynamic, Centrifugal, and Thrust Forces

Forces Acting on a Propeller

  

  

  

  

    

causing the highest vibrational load.

Figure 8: Propeller Dynamic

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Figure 9: Power Absorption

• Propeller to Nose wheel 1/2 inch (13.7mm)

Figure 10: Minimum Propeller Blade Clearances

Geometry of the Propeller Blade

Figure 11: Blade

Propeller Pitch Propeller Efficiency

Figure 12: Propeller Pitch

Brake Moment when Wind-milling

Brake Moment at Reverse Thrust

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The Twist Effect of the Propeller Wash.

Figure 13: Propeller Wash

Figure 14: Gyroscopic Effect

Relative Airflow on the Blade of Angle Attack

Figure 15: Critical Engine P-Effect

Vibration and Resonance

Figure 16: Propeller Noise

Influences on the Level of Noise

   

Figure 17: Propeller

    

  

   

      

Metal Propeller Blades Steel Propellers

Composite Propeller Blades Construction of Composite Propellers with a Metal Spar

Figure 19: Composite Blade with Metal Spar

Construction of Composite Blades without Metal Spar

Figure 20: Composite Blade without Metal Spar (Dowty F50)

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Threaded Blade Retainers

   