Biology of evolution

What is a species?
Biological species concept

• Reproductive isolation among populations

resulting in failed production of fertile and viable
hybrids.

B. Which characteristic(s) may be used to

differentiate similarly looking creatures?
What is a species?: reproductive isolating mechanisms

1. Pre-zygotic barriers
 What is a species?: reproductive isolating mechanisms

1. Pre-zygotic barriers
2. Post-zygotic barriers

hybrid breakdown

reduced hybrid
(=offspring) viability
reduced hybrid fertility (i.e.,
sterile hybrids)
Alternative concepts of species
Alternative concepts of species
Alternative concepts of species
Patterns of speciation (or evolutionary change)

Anagenesis: evolution within a

lineage (a rare occurrence)

Cladogenesis: evolution due to

splitting of a lineage (more
frequent occurrence) → promotes
biological diversity
Modes of speciation (evolutionary change): allopatry,
adaptive radiation

a series of dispersal and

isolation of organisms
Modes of speciation (evolutionary
change): sympatry
 Rate of speciation (evolutionary change)
Gradualism (=phyletic)
 Rate of speciation (evolutionary change)
Punctuated equilibrium
Rate of speciation: punctuated equilibrium

Stephen Jay Gould (1941-2002)

“The great majority of species

originates in geological moments
(punctuations) and persists in
stasis” – The Structure of
Evolutionary Theory (2001)
 Biological Evolution: descent with modification
Natural theology, creationist essentialist

watchmaker analogy
 History of evolution: ancient and pre-Scientific Revolution

Plato (400 BC)

• perfect world versus imperfect world

Aristotle (300 BC)

scale of increasing complexity
(Scala Naturae)

Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778)

• binomial classification of non-evolving
creations of God
 History of evolution: ancient and pre-Scientific Revolution
George Cuvier (1769-1832)
• dissimilarity of fossil record with increasing
depth of sedimentary rocks (catastrophism)

James Hutton (1726-1797)

• slow, continuous processes shaping the
Earth’s geology (gradualism)

Charles Lyell (1797-1875)

• all geological processes operating in the
same manner and intensity
(uniformitarianism)
• “the present is the key to the past”
 History of evolution: ancient and pre-Scientific Revolution
Jean Baptiste Lamarck (1744-1829)

• fossil record as evidence of the continuing evolution of organisms towards

greater complexity and perfection in response to organism’s sentiments
interieur (“felt needs”)

• Lamarck’s mechanism of evolution: Use and disuse; Inheritance of acquired traits

Evolution is a unifying concept in biology

“Nothing in biology makes

sense except in the light of
evolution.”

http://www.stephenjayg
ould.org/people/theodo
sius_dobzhansky.html

Theodosius Dobzhansky (1900-1975)

 History of evolution: Darwinian thought
Charles Darwin (1809-1882) John Henslow (1796-1861) Robert Fitzroy (1805-1865)
 Evolution: uniformitarianism, population growth

Charles Darwin

Charles Lyell Thomas Robert Malthus

(1766-1834)
Evolution: The Origin of Species by Means of Natural
Selection (1859)

Alfred Russel Wallace (1823-1913)

Darwin’s Origin of Species: descent with modification by natural selection
Examples of natural selection at work

Industrial melanism
Evidence of macro-evolution (species-level evolution): fossil
record

Archaeopteryx
Evidence of macro-evolution (species-level evolution): biogeography,
patterns of evolution

Divergent evolution

Convergent evolution
Evidence of macro-evolution (species-level evolution):
homologous structures
 Evidence of macro-evolution (species-level evolution):
comparative embryology

“Vertebrates appear similar during their stages of early

development” – Karl von Baer (1792-1876)
“Ontogeny repeats phylogeny” (i.e., the embryo development stages
follows the path of its evolutionary history) -- Ernst Haeckel (1834-1919)
Evidence of macro-evolution (species-level evolution):
biochemical evidence
Q. How long does it take for macroevolution to become evident?

A. Rapid change (ca. 30 years) in beak structure of finches in response to changing

conditions in the Galapagos
 Micro-evolution: evolution at the level of the
hereditary traits (genes) of a population

Hardy-Weinberg principle explains the genetic basis of a

non-evolving population of organisms.

“The gene pool of a population of organisms remains

constant over many generations unless acted upon by
some factors.”

The genetic structure of a non-evolving population of

organisms remains the same or in equilibrium over many
generations.
 Micro-evolution: evolution at the level of the
hereditary traits (genes) of a population: a quick review
of basic genetics

Micro-evolution: evolution at the level of the = chromatid pair

hereditary traits (genes) of a population
 Micro-evolution: evolution at the level of the
hereditary traits (genes) of a population: a quick review
of basic genetics

Phenotype = physical expression(s) of genotype

Genotype = gene or genetic composition of an organism
Allele = variations of a gene
Paired alleles may be homozygous (DD, dd) or heterozygous (Dd)

D = dominant allele (e.g., tall)

d = recessive allele (e.g., short)

Betty and Fred are both tall, but

Bob is short.
Micro-evolution: evolution at the level of the
hereditary traits (genes) of a population

The Hardy-Weinberg principle explains the

genetic basis of a non-evolving population of
organisms

The Hardy-Weinberg principle assumes:

• Large population size
• No migration or gene flow with other
populations (i.e., absence of inter-
breeding populations)
• No net mutations (i.e., absence of allele
substitutions)
• Occurrence of random matings
• Absence of natural selection
 Micro-evolution: a deviation from the Hardy-
Weinberg equilibrium: genetic drift

Founder effect
 Micro-evolution: a deviation from the Hardy-
Weinberg equilibrium: gene flow, mutations, non-random
matings

Gene flow, mutations, non-random matings result in the accumulation of

genetic variations to de-stabilize the gene structure in equilibrium
 Micro-evolution: a deviation from the Hardy-
Weinberg equilibrium: occurrence of natural selection

resulting in an increase in brown gene frequency among beetle population

Evolution of sex (gender): why and how sex?
 Evolution of sex (gender)
Consequences of sexual selection:
1) a powerful motivation to attract a
suitable mate(s);
2) development of sexual dimorphism
(♂♀) and sex-specific anatomical
traits; and
3) Intense rivalry or competition
• intra-sexual rivalry
• inter-sexual rivalry (e.g., mate
preferences)
 Evolution of sex (gender)

In the end, SEXUAL SELECTION is a product of evolution

shaped by natural selection because it motivates
organisms to attract a suitable mating partner (i.e.,
healthy and disease-resistant, attractive, etc. mate(s))
who will most likely produce fit offsprings necessary to
perpetuate the species!!!
Human evolution: the origin of Homo sapiens
 Human evolution: Order Primate: the origin of Homo sapiens

lemur tarsier

monkeys, apes

humans
Human evolution: the origin of Homo sapiens

Primates
Prosimians (pre- Anthropoids (simians)
monkeys)
Human evolution: the origin of Homo sapiens: evolutionary
divergence of primates
 Human evolution: the origin of Homo sapiens: evolutionary
divergence of anthropoids
Hominids

5-7 million years ago

• DNA and fossil evidence indicate a closer affinity between humans

and chimpanzees (hominids) than to the other apes.
• Evolutionary divergence occurred 5-7 mya.
 Human evolution: the origin of Homo sapiens: some
misconceptions

1. Chimpanzees are the direct ancestors of humans;

2. Human evolution followed a ladder-like pattern, evolving

from ancient hominoids and climaxing to Homo sapiens; and

3. Human traits (upright posture, bi-pedalism, large skull)

evolved in one burst.
 Human evolution: the origin of Homo sapiens: major features
• increased brain size
• reduction of jaw and modification of dentition
• bipedal posture
• reduced body size difference between sexes
• complex social family structure
Human evolution: the origin of Homo sapiens: evolutionary
divergence of primates
Human evolution: the origin of Homo sapiens
Human evolution: the origin of Homo sapiens: Homo erectus walking out of Africa
 Human evolution: the origin of Homo sapiens: models

Candelabra model -
transition from H.
erectus to H. sapiens
occurred independently
in different parts of the
World.

African replacement
model - populations of H.
erectus and archaic H.
sapiens became extinct in
Asia and Europe and were
replaced by anatomically
modern humans
immigrating from Africa .
 Multiregional model - regional continuity and local selection pressures
in different parts of the world, but with gene flow (dashes connecting the
vertical lines) due to occasional migrations between populations.
Ayala et al. 1994. Proc. Natl. Acad. USA. 91: 6787-6794
Human evolution: cultural evolution
Human evolution: cultural evolution