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Bogdan Kasztenny
Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories, Inc.
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Bogdan Kasztenny
1500
1000
Winding Currents [A]
500
-500
-1000
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
time [sec]
Factors Impacting Inrush Currents
Point on wave
Residual flux
X/R ratio of the energizing system
Energizing voltage and frequency
Transformer characteristics
Winding connections
Interactions with other transformers
(sympathetic inrush)
Interactions with cables (ferrorezonance)
Energization versus fault recovery inrush
Transformer Inrush & CT Saturation
4
x 10
1.5
1
Winding Currents [A]
0.5
-0.5
-1
-1.5
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
time [sec]
CT Saturation
Current
Flux
Transformer Inrush & CT Saturation
4
x 10
1.5
1
Flat periods departing
Winding Currents [A]
0.5
from zero are signs of CT
saturation
0
-0.5
4
x 10
1
-1
0.8
0.6
-1.5
0 Winding Currents [A]
time [sec] 0.4
0.2
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
0.15
time [sec]
Impact on Protection
IB IB
IC IC
IG IG
IA1 IB1 IC1
IB
IB
IC
IC
IG
IG
IF
I=0
IG = 0 I0 = 0
No zero-
No current in sequence current
the neutral CT in the phase CTs
I D = IG + I N = IG + I A + I B + IC
The functions is balanced as zero vs. zero
– any CT saturation would yield a
spurious differential signal
Inrush Currents - a Similar Effect
Currents in two phases
are greatly offset
I D = IG + I N = IG + I A + I B + IC
Restraining current
I R _ aux = max ( I R 0 , I R1 , I R 2 )
Smaller than
differential IN
Positive-Sequence Restraining Signal
Use positive-sequence
less zero-sequence (to
decrease restraint on
ground faults)
If I 1 > 1.5 pu of phase CTs then
If I1 > I 0 then I R1 = 3 ⋅ ( I 1 − I 0 )
else I R1 = 0
1
else I R1 = ⋅ I1
8 If significant ground current,
rely on zero-sequence restraint
I R2 = 3 ⋅ I 2 OR I R 2 = I 2
On external LL faults
yields 1.73 times Multiplier lowered when energizing
fault current the winding (for better sensitivity
to pre-existing internal faults):
External LL fault
IB IA < 0.05 pu TIMER
5cy Use multiplier 1
AND
IB < 0.05 pu 2cy Use multiplier 3
IC < 0.05 pu
I2
IR2
IA
Almost twice the
fault current
Switch-off Transients
Switch-off trajectories
Uncontrolled
trajectory
External fault with
differential heavy CT saturation
Well-controlled
trajectory
Post-fault
restraining
operating point
(
I R ( k ) = max I R _ aux( k ) , A ⋅ I R ( k −1) )
Relay Response Example
Generator Differential Protection
current, pu
-0.5
0.2
0.0 -1
-0.2
-1.5
-0.4
-2
0.24 0.28 0.32 0.36 0.4 0.44 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45
time, sec time, sec
0.6
Full-cycle Fourier
0.4
0.2 Transient overshoot < 2%
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
frequency, pu
Differential Characteristic
SH Differential signal:
differential
I D = IT − I N
SL Restraining signal:
I R1 = max( I T , I N )
BH
P
BL restraining
Adaptive Tripping Logic
SAT = 0
differential
SAT = 1
SL
BL restraining
IN
SAT
OR
IT
AND
DIR = 0
DIR OP
IT IN
DIR = 1 DIF
differential
DIF = 1
DIF = 0
restraining
Directional (phase comparison) Principle
Foundation:
• Compare direction if currents are significant, give permission otherwise
• Overcurrent supervision adaptive (no user setting)
• Fixed, 90-deg limit angle
• Extended blocking upon detecting persistent though fault condition
Implementation:
If ( IT > BL OR ( I T > D2 ⋅ I R1 AND I T > P )) AND...
( IN > BL OR ( I N > D2 ⋅ I R1 AND I N > P ))
AND
TIMER
else DIR1 := true
1.5cy
AND
DIF 1.5cy
SAT
CT Saturation (through condition) Detector
Foundation:
• Separate ac and dc saturation detection algorithms
• AC (high current) saturation detection using DIF-RES trajectory
• DC (low current) saturation using dc components
• Memory (state machine) for security
Implementation: NORMAL
SAT = 0
RESET-1
SC
EXT FAULT
SAT = 1
RESET-2
RESET −1 = { (I D < S L ⋅ I R ) OR (I D < P ) } AND NOT (SC ) DIF
CT SAT
RESET − 2 = NOT (DIF )
SAT = 1
CT Saturation Detection (Saturation Condition)
SC = SCac OR SCdc
N −1
SCac = (I D < S L ⋅ I R ) AND (I R > B L )
1
I dc( n ) =
N
i( n − k )
k =0
OR
BL restraining
AND
1.5cy
DCN 5cy SCdc
DIF
Relay Playback Examples
Transformer Inrush
0.5
0
current, pu
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45
time, sec
Relay Playback Example
0.5
iABC, Amperes
-0.5
-1
Energizing delta winding
-1.5
0.15 0.2 0.25
(no
0.3
zero-sequence
0.35
current, right?)
4000
zero-sequence (waveform)
3000
i0, I0, Amperes
2000
1000
zero-sequence (60Hz component)
0
-1000
0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
time, sec
I OPERATE = 3 ⋅ I 0 − K ⋅ I1
Summary