Professional Documents
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Networks of Water
Networks of Water
Networks of Water
NETWORKS of WATER
rd
)(شبكبث المُبه ومعذاتهب/3 - Class
Dr. Sataa A. Al-Bayati (10-11)
INTRODUCTION )(المقذمت
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)(دورة المياهThe Hydrologic Cycle
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Elements of Water Supply System )(عنبصر نظبم تجهُز المبء
A. Source of supply) (هصسض التجهيع.
B. Collection system) (ًظبم التجويع.
C. Treatment plant) (هحطخ الوعبلجخ.
D. Distribution system) (ًظبم التىظيع.
Pumping Transmission
Source Intake station main
Distribution Treatment
system plant
A. Source of Supply
Waters come in form of precipitation.
1. Surface water supply
Water is running across the surface of ground, e.g. rivers, streams,
lakes, ponds, & reservoirs.
2. Groundwater supply
Water seeps into the ground, e.g. springs, wells, etc.
WT
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Water Source Requirements) (هتطلجبد تجهيع الوبء:
1. Quantity
Enough quantity at any time.
2. Quality
Safe & free from pollution.
3. Cost
B. Collection System
It conveys water from a source to a treatment plant.
a. Intake)(الوأذص
It is a structure placed in a surface water source to permit the
withdrawal) (سحتof water from this source.
Factors of designing intakes:
i. Location of the best water quality.
ii. Fluctuations) (تصثصثبدof water level.
iii. Characteristics of intake site, e.g. water depth, river bed, waves
effects, formation of sand bars, navigation requirements,
currents, & floods.
iv. Pollution sources,e.g. wastewater treatment plants, factories,
etc.
Types of intakes:
i. Intake tower) (ثطجي, Fig. (4)
ii. Submerged intake) (هغوىض, Fig. (5)
iii. Intake pipe) (أًجىثي, Fig. (6)
iv. Movable intake) (هتحطك, Fig. (7)
v. Shore intake) (سبحلي.
Fig. (4) Tower water intake for a reservoir or lake water supply
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Fig. (5) Submerged intake used for both lake and river sources
c. Transmission main
A pipeline used to deliver water to treatment plant.
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C. Treatment Plant )(محطت المعبلجت
All water used for supply originates from the atmosphere as precipitation
(rain, snow and hail). This collects either above ground in rivers, natural
lakes, man-made impounding reservoirs or below ground in aquifers. Water
rapidly absorbs both natural and man-made substances generally making the
water unsuitable for drinking prior to some form of treatment.
The objective of water treatment is to produce an adequate and continuous
supply of water that is chemically, bacteriologically and aesthetically
pleasing. More specifically, water treatment must produce water that is:
(a) palatable (i.e. no unpleasant taste);
(b) safe (i.e. does not contain pathogens or chemicals harmful to the
consumer);
(c) clear (i.e. free from suspended solids and turbidity);
(d) colourless and odourless (i.e. aesthetic to drink);
(e) reasonably soft (i.e. allows consumers to wash clothes, dishes,
themselves, without use of excessive quantities of detergents or soap);
(f) non-corrosive (i.e. to protect pipework and prevent leaching of metals
from tanks or pipes);
(g) low-organic content (i.e. high-organic content results in unwanted
biological growth in pipes and storage tanks).
Groundwater is generally much cleaner than surface waters and so does not
require the same degree of treatment, it is required to remove:
Hardness, iron, & sometimes bacteria.
Surface water requires more complex treatment due to poorer quality, it is
required to remove:
Turbidity, color, taste, odor, & bacteria.
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Fig.(8) Water Treatment Plant
D. Distribution System
After treatment the finished water has to be conveyed to consumers. This is
achieved using a network of pipes known as water mains. This system must
supply water with the required quantity & pressure. It includes: pipes,
storage tanks, pumps, fire hydrants, & valves.
Distribution mains are the network of pipes that bring the water from the
service reservoir to the consumer's property. The network is highly
branched, to which connections to individual houses are made. Distribution
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mains form loop systems, which equalize the pressure, and ensures the water
is used rapidly and kept mixed. The distribution network comprises of pipes
of various sizes ranging down from 18 to 6 in.
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Fig.(10)Pump-fed system. (Source: Julian Thornton.)
Well Types
A. Open wells
They are used mainly for three purposes:
(1) to extract ground water from fine grained aquifers of shallow depth,
which requires a large area of contact with the aquifer, and
(2) to serve as reservoirs for ground water slowly replenishing the well.
The yield potential of a well is evaluated on the basis of hydrological
conditions of the area—rainfall, runoff and recharge.
Advantages:
1. They do not require sophisticated equipment & skilled personnel for
construction. Different masonry materials, such as stones, bricks & concrete
blocks, are used as lining materials.
2. They can be operated by indigenous water lifts driven by man or animal
power, or low-cost mechanically operated centrifugal pumps.
3. Open wells can be revitalized by deepening or providing bores at the
bottom or sides.
4.Open wells may be either circular or rectangular in cross-section.
Limitations:
1. Large space is required by the well structure and for dumping excavated
material.
2. Construction of well is slow & laborious.
3. They are susceptible to contamination or pollution from surface sources,
unless properly protected.
4. Due to shallow water table there are large water level fluctuations & there
is possibility of the well drying up, especially during drought periods.
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Open well types
(i) Unlined wells
Well dug for purely temporary purposes, Fig.(11). To ensure stability, the
depth of unlined wells is limited to about 6.5 m.
(ii) Wells with pervious lining
They are usually lined with dry bricks or stone masonry. Water flows from
the surrounding aquifer into the wells through the sides of the well. Pervious
lining is suitable when the water-bearing formation consists of gravel or
coarse sand deposits. When the formation consists of layers of fine sand, the
sand particles escape along with water into the well, through the pervious
lining. As a result, a hollow space or cavity is formed behind the well lining,
thus endangering the structural stability of the well. The annular hollow
space around the well lining will be self-sealing in loose formations but, in
cohesive materials, it must be filled with brick or stone ballast. The ballast is
about 2 cm in size and packed behind the lining. It should extend at least
upto the static water table. Fig.(11) shows the typical cross-section of a well
with pervious lining. The following procedure can be adopted to construct
wells with stable pervious linings:
A 30 cm deep lining is constructed over the well curb, in cement mortar. The
remaining part of the well lining, upto the static water level, is laid dry
without mortar, with the exception that 30 cm strips of lining in cement
mortar are provided after every 1.25 m of dry lining.
Above the water table, the lining is constructed in cement mortar up to the
top.
When the rate of withdrawal of water from the well is not excessive, and
where aquifer and subsoil conditions permit, pervious lining is economical
and lasting.
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(iii) Wells with impervious lining
Open wells with permanent masonry lining, laid in cement mortar, are
commonly used in alluvial formations (Fig.12).
Once constructed, they form a permanent structure for tapping water, as long
as ground water conditions remain favorable. Though wells with impervious
linings are usually deeper than the two types described earlier, their depths
generally do not exceed 30 m as, beyond that, the cost becomes excessive
and the well tends to be uneconomical.
Such linings are provided with weep holes for the lateral entry of water.
Wells with Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC) linings are also sometimes
used, especially for higher depths. In some shallow watertable regions, RCC
collar wells, sometimes referred to as ring wells are used, though mainly for
domestic water supply.
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Fig. (13) Dug-cum-bore well
B. Tube wells
Tube wells are classified:
1. Entry of water
(a) Screen wells
(i) Strainer wells
(ii) Slotted pipe gravel pack wells
(b) Cavity wells
2. Method of construction
(a) Drilled wells
(b) Driven wells
(c) Jetted wells
3. Depth
(a) Shallow wells
(b) Deep wells
4. Type of aquifer
(a) Water table wells
(b) Semi-artesian wells
(c) Artesian wells
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Plain pipes and screens are lowered into the bore hole. The screens are
located opposite the water bearing strata. A bail plug is provided at the
bottom of the pipe and strainer assembly.
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2. Based on Method of construction
(a) Drilled wells
They are constructed by making bore holes, using percussion and rotary
drilling methods.
Plain pipes and screens are lowered into the bore hole.
Tube well construction involves drilling the bore hole, installing the casing
and well screen, and developing the well to ensure sand-free operation at
maximum yield.
(b) Driven wells
A driven well consists of a pipe and well point which are forced into the
water-bearing formation by driving with a wooden maul, drop hammer or
other suitable means. Driven tube wells usually vary from 3 - 7.5 cm in
diameter. They develop small yields and their construction is limited to
shallow depths
(c) Jetted wells
They are constructed with hand-operated equipment or power-driven
machines, depending upon the type of formation and the size and depth of
the well.
3. Based on Depth
(a) Shallow wells
They are of low capacity. The average depth of the well is usually less than
35 m.
(b) Deep wells
They are wells of high capacity, tapping more than one aquifer. Their depth
usually ranges from 60-300 m.
4. Based on Type of aquifer
(a) Water table wells
These are installed in unconfined aquifers which are under water table
conditions
(b) Semi-artesian wells
The water is under pressure, but not so high as to flow out of the well.
(c) Artesian wells
A flowing well gets its supply from an aquifer where the water is under such
high pressure that it overflows at the top.
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Volume: gal (U.S) = 3.79L
Pressure: bar = 10m = 98kPa (SI)
Pressure: psi = 1b/in2 = 6.9kPa (E-SI)
Area: ha = 10,000m2
Area: acre = 4047m2
3. Climatic Conditions)(الوٌبخ
More water is used in warm, dry climates, than humid & cold
climates for bathing, gardening, air cooling, etc.
Regions subject to extreme cold (e.g. north of Iraq) has high
demand to prevent freezing of water lines.
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1-ton steel 1,500 – 50,000g
Commercial areas include offices, shops, warehouses, & stores.
Commercial use ≈ 10gpcd, or
10,000 – 50,000g/acre/day, (50- 1500m3/ha/day)
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People & industries may develop their own private supplies from
wells or rivers. This will reduce water consumption.
3. Public Use
Schools, colleges, hospitals, cinemas, theatres, mosques, parks,
gardens, fire fighting, sprinkling streets, public fountains, etc.
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Total population = 5 423 964person.
Population growth rate = 2.3%
Population density = 1191person/km2.
Prediction Methods
2. Uniform Percentage Growth Rate )المىحذّ (معذل نمى النسبت المئىَ ِت
A constant percentage of growth is assumed for equal periods of time.
Example (2):
If the population increased from 100,000 to 110,000 during the past
decade (2000 – 2010), find the population at 2020.
Solution:
Increment, % = (110 000 – 100 000) / 100 000 = 10%
At 2020 → population = 110 000 × (1 + 0.1) = 121 000.
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4. Graphical Comparison (Modified Curvilinear) )(المقبرنت التخطُطُت
The population-time curve of the city is extended into the future based
on a comparison with population-time curve of similar cities.
Pf = Pp (1 + r)n
Where:
Pf = future population,
Pp = present population,
r = rate of yearly increase,
n = number of years.
When the population data of the past years are available, then r can be
computed,
______
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r = n√ P2 / P1 – 1
Where:
P1 = population data in a year
P2 = population data in a later (n) year.
Example (3):
The population of a city was 124 000 in 1995 and 156 000 in 2005.
a) What was the annual rate of increase?
b) What will be the population in 2015?
Solution:
_______________
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r = √ 156 000 / 124 000 – 1
= 0.023
= 2.3%
Pf = 156 000 (1 + 0.023)10
= 196 000
Y = a + bX + cX2
Where:
X = year
Y = population at year X,
a, b, c = constants.
To find a, b, & c use the following normal equations by applying
actual data,
Where:
N = number of observations.
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Example (4):
The following table shows the population of a country during the
years 1910 – 2010, in ten years intervals.
a) Find the equation of the least square parabola fitting the data.
b) Compute the trend values for the years given in the table &
compare with the actual values.
c) Estimate the population in 2020 & 2030.
Year 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Popu., 23.2 31.4 39.8 50.2 62.9 76 92 105.7 122.8 131.7 151.1
million
Solution:
Make the following table,
year X Y X2 X3 X4 XY X2Y Y`
1910 -5 23.2 25 -125 625 -116.0 580.0 21.6
1920 -4 31.4 16 -64 256 -125.6 502.4 31
1930 -3 39.8 9 -27 81 -119.4 358.2 41.2
1940 -2 50.2 4 -8 16 100.4 200.8 52.2
1950 -1 62.9 1 -1 1 -62.9 62.9 64.0
1960 0 76.0 0 0 0 0 0 76.6
1970 1 92.0 1 1 1 92.0 92.0 90.0
1980 2 105.7 4 8 16 211.4 422.8 104.2
1990 3 122.8 9 27 81 368.4 1105.2 119.2
2000 4 131.7 16 64 256 526.8 2107.2 135
2010 5 151.1 25 125 625 755.5 3777.5 151.6
∑ 0 886.8 110 0 1958 1429.8 9209.0 886.6
N = 11
Y` = the computed population from the new equation.
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a = 76.64, & c = 0.3974
Y = a + bX + cX2
At 2020 → X = 6
Y = 76.64 + 13(6) + 0.3974(6)2
= 168.9million person
At 2030 → X = 7
Y = 187million person
Dictionary:
Contaminants) (هلىثبد, scarce) (ًبزض, deficit) (عجع,
developing countries) (ثلساى ًبهيخ, developed countries) (ثلساى هتقسهخ,
Precipitation) (السقيظ, Infiltration) (التسطة, Transpiration) (التعطق,
withdrawal()سحت, Fluctuations) (تصثصثبد, ,censuses ) (أحصبءاد,
Indigenous = أهليخ, revitalize = احيبء, laborious = هجهس, lasting = زائن,
tap water = هبء شطة, pervious = هسبهي, weep hole = فتحخ ًبضحخ, collar = طىق,
percussion = زق, maul = هسقخ,climate = هٌبخ, sewerage = هيبح فضالد,
commercial = تجبضي, industry = صٌبعخ, meter = هقيبغ, sanitation = عوليخ الترلص
هي هيبح الفضالد, plumbing = تأسيسبد صحيخ,
References:
1. Michael, A.M., S.D. Khepar, & S.K. Sondhi, 2008, "Water Wells & Pumps", 2nd Ed,
2. Steel, E.W. & T.J. McGhee, 1979,"Water Supply & Sewerage", 5th Ed., McGraw-
HILL.
3. Gray, N.F., 2005, "Water Technology", 2nd Ed, Elsevier.
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