Raoult's law

the vapor pressure of an ideal solution is dependent on the vapor pressure of

each chemical component and the mole fraction of the component present in the
solution.[2]

Once the components in the solution have reached equilibrium, the total vapor
pressure p of the solution is:

and the individual vapor pressure for each component is

where

pi is the partial pressure of the component i in mixture

p*i is the vapor pressure of the pure component i

xi is the mole fraction of the component i in solution (in mixture)

Henry's law is one of the gas laws, formulated by William Henry in 1803. It
states that:

At a constant temperature, the amount of a given gas dissolved in a given type

and volume of liquid is directly proportional to the partial pressure of that gas in
equilibrium with that liquid.

An equivalent way of stating the law is that the solubility of a gas in a liquid at a
particular temperature is proportional to the pressure of that gas above the
liquid. Henry's law has since been shown to apply for a wide range of dilute
solutions, not merely those of gases.

Henry's law can be put into mathematical terms (at constant temperature) as
where p is the partial pressure of the solute in the gas above the solution, c is
the concentration of the solute and kH is a constant with the dimensions of
pressure divided by concentration

, Dalton's law (also called Dalton's law of partial pressures) states that the total
pressure exerted by a gaseous mixture is equal to the sum of the partial
pressures of each individual component in a gas mixture. This empirical law was
observed by John Dalton in 1801 and is related to the ideal gas laws.

Mathematically, the pressure of a mixture of gases can be defined as the

summation

or

where represent the partial pressure of each component.

It is assumed that the gases do not react with each other.

where the mole fraction of the i-th component in the total mixture of n
components .

The relationship below provides a way to determine the volume based

concentration of any individual gaseous component.

where: is the concentration of the ith component expressed in ppm.

Dalton's law is not exactly followed by real gases. Those deviations are
considerably large at high pressures. In such conditions, the volume occupied by
the molecules can become significant compared to the free space between
them. Moreover, the short average distances between molecules raises the
intensity of intermolecular forces between gas molecules enough to substantially
change the pressure exerted by them. Neither of those effects are considered by
the ideal gas model.

Gay-Lussac's law is used for each of the two relationships named after the
French chemist Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac and which concern the properties of
gases, though it is more usually applied to his law of combining volumes, the
first listed here. One law relates to volumes before and after a chemical reaction
while the other concerns the pressure and temperature relationship for a sample
of gas.

Law of combining volumes

Under STP, a reaction between three cubic metres of hydrogen gas and one
cubic metre of nitrogen gas will produce circa two cubic metres of ammonia

The law of combining volumes states that, when gases react together to form
other gases, and all volumes are measured at the same temperature and
pressure:

The ratio between the volumes of the reactant gases and the products can be
expressed in simple whole numbers.

This reflects the fact that (Avogadro's law) equal volumes of gas contain equal
numbers of molecules ( at the same temperature and pressure), and also that in
chemical reactions, the molecules combine in a ratio of whole numbers—this is
known as the stoichiometry of the chemical reaction and is expressed via the
chemical equation for the reaction. The law of combining gases was published by
Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac in 1808

Gay-Lussac's name is also associated — erroneously — with another gas law, the
so-called pressure law, which states that:

The pressure of a gas of fixed mass and fixed volume is directly proportional to
the gas's absolute temperature.
Simply put, if a gas's temperature increases then so does its pressure, if the
mass and volume of the gas are held constant. The law has a particularly simple
mathematical form if the temperature is measured on an absolute scale, such as
in kelvins. The law can then be expressed mathematically as:

or

where:

P is the pressure of the gas.

T is the temperature of the gas (measured in Kelvin).

k is a constant.

This law holds true because temperature is a measure of the average kinetic
energy of a substance; as the kinetic energy of a gas increases, its particles
collide with the container walls more rapidly, thereby exerting increased
pressure.

For comparing the same substance under two different sets of conditions, the
law can be written as:

Amontons's Law of Pressure-Temperature: The pressure law described above

should actually be attributed to Guillaume Amontons, who, in the late 17th
century (more accurately between 1700 and 1702[2][3]), discovered that the
pressure of a fixed mass of gas kept at a constant volume is proportional to the
temperature. Amontons discovered this while building an "air thermometer".
Calling it Gay-Lussac's law is simply incorrect as Gay-Lussac investigated the
relationship between volume and temperature (i.e. Charles's Law), not pressure
and temperature.
Charles's Law was also known as the Law of Charles and Gay-Lussac, because
Gay-Lussac published it in 1802 using much of Charles's unpublished data from
1787. However, in recent years the term has fallen out of favor, and Gay-
Lussac's name is now generally associated with the law of combining volumes.
Amontons's Law, Charles's Law, and Boyle's law form the combined gas law. The
three gas laws in combination with Avogadro's Law can be generalized by the
ideal gas law.

Newton's laws of motion consist of three physical laws that form the basis for
classical mechanics. They describe the relationship between the forces acting on
a body and its motion due to those forces. They have been expressed in several
different ways over nearly three centuries,[2] and can be summarized as follows:

First law: Every body remains in a state of rest or uniform motion (constant
velocity) unless it is acted upon by an external unbalanced force. [3][4][5] This
means that in the absence of a non-zero net force, the center of mass of a body
either remains at rest, or moves at a constant speed in a straight line.

Second law: A body of mass m subject to a net force F undergoes an acceleration

a that has the same direction as the force and a magnitude that is directly
proportional to the force and inversely proportional to the mass, i.e., F = ma.
Alternatively, the total force applied on a body is equal to the time derivative of
linear momentum of the body.

Third law: The mutual forces of action and reaction between two bodies are
equal, opposite and collinear. This means that whenever a first body exerts a
force F on a second body, the second body exerts a force −F on the first body. F
and −F are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. This law is sometimes
referred to as the action-reaction law, with F called the "action" and −F the
"reaction". The action and the reaction are simultaneous.

In physics, a degree of freedom of a system is a formal description of a

parameter that contributes to the state of a physical system.

In mechanics, a body can move independently in the three directions of space.

Thus, the momentum of a body consists of three components, each called a
degree of freedom. A system of N independent particles, therefore, has the total
of 3N degrees of freedom.
Similarly in statistical mechanics, a degree of freedom is a single scalar number
describing the microstate of a system. The specification of all microstates of a
system is a point in the system's phase space.

A degree of freedom may be any useful property that is not dependent on other
variables. For example, in the 3D ideal chain model, two angles are necessary to
describe each monomer's orientation.

A phase diagram in physical chemistry, engineering, mineralogy, and materials

science is a type of chart used to show conditions at which thermodynamically
distinct phases can occur at equilibrium. In mathematics and physics, "phase
diagram" is used with a different meaning: a synonym for a phase space.
Common components of a phase diagram are lines of equilibrium or phase
boundaries, which refer to lines that mark conditions under which multiple
phases can coexist at equilibrium. Phase transitions occur along lines of
equilibrium.

Triple points are points on phase diagrams where lines of equilibrium intersect.
Triple points mark conditions at which three different phases can coexist. For
example, the water phase diagram has a triple point corresponding to the single
temperature and pressure at which solid, liquid, and gaseous water can coexist
in a stable equilibrium.

The solidus is the temperature below which the substance is stable in the solid
state. The liquidus is the temperature above which the substance is stable in a
liquid state. There may be a gap between the solidus and liquidus; within the
gap, the substance consists of a mixture of crystals and liquid (like a "slurry").[1]