Unit 9: psychoactive drugs and poisons from plants

Chapter 15: page 318-346

Overview
 Psychoactive drugs affect CNS and ANS receptors
 Major plant derived psychoactive drugs in the world: marijuana, tobacco, heroin, cocaine, caffeine and
alcohol
 Hard to categorize- chemical nature, effects they produce or source they are obtained from
 Drugs categorized by primary effects:
effect Plant derived compound Physiological action
Stimulants and consultants Cocaine Block reuptake of NE
Caffeine Activate intracellular
metabolism
Nicotine Stimulate Ach receptors
Strychnine Block inhibitory synapses
Narcotic analgesics (opiates) Opium, morphine, codeine.. Mimic endogenous NT that
relieve pain
Psychedelics Tetrahydrocannabinol Mimic endogenous NT

mescaline, myristicine, Mimic NE

elemicin
atropine, scopolamine, Block Ach action- mimic
ololiqui, harmine serotine
Antipsychotic agents Reserpine Deplete NE

 The 2 most widely used psychoactive compounds = caffeine and alcohol

Chemistry and pharmacology of psychoactive drugs

 Most chemicals that have psychoactive properties contain nitrogen and belong to a class of alkaloids
o Exception is the active component in marijuana  THC (an alcohol)
 Must be absorbed into the blood stream and transported to site to exert their effects
o Orally, injected, absorbed through mucus membranes
 During the process of circulation through the blood= the rush followed by wearing off (degradation and
excretion)
 When drugs reach the NS: affect natural interactions between neurons that release neurotransmitters
in response to stimulation – flow across the synapse
 Psychoactive drugs affect receptor neurons involved in pain perception, emotion, interpretation of
audio and visual stimuli, control of smooth muscles and glands
 Psychoactive drugs often mimic natural NT like Ach, NE, DA, GABA , glutamate, serotonin and
neuropeptides
 Fug 15.3
NT action Drugs and actions Effects
CNS
Dopamine Pleasure centres- low Cocaine- prevents Prolongs feelings of
concentrations  PD, reuptake well being
high concentrations
schizophrenia Reserpine- depletes Reduces effects of
DA schizophrenia
 Serotonin Regulates sensory Harmine and LSD Psychedelic visions
perception, sleep, body mimic
temp
anandamine Binds to specific THC Wellbeing, reduces
receptors nausea
neuropeptides Bind to specific brain opiates Well being, block pain
receptors
Periphery – SNS
NE Increase HR, stimulates Agonists- cocaine, EP, Stimulate heart muscle,
secretion of EP, relaxes mescaline BP, relax bronchial
bronchial passages and muscles, decrease
bladder, inhibits nasal congestion- large
stomach activity does- hallucinations
Antagonists- reserpine
Periphery- PSNS
ACh Slows HR, constricts Agonists- muscarine,
bronchial passages, nicotine
contracts bladder,
stimulates stomach Antagonist- atropine,
activity turbocurarine


History of psychoactive drug use

 ancient times- medicinal men, healers, witches or shamans (group of diviners that lacks the negative
connotations attached to other ones) used psychedelic substances
o initiation into the role as shaman was painful and dangerous
o initiation often involved starvation, self-mutilation and consumption of psychedelics
o purpose- visit the supernatural
 the new world peoples used more psychedelic plants than the old world

important psychoactive plants

marijuana
 Chinese legend- God gave humans one plant to fulfill all their needs cannabis sativa
 Used in ropes, fishnets and clothing. Seeds are nutritious, oil used in lamps, paints
 One of the oldest cultivated plants
 2007- most widely used illegal drug
 native to central Asia, Chinese were the first to use it (referred to their country as land of mulberry and
hemp)
o used to make paper 105 AD
o hemp clothes for respect of the dead
 hallucinogenic properties of cannabis was first exploited in India
 to enhance resin production (rich in psychoactive substances)- grow plants spaced apart and removing
male plants – female plants more potent and dry conditions
 sinsemilla : without seeds or unfertilized= strongest forms
 Indians classify cannabis products into ganja- potent female flowers and upper leaves and hashish
(pure resin)
o Most common way of ingesting cannabis in India- bhang a milk based drink made with
ground cannabis leaves, sugar and spices
  Didn’t spread further than Turkey in ancient times
 Reached Europe in the 13th century- story of the Old man of the mountain
o Dr. Jacques-Joseph Moreau de Tours experimented- formed a club among artists
 The story of the old man of the mountain was used again in the US – only a twisted version apart of a
marijuana ban  lead to ban in the 1920s and 30s
 15th and 16th century- introduced to Africa
o used to calm women during childbirth
o south Africans called it dagga
o originally mixed the plant in drinks or chewed it
 smoking marijuana became popular after the Dutch colonized the continent
o north Africans contributed the hookah
 1920s- anti-marijuana campaign
o 1937- marijuana tax law
o 1965 – isolated THC
 pain relief, combats hypertension, reducing pressure in the eyes (glaucoma), anti nausea
– cancer patients, asthma relief, relief from epilepsy, MS
o 1990- THC role in the NS , 1992- the ligand for the THC receptor= anandamide
 cons to marijuana: diminished sex drive, lowered sperm count, reduced motor coordination, short
term memory impairment, respiratory illness and oral cancers (when smoking it)
 synthetic THC drugs (designer drugs)- K2 and spice

Opiates
 opium poppies have seed capsules rich in alkaloids – containing latex
 codeine and morphine = most abundant opium alkaloids – used as mind altering drugs
 use as far back as 3000 BC
o Sumerian tablets (2500 BC)- opium as joy plant
 Opion- Greek for juice
o Drinking wine with opium latex
o Associated opium with Hypnos – the god of sleep, Morpheus- god of dreams and Thanatos-
god of death
 Original use in the East as a cure for dysentery
 Dutch- smoking opium with tobacco – treatment for malaria
o Soon tobacco wasn’t smoked with opium
o Smokers inhaled vapors from heated balls of latex dropped into a pipe bowl
 Cultivated for trade
o Opium war- 1839 (british and Chinese)
o 2nd opium war – 1865
 1906- drug use reduced when Chinese emperor made a deal with the British
 Europe- opium became common in 1525 – parcelus discovered a way to dissolve opium in alcohol
laudanum
 1803- morphine isolated  became a potent pain killer used medicinally
o highly addictive risk
o when trying to produce a synthetic morphine that was less addictive- heroin was created
 heroin – thought to be a heroic drug
 heroin even more powerful than morphine
 crosses cell membranes faster, produces major withdrawal symptoms
 death rate for heroin uses is twice the normal rate than any given age group
  1914- law making opiates illegal for non medical purposes 1924- heroin was illegal to
manufacture
 Afghanistan= the world largest opium producer once the US and Turkey prohibited cultivation,
Thailand and Mexico are secondary producers

Cocaine and crack cocaine

 Cocaine originated as leaves chewed by Andean Indians for their stimulatory effects
 E. coca and E. truxillense – native to NC Andes
 Indigenous preparation involved drying the leaves, dip them in lime and then chewed them
o Lime raises the pH
 1860- cocaine was isolated
 Freud- recommended cocaine as a treatment for alcoholism and morphine addiction – used in
psychotherapy to reduce depression
 In Europe a coca wine created in 1860
 Coca cola- 1886 as a headache remedy and a tonic
o Caffeine extracts – cola and coca
 1904- law prohibiting cocaine in beverages
o cola leaves used to flavour coca cola
 1914- cocaine became illegal
 cocaine is a 3-ringed alkaloid – commonly taken as a hydrochloride salt- coke (diluted with other
substances)
o snorted- crosses mucus membranes
o water soluble
 crack: treating hydrochloride with boiling water and baking soda
o injected and can be smoked
o freebase is more dangerous than crack
o fat soluble
 action: interfering with the reuptake of dopamine, causes physiological changes in the brain leading to
addiction and withdrawal
o continual use leads to depletion of neuroreceptors – maintaining original effect is not possible
o crack babies
o heart problems

tobacco
 3rd most widely used psychoactive drug (after alcohol and caffeine)
 46.6 million americans smoke tobacco – 440,000 deaths attributed to smoking
 Nicotiana suaveolens- independently domesticated in Australia
 N. tabacum – native to central and south America and its relative N. rustica – native to north America
were smoked, eaten and snuffed by native people -1000 years before Columbus landed in indies
 Native americans- used medicinally to ease pain of childbirth, put off hunger , religious and symbolic
o Sacred – smoke rising from pipes messages to the gods
o Shamans- initiation rights- solve tribal problems
 Commercial production started in 1600s
 For many years- the most important trade item
 Large pliable leaves turned into cigar wrappers – nitrogen fertilizers
o Grown under cheesecloths – humidity and protection from the sun
 Small brittle leaves – cigarettes- limiting nitrogen and adding phosphorus and potassium
  Curing process reduces moisture content, coverts starches to sugars and breaks down proteins by
enzyme action
 After curing- leaves are aged for months- a year
 Cigarettes- tobacco re-moistened before marketing
 After 1880- change in tobacco curing process
o Before 1880- tobacco was cured by placing it over hot smoke of a charcoal fire  produced a
milder form of tobacco- but produce an acid smoke when burned (less physiological effect on
body)
o Cured tobacco smoke produces alkaline smoke
 Nicotine is the major alkaloid in tobacco and passes the BBB faster than heroin or caffeine – making it
highly addictive
o Nicotine addiction is associated with the release of DA in the brain b acting on nicotinic Ach
receptors
o Also stimulates EP- raises BP
o In its pure form= a poison
o Less addictive when it is not inhaled – pipe and cigars
o Nicotine causes recepotrs to release the hormone melancortin  regulates energy and food
intake
 1998- law suits to tobacco industries and restrictions passed

other psychoactive plants

rarely used due to their toxicity
 belong to the solanaceae family (deadly nightshade)
 atropa belladonna, Datura, hyoscyamus and mandragora officinarum
 most used as poisions
 active compounds= tropane alkaloids – atropine, hysoscamine, scopolamine
o slow smooth muscle action
o inhibit ach receptors in central and peripheral systems
o produce hallucinations in large doses
 Datura- native to the new world
o Ingested by boys during puberty by shamans
o Alcoholic drinks made from Datura given to women and slaves to stupefy them before they
were buried alive with their dead masters
 Belladonna, henbane and mandrake important during the middle ages
o Role of alkaloids in witchcraft and folk medicine lead to medicinal uses
o Atropine from belladonna or henbane is absorbed directly through the skin
 Sabats- meeting with spirts or demons
 Witches flying on a broom from the stick used to apply atropine impregnated ointments
to vaginal membranes for absorption
 Werewolf- associated with trances induced by belladonna and henbane

Caapi
 Important groups of plants used by south American Amazonian tribes as a source of hallucinogenic –
banisteriopsis  B. caapo
 Infusions of mashed bark or stems – release active compound
 Caapi mixed with Psychotria viridis (member of the coffee family) – activates caapi alkaloids when
taken orally  provides its own hallucinogenic alkaloid
 Feeling of separation from body, hallucinate jaguars or snakes
  Used primarily in rituals – enhance feelings of telepathy , sexual symbolism
o Telepathine – mixture of active chemicals isolated from B. caapi
o The active chemicals were further purified= harmine and harmaline
o Have similar structures to serotonin (like LSD)

Khat
 Catha edulis- native to Ethiopia
 Alkaloids= cathinone – ingested by chewing leaves mized with lime
 Similar effects to amphetamines- leads to addiction
 Use among muslims

Kava
 South pacific used for relaxation
 Piper methysticum
 Conventional method is to chew roots, spit out masticated squid into cold water or coconut milk and
then drink liquid
 Modern method- pound or grind roots, put in cold water, filter and drink
o Social drink, relaxes body, reduces pain and euphoria
o Can be used to treat GAD
o Not addictive but linked to liver problems and skin lesions

Betel
 Betel nut is a misnomer – actually the leaf of piper betel chewed alone to sweeten breath
 The nut is the fruit of the areca palm- areca catechu – native to southeast asia
o Nuts are crushed and wrapped in betel leaf to produce a quid

Ololiuqui
 1960- seeds of the morning glory family contain lysergic acid diethylamide – same compound in LSD
 the chemical affects serotonin receptor and affects perception
 originally thought to be restricted to fungi
 small amounts of seeds ingested during divinatory rituals

Peyote
 Lophophora williamsii- cactus native to Texas and Mexico
 Used by Aztecs as a divinatory plant
 Indians harvested peyote by cutting off the top of the stem
o Initially causes nausea , later hallucinations and delusions occur (can last 5-12 hours)
 40 different alkaloids and many chemicals in peyote
 the most active ingredient= mescaline
o binds serotonin receptors and excites neurons in the frontal cortex
o mimics NE
o isolated in 1896
 illegal to possess or sell in the US
 native american church uses it as part of its service

Diviner’s sage
 “whats old is new again”
 salvia divinorum – native to mexico, member of the mint family
  traditionally used to treat diarrhea, anemia, headaches and rheumatism
 consumed by the Mazarec shaman who chewed quids of the leaves to release the active ingredient
salvinorin-A  opioid receptor agonist
 diverge from reality, impaired speech, numbness, anxiety, memory loss, psychosis
 not addictive

Plant poisons
 ancient greek and roman documents show that they recorded the occurrence and usefulness of plant
toxins
 use as a form of capital punishment – story of the death of Socrates – sentenced to drink hemlock
 solanaceae alkaloids used to eliminate heirs to the throne
 indigenous tribes use arrow or fish poisons like curare
o produces paralysis – alkaloid blocks neuromuscular activity
 strychnine – used to poison fish- causes death by muscular convulsions
 tuba and barbasco- fish poisons in Asia and Amazon
o insecticides because they contain rotenone  isoflavenoid compound fatal to insects but
nontoxic to humans
 other natural insecticides- pyrethrum and from tobacco
o pyrethrins- the collective term for the active compounds
 arsenal from the neem tree- insecticide

course content:
chemistry of psychoactive plants
 most psychoactive drugs from plants contain nitrogen EXCEPT salvinorin A and THC
 alkaloids are classified based on the position of the nitrogen
 effects of psychoactive substances is related to interactions with the CNS and PNS
 not responsible to know structures or classifications:
o

o
  cannabis (Cannabis sativa):
o anandamide- natural neurotransmitter in the CNS and PNS- interacts with cannabinoid
receptors
o smoking or consuming cannabis buds (from the inflorescences)- THC enters the system and
crosses the BBB- can interact with cannabinoid receptors= agonist
o cultivation can affect efficacy
 dioecious species
 in China grown for hemp use din products- plants were grown together in high density
to produce limited branching and flowering
 today- female plants are only grown- using highly regulated light and temperature
levels, spacing plants apart to promote branching and to prolong flowering  resin
production

 Opium
o Alkaloid rich latex= opium
o Induce sleep, reduce pain and abused as a drug
o Opium wars between Great Britain and China
o 19th century- identify chemicals responsible for effects and use them as building blocks for more
potent drugs
 heroin, oxycontin and fentanyl
o 1803- isolated morphine (after Morphes- god of dreams)
 10 times as strong as opium
 by 1853- injected to relieve pain
 rush after administration leads to addiction
 scientists tried to solve addictive problem of morphine by making heroin – originally
sold as a non addictive and heroic substance  actually more powerful and addictive
than morphine
 Note- plants efficacy and biological activity can be altered depending on how its prepared – different
processes change the structure of constituents

Factors effecting psycho-activity and use of plants

 Closely related compounds have much different effects on the body due to minor structural changes
o Cocaine and atropine belong to the same class of alkaloids – interact with different receptors
and signalling patwhays
o Cocaine produces euphoria by inhibiting uptake of DA in the CNS
o Atropine – blocks ach transmission- decreased muscular actions and relaxation, visions
 Method of delivery can influence a drugs activity
o Adding slacked lime helps to increase effects of the betel nut and coca leaves when they are
chewed
o Lime improves bioavailability of the compounds by producing an alkaline environment and
increased salivation, pH increases solubility
 Lime increases overall effects of psychoactive plant substances
o Indigenous people chewed coco leaves for many years without serious health problems
 But when cocaine is extracted and purified or processes into crack = serious problem
o Diviner’s sage is traditionally consumed in mexico to treat diarrhea, anemia , headache and
rheumatism
 Shaman would chew on leaves to absorb salvinorin-A (opioid receptor agonist)
  People now smoke leaf material sprayed with concentrated salvinorin A to induce
stronger and intense effect

Plant poisons
 Used historically to murder or execute people like Socrates
 Arrow poisons from bark and stems of Chondodendron tomentosaa to paralyse prey when hunting
 Seeds from stychnos nux- vomica – contain strychinine – powerful poison used in the old world to kill
fish
o Can be exploited against invertebrates – pyrethrins – a group of chemicals produced by the
chrysanthemum species can act as insecticides
 Poison depending on the dose administred

Video: Peyote to LSD: A psychedelic odyssey

 Richard evan schultes
o Read of a small hallucinogenic cactus that could induce visions= peyote
o Dropped everything to study peyote
o Went to Oklahoma to study peyote use among the Indians – Keyoah tribe 1936
 Schultes earned trusts of the tribe and swallowed medicine 4 times a week
 Nauseating side effects
 Immersed himself in native culture
o Grows in American southwest and mexico
 Mexico- used as a direct line to god
 Late 1800s extracted mescaline the active ingredient
o After summer in Oklahoma to fight legality for peyote
o Came across a letter: Mexican doctor made a reference to a hallucinogen (mushroom) used by
azatec priests  went to mexico to find identity of plant 1938
 Mazetec Indians
 Mushrooms called little gods – not a drug but a cure  vehicle to another realm
 Idea that the mushrooms grow where the blood/ saliva of Christ is found
 Teowanna = mushroom
o 1939- went to explore serpent vine in Mexico
 confirmed that there were 2 species of morning glory used as scared hallucinogenics
o 1941- grant – travel to south America to identify source of curare (flying death)
 curare- paralyzing properties- muscle relaxant (supplement for modern anaesthesia) ,
source was unknown
 compound in curare: at least 15 different species used in the poison chomodendron,
member of a coffee family
 iowaska/ yahe combination of plants – hallucinogen shamans used to cure illness
 different stages of iowaska- jaguar
 kofan tribe
 1942- alternative sources for rubber – another mission in the amazon
 Hallucinogenics aren’t addictive
o Difference between heroin and LSD
 Native people use hallucinogenics in rituals and healing
 Wade davis- retraced schultes steps
o Navajo peyote camp
o Native American peyote ceremony:
 2 fires – 1 for ceremony and 1 for sweat lodge
  ritual cleanses
 elder= roadman (cactus is a vehicle)
 crescent alter – becomes a symbol of a peyote road , ashes formed in shape of a
thunderbird
 feast
 protected by an act
 ceremony was legalized by James mooney  call it the native american church
 beings with the words of a tribal member that is suffering
 crown of peyote cactus is cut off and dried/ ground and put in tea
 roadmen believe the side effects of nausea and vomiting is purging illness from body
 every sign of the ceremony is swept away and then the tepee threads are cut away
o mexico teowanna ceremony
 mushrooms diagnose illness
 all participants are purified
 symbolic dusting of tobacco powder for protection
 active ingredient= silicyvin
 Schultes didn’t agree with legality of hallucinogen- focus on shaman present
 peyote to get rid of drug addictions, among tribe- medicine to clear minds
 ban in 16th century by Spanish, 1800s rituals spread to the US
o man that started it: parker – used peyote to heal wound and got a method from god – created
half mood center
 swiss scientist Hoffman- fungus that grew on rye 1943
o ergot- hallucinations
o synthesized a compound = LSD
o took a huge dose- visions went from horrible to wonderful = first recorded LSD experience
o samples were then sent to researchers around the world how psychedelic experience was
introduced to the world
o discovered chemicals in the morning glory plants
 indolalkaloids like LSD
 Robert graves sent Schultes work to Watson
o First westerner to ingest flesh of gods during the ceremony
o Field trips monitored by CIA
 Watson published article shamanism connection – new door of perception for a new generation
 1953- burrows went searching for iowaska
 Osmond – mescaline crystals to huxley, coined the word psychedelic
 1960s- hallucinogens experienced by the public (LSD)
 1961- leary tested LSD on prison volunteers and students
o set up a centre for experiments
 CIA and US military approved and studied recreational drugs- psychedelics
 Celebrities etc.
o One flew over the cukoosnest
o The grateful dead
o Bob Dylan and john lennon
o The acid test
 Schultes- became a professor at Harvard
o Greatest Amazonian plant explorer of 20th century
o Described 2000 plants previously unknown – 120 species bear his name
 <1% of Amazonian plants studied for medicinal potential
  1967- LSD illegal

Unit 10: Stimulating and intoxicating beverages

Page 347-368; 370-384

Chapter 16: Stimulating Beverages

Overview:
 3 most important sources of caffeine are coffee from eastern Africa, tea from Asia and cocoa from
America
 coffee is primarily made from the seed endosperm. Tea from young leaves and cocoa from cotyledon
tissue within the seed

stimulating compounds
 coffee, tea and cocoa contain the alkaloid caffeine
o caffeine is a CNS stimulant and mild diuretic
o reduces affects of adenosine- compound related to sleepiness
 structurally similar and can bind adenosine receptors
o blocking adenosine attachment to surface of cells leads to the production of adrenaline 
fight/flight NT
 once in circulation- caffeine stimulates the heart, increases stomach acidity, and urine output and
causes a 10% rise in metabolic rate
o excess caffeine- anxiety, headache, dizziness, insomnia, heart palpitations, mild delirium
 tolerance can develop and withdrawal symptoms – headaches
 coffee is the most widely used legal psychoactive drug
o supplies 75% of US caffeine consumption (includes sift drunks and over the counter meds)
 potential risk for mothers carrying children
 positive effects of coffee= increase endurance and mental acuity
o reduction of parkinson’s in men (not women)

coffee
 coffee is the 2nd most important on the international market (petroleum as the first)
 coffee comes from 3 species of the genus Coffea- native to eastern Africa (coffee beverage
consumption low in this region)
 earliest record of coffee was from Ethiopia- indigenous people chewed leaves and fruits – reduced
fatigue and hunger
o history of worldwide consumption of coffee:
 coffee was discovered by Kladi- Shepard
 first used as a beverage in Yemen –before 14th century
 Egypt- 1510 and Italy 1616
 Pope baptized coffee making it a Christian beverage
 1650- england – social and political environment
 Arabs dipped seeds in boiling water before marketing- killed embryos and prevented
cultivation by other countries
 Dutch started plantations
 Trees sent to amsterdams botanical garden but only 1 seed survived
 Seedlings from this tree were obtained and were dispersed
 1727- mission to obtain coffee seeds to establish plantations in brazil
 Now brazil dominates the world coffee market, Vietnam in second
  Coffea Arabica- prominent in history and 80% of the world coffee production
 Coffea canephora- robusta coffee  20% of the worlds coffee
 C. liberica = <1% of world coffee
 C. Arabica:
o Self-pollinating and self-compatible (the other 2 species are self-incompatible)
o Better flavour
 Robusta- grown mainly for use in blended coffee – taste is disguised or altered
 Liberian coffee- most bitter is not used outside of Africa
 All coffea species are small tress with glossy leaves, white flowers
o Fruits take 9 months to mature into a cherry (accessory berry with a tough outer layer )
 In the endocarp- 2 seeds pressed together so the inner side of each is flattened
 Each seed= bean is surrounded by a seed coat is composed mainly of endosperm
surrounding an embryo
o Coffee trees cannot tolerate freezing – cultivation restricted to tropical and subtropical areas
 Produces first crop after 3 years
 Life cycle of about 40 years
o Mostly grown in open orchards
o Arabian coffee grown on hillsides
 Rarely harvested by machine
o Robusta and Liberian coffee grown at low elevations

Coffee processing
 Seeds separated from the fruit, fermented and roasted
 Wet or dry process to remove the outer fruit
o dry process dies the fruits in the sun and the pericarp is weathered away
o wet process produces a superior flavour, depulps the fruits by machine and the seeds are
washed and soaked for a day
 fermentation is the enzymatic, chemical alteration of several compounds
o produces substances that will eventually develop into characteristic coffee taste and smell
o causes the seeds to turn grey- green
 after fermentation- seeds spread out in the sun to dry for a week
 beans graded before shipping
 more processing in the country where the coffee is consumed
 roasting: in cylinders that stir and heat the seeds
o molecules that create coffee aroma develop
o roasted at high temps for 10-15 minutes
o lose 20% of their weight
 cooled, shipped (whole or ground) and packaged
 dark roasts are not stronger but contain more flavor than light roast
o dark roast beans are larger – swell more during roasting
 espresso: is a method of making coffee made with dark roast beans
 dark roasting leads to the production of NMP- helps reduce stomach acid
 negatives to coffee: raises blood cholesterol when made with an espresso machine, French press or
perculator
 benefits to coffee: reduces issues associated with diabetes – reduces glucose, lower risk of CV disease,
reduce risk of alcohol related cirrhosis , reduce cognitive decline in people over 65
 decaffeinated: caffeine content of o.1 percent or less
 o caffeine removed from coffee beans
o solvent extraction:
 beans, pre-softened with steam are extracted in an organic solvent , caffeine removed
from the solvent with water and then purified
o water extraction:
 immerses green beans in water soluble compounds in coffee except caffeine
 caffeine in the solution is removed
 no solvents in contact with the beans but more expensive
o carbon dioxide extraction:
 pre-softened beans are soaked in a bath of carbon dioxide in a supercritical state
 has an affinity for caffeine – removes it from the beans
 co2 evaporates taking the caffeine with it
 feasible only for large scale operations
 2 million lb of defacffenated caffeine use in tea and coffee, ¾ used in soft drinks and energy drinks –
rest is added to headache and cold medicines
 methods of brewing coffee:
o cowboy coffee- boiling coffee grounds in water
o pre measured packets and throwaway filters
o machines that use pods
o first marketable instant coffee was in 1909- soluble Red E coffee
o instant coffee is made when crushed roasted beans put in percolators and brewed, sealing to
keep aroma and flavor from escaping
 after percolation- coffee sprayed under high pressure – creating an instant powder
 often water is added to make the powder look like ground coffee
o freeze drying is another way to make instant coffee
o adding other substances to coffee like adulterants or extenders- to enhance flavor
 chicory- contains no caffeine
 designer or flavoured coffee almond, chocolate, pecan and vanilla – added after roasting
 coffee use in beauty treatments
 Kopi Luwak- defected coffee beans from animals= gourmet

Tea
 More people worldwide drink tea than coffee but its not as important as an international commodity
 Camellia sinensis- native to china
 Thought to be a gift from Buddha
 Origin unknown
 Chinese were drinking tea by the 5th century
 Brought to japan in 801 AD
 Europeans exposed to tea when the Portuguese explored the coast of china in the 16 th century
 Dutch introduced tea to England
 18th century- tea an important trade item for Europeans
 tea was expensive but cheaper than coffee
 Boston tea party 1773 when British put tax on tea
 Chinese tea was produced in India and made new varieties – now the most traded teas in the world
 China, India and sri lanka = top three modern tea producers
 Tea surpassed coffee as a favourite British beverage when coffee plantations were destroyed by coffee
rust
 Tea plants:
 o Small evergreen trees
o Tea plantations started with seed germinated in enclosures and set into field when mature
o Today- clones obtained by rooting cuttings are most commonly used
o Plantations are located in areas with good rainfall and a constant cool temp
o after 3 years trees are pruned and then re-pruned every 12 years or so
 pruning to allow picking and rapid shoot growth
o picking can start when trees are 4 years old
o fine teas: youngest leaves and buds are picked  contain the highest amount of caffeine and
constituents that give tea flavor
 tea contains antioxidants
o anti cancer- contains epigallocatechin gallate- antioxidant catechin – present in green tea
 binds to cancer promoting proteins
 L- theanine- amino acid that improves attention span and other mental performances

Tea processing
 Depends on the product desired
 Green tea:
o Expanded leaves steamed for 45-60s and then dried and rolled at a high temp for 45 minutes
o Rolled without heat for 25 mins and dried and pressed with heat for 30 mins
o Historically this was done manually
o Now done with mechanical rollers
o Green tea= 1/5 of all tea produced – usually consumed locally
 White tea:
o Only the smallest, incompletely expanded terminal leaves are used
 Yellow tea:
o Allowed to sweat before firing
o During firing- damp leaves turn yellow
 Black tea:
o Spreading leaves and placing then in drums to wither
o Withering reduces moisture
o Withered leaves are disrupted by machine rolling, crushing and tearing  release enzymes
o Fermentation refers to oxidation leading to formation of polyphenolic compounds
o Tannins- give tea the bite and brown colour and flavor
o After fermentation- tea is dried . tasted, graded and packaged
 Oolong tea:
o Semifermented- combined taste of green and black tea
o Produced primarily in china and Taiwan
 Pu’Erh tea:
o Post fermented tea developed in china
o Steam moistens mature green tea leaves and compresses them into molds
o Cakes are wrapped in cotton gauze and undergo microbial fermentation that darkens the tea

Variations on a tea theme

 Iced tea
 Tea bags- initially made by a man in new York sending samples to clients
o Tea mags originally made from gauze- now made from cloth like paper derived from plant fibers
 Instant tea in 1885, became popular in 1940s when spray drying was implemented
Cacao
 Eating chocolate more popular than drinking it
 Theobroma cacao
o Theobroma- food of the gods
 Manufacturing techniques were developed in the last 175 years
 Cacao brought to Europe from mexico
 Oldest cacao use in Honduras
 Originally roasted beans and used them in religious ceremonies
 Aztecs and Indians added spices and made it into a paste that was dissolved in hot water
 Europeans added sugar and cinnamon
 Production of cacao is highest in Africa (far from central America where its origin is)
 Grow as understory trees- planted in shaded orchards
o Bear flowers on trunks and branches – produces in flushes twice a year
o Pods are picked by hand and cracked open – seeds and pulp scraped out
o Seeds allowed to ferment – forming alcohol and acetic acid  creating volatile compounds
responsible for the aroma and flavor of chocolate
o After fermentation- seeds dried and polished
o Roasting occurs then seeds are cracked to release the embryo
o Seed coat debris – used in mulch, theobromine extraction or pressed to yield cocoa butter
 Cocoa butter can be made into white chocolate
 Extracted theobromide can be made into caffeine
 Embryos left after roasting = nibs
 Nibs are ground to a paste= forms chocolate liquor
o 1828- chocolate processing that is used today
 press out the fat, making a dry cocoa powder- add alkaloids
 ducthing- what this process is often called- darkens the cocoa
 90% of cocoa is dutched
o 1847- eating chocolate
o 1875- nesle made the first solid milk chocolate
 stearic acid – most abundant fatty acid in cocoa butter, also oleic acid and palmitic acid
 chocolate contains flavonols that act as antioxidants
 elevates NO in the body- reduce plaque in the arteries
 theobromide – cough suppressant
 1996- cholcolate binds to the same receptor in the brain as marijuana
o phenylethylamine, anandamide and tryptophan

chapter 17: alcoholic beverages

overview
 alcoholic drinks contain ethanol produced when saccharomyces yeast ferment simple sugars in water-
releasing CO2
 alcohol abuse is third major preventable source of death in the US
 grapes wine, malted barley beer
 alcohol acts as a depressant (caffeine is a stimulant)
 traces of rice wine in china 9000 years ago
 production of alcohol depends on fermentation by yeast and other microorganisms
o yeasts cant tolerate high alcohol levels- simple fermentation yields low alcohol concentration
 o distillation yields high alcohol concnetrations

alcohol as a drug
 53% of americans use alcohol and $90 billion spend annually on it
 2 glasses of alcohol a day lowers risk for heart disease and stroke- raises levels of high density
lipoproteins in the blood
o lowers blood glucose and improves insulin use
 alcohol consumption – majority source of deaths- driving …
 beverage alcohol= ethanol- soluble in water and fats
o absorbed in the stomach and intestines before being carried to the liver where it is
metabolized into CO2 and water
o women metabolize ¼ as much alcohol as men – more remains in their blood stream
 permanent damage: drinking during pregnancy fetal alcohol syndrome
 gene correlated with alcoholism ?? D2 GABA?
 1920= 1933 prohibition

fermentation
 ethanol produced by fermentation
o converts simple sugars into alcohol
o produced by yeasts – especially saccchoromyces
o fermentation requires sugars- sucrose, glucose, fructose, maltose (Natural)
o yeasts also require amino acids to reproduce and live
o saccharomyces used because they are efficient at alcohol and produce compound other than
alcohol that adds flavor
 primarily S. cereviasia, S. bayanus and S. pastorianus – able to ferment sugar into
ethanol under anaerobic conditions
o CO2 and water are main products but acetaldehyde, acetic acid are produced
 Higher alcohol concentration requires distillation by adding concentrated alcohol

Wines, mead and fortified wines

 Wine is fermented fruit juice by definition but often refers to fermented juice of grapes Vitis vinifera
 Grape wine making 8000-3000 BC
 Mead: fermented solution of honey and water  may have been consumed before beer and wine
o Sugar in pure honey is so concentrated that most yeasts cant live on it
o If honey is diluted with water= medium for yeasts
o Today- mead made by boiling a solution of honey with added amino acids and herbs , after
cooling yeast is added
 Wine is produced in nature
 Fermentation can occur spontaneously
 Species most commonly used for grape wine domesticated in the Near East 8000 years ago
 Egyptians used wine for religious ceremonies
 Wine became popular between 2000 and 1000 BC- during the Greek empire
o Prefer resinous wine as they often used to store wine in vessels smeared with pine pitch
o Romans didn’t use pine pitch- italian wines surpassed Greek wines
 Until recently Europe was the world leader of quantity and quality of wine production
o Today= US, agentine, Australia, China , Germany…
 19 century California wineries
th
  1860- European vines died from phylloxera – root aphid
 plants produce fruit several years after planting and can bear fruit for over 50 years
o branches are pruned and sprouts are trained on trellises
o often planted with multiple varieties to produce blends when picked
 benefits of wine:
o low incidence of atherosclerosis
o resveratrol- compound responsible for reducing heart disease – found in red wine
 boosts action of insulin and stimulates production of sirtuins – proteins linked to
longevity and balanced metabolism

wine making
 modern day- monitoring of wine making with chemical and computer analysis
 process of wine making:
o grapes are picked, crushed and the juice is allowed to ferment
o juice can be expressed by stomping on grapes or with hand operated- electric or fuel powered
processes
o pressed and liquid transported to wineries
o sulfur dioxide is introduced to kill bacteria
o white wine: filtered to remove the skins before being put in tanks for fermentation
 white wine can be made from red grapes if skins removed right after pressing
o red wine: skins got into tanks during fermentation
 red wine cannot be made naturally from white grapes
o rose: skins removed after a short period of time
o before fermentation: agents added that make the wine not look cloudy
 enzymes that break down pectin or bentonite
o after in fermentation tank- yeast are added
o red wines are needed to fermenet at higher temperatures than white wine
o afeter initial fermentation- ferment for 2 weeks- 1 month
o acids in grapes: tartaric acid and malic acid change during fermentation
o racking: when wine is transferred across a series of tanks during aging process because of
particle sedimentation over time
o fermentation stops when there is no more fermentable sugar or the alcohol concentrations
reach levels toxic to yeast
o all sugar used before or at the time of maximal alcohol content for yeast= dry wine
o if sugar remains= sweet wine
o pasteurization used to kill any live yeasts remaining – affects the taste  wine is usually
filtered to remove live yeast cells
 filtration doesn’t remove bacteria – controlled by adding sulfur dioxide
o stabilization involves cooling wine and filtering precipitated materials
o time in aging tanks vary
 white wines: 1 year- 18 months
 red wines: up to 5 years
 wine maker determines when it is done aging
 types of grapes: cabernet sauvignon, chardonnay, Muscadet, pinot noir, syrah
 year grapes were picked and wine was initiated= vintage

champagne and other sparkling wines

  still wines: produced by simple fermentation- contain no gaseous CO2
o fermentation tanks allow gas to escape
 sparkling wines are carbonated
o champagne made by adding sugar and yeast to a blend of still wine before bottling
o yeast and sugar start an additional fermentation= prise de mousse
 sparkle due to the CO2 trapped inside
 problem: dead yeast cells and other matter settle at the bottom- removal of sediment
before bottling but still being carbonated
 removal of sediment: storing champagne bottles at an angle to keep sediment in the tip
of the bottle neck
 neck of bottle plunged in liquid nitrogen that freezes the liquid in the neck
 after cork removed debris is forced outward and then recorked
o another method= the transfer method
 when the second fermentation occurs in a closed tank
o less expensive sparkiling wines- CO2 pumped into bottle

fortified wine
 concentrated ethanol or highly distilled beverage is added
 sherry, port

unit content
caffeine:
 caffeine is the primary compound in many stimulating beverages
 alkaloid – class of compound
 competitive antagonist of adenosine – bind to adenosine receptor
o adenosine is associated with sleepiness- inhibition leads to stimulating effects of caffeine
o accumulation of adrenaline
 biological effects: stimulates heart, acidifies stomach, increased urination and creates metabolic rate
by 10%
 excessive amount- anxiety, headache, dizziness , heart problems, insomnia and mild delirium
 long term use- dependence and symptoms
 genetics play a role in beneficial or deleterious effects

coffee
 2nd most important international commodity (petroleum first)
 produced from seeds of Coffea spp. – small woody plant in the Ruiaceae – native to Africa
o Shepard in Ethiopia observed one of their sheep chewing on the fruit and frolicking happily
after
 Early on- trade controlled by Arabs – who would boil seeds before sale making them inviable = coffee
bean monopoly
o Monopoly broken when Dutch managed to obtain viable seed to make their own plantations
 Today- Brazil and Vietnam lead in the world production
 Most coffee comes from C. Arabica (80%) self-pollinating and better flavor
o Other species: robusta (20%) and Liberian (<1%)
 Coffee trees- tropical species restricted grown in tropics
o Plantations grown in full sun, but believe shade grown is superior and more environmentally
friendly
o Most is harvested manually- required as berries mature and harvested as they ripen
 o Coffee fruit = cherries (true cherries are drupes)
o Fruit is an accessory berry with 2 seeds
o Seeds often called beans – but have little in common with legumes
 Processing:
o Removing fruit from seeds using a wet or dry process
o Seeds fermented for 12-24 hrs to develop flavor and aroma – and change in colour
o After fermentation- seeds are dried and cleaned to remove any fruit tissue remaining
o Seeds graded and shipped  roasted
o Decaffeinated coffee involves caffeine removed from the seeds
 Solvent extraction: beans are extracted using an organic solvent- dichloromethane. The
solvent is removed by heat and recycled, residual solvent is further eliminated during
roasting
 Water extraction: green seeds are immersed in water to extract caffeine and other wate
soluble compound
 Caffeine removed from this water
 Solution used to soak the next batch to selectively remove coffee using leftover
compounds
 Supercritical fluid extraction: liquid CO2 is used to extract caffeine
 Same as solvent extraction bUT seeds don’t come in contact with solvent and
CO2 evaporates at room temperature and ambient pressure

Tea
 More people consume tea than coffee
o More often consumed locally – less of an international market
 Camelia sinensis- native to china (consumed since the 5th century AD)
 Tea made from other than C. sinensis= tisanes
 China, India, Sri Lanka lead world production
 Benefits to health

Video: Tea documentary- the bitter sweet truth about tea drinks* Exam
 1.5 trillion cups of tea a year
 Indonesia, China, India, Kenya, Argentina
 North America- Charleston tea farm (South Carolina)
o South Carolina and Hawaii only placed in US that grow tea  high temperature and humidity
o Cloned from Chinese plants
o Andre mucheaux brought tea
o Lipton tea company bought bushes
 Americans drink 50 billion servings/ year
 6th most popular drink in the US (water, coffee, soft drinks, alcohol, bottled water) and 2 nd most
popular drink worldwide
 6 billion pounds of tea produced / year, takes 5 pounds of raw leaf tea to make 1 pound of tea
 3 major types of tea: white, black and oolong
o from the same plant cameilia sinesis – native to china, india and Thailand
o differences between teas occurs during fermentation
o process:
 1st step = withering – leaves placed on withering bed to get moisture to 68%
 fans increase this process
  China- and smaller scale production- doesn’t use fans
 Shredding- tears open cell walls allowing tea to oxidize (hand rolling methods in
China) rotovein
 Oxidation turns green leaves to black tea
 Oxidation is defining phase in black, green and oolong tea
 When flavor comes from
 Oxidation time in half= oolong tea
 No oxidation at all= green tea (most popular in Japan)
 Green tea: Oxidation stopped by steaming leaves – neutralizes enzyme
 Dried: 68% moisture to 2% (how 5 pounds from field= 1 pound)
 Shaker phase- remove fibers
 History: 2737 BC – when tea leaves fell in a cup of tea in China
o Tea perceived as healthy drink
o Black tea- half as much caffeine as coffee – Buddhist monks use teas to stay awake during
meditation
o Tea remained a Chinese secrete until a monk brought tea to Japan in 9 th century
o Japanese traditions- chado
o 17th century: portuguese and ducth brough tea to Europe
o England came in 1664- King charles wife fell in love and people followed lead  expensive and
taxed= black market
o 1770s- half of tea in England illegal
o willian Pit- slashed taxes in 1784- affordable to everyone
 before this: 1773= boston tea party
 ships with tea were refused to be unloaded – colonists broke open chests and
dumped tea in harbour
 3 years – war- tea
o British built plantations in India
o US – only country in the world that prefers tea Iced
 80% of tea in the US= iced tea
 British East India Trading Company and slave plantation systems
o 1600 by Queen Elizabeth
o backbone of British empire
o Chinese monopoly on tea= imbalance between Chinese and England= silver sink
 Opium wars- British flood China with Indian opium  pay for trade imbalance in tea
trade
 War with China twice over opium so British and East India trading company would have
silver to pay for their tea
 East India tea company then began to plant outside china
 British created plantations and imported laborers – slaves
 Used slave laws of America in British tea companies
 70% of workforce was female
o afternoon tea 1840
o landscape altered to improve tea harvesting
o shift from Chinese tea manufacturing
o Black tea became British
 Tea bag technology:
o 20ths century
 o 65% of tea brewed through bag
o Lipton tea company 90 million tea bags / year
o 24 million tea bag made/ day
o accidental revolution
 samples sent out in pouches and buyers dropped them in water
 gauze then paper tea bags
o 1950s- tea bagging machines introduced – Lipton
 flow through bag
 Tea tasting
o Changing formulas to keep consistency
o Blends – pekoe tea (40-60s teas in the blend)
o Lipton- numerical code (1-7) to describe tea
o Requires 4-5 years of training
 Tea blending process
o Silos of teas- swirl teas together
o Conveyer belts carry teas from silos to blending machines
o Processed into tea bags
o 1/6 converted to powder for instant tea
 spray – vaporize tea and vaporize it
o tea powder and bags frowned upon in China
o Darjeeling tea- grown in Himalayas- retail for hundred of dollars a pounds= “champagne of tea”
 Herb tea production
o Celestial seasonings – 1 billion pounds of peppermint and spearmint
o Stored in mint room
o Medicinal plants
 Hibiscus- 1 million pounds
 Herbs broken into pieces – milling
 Broken up by hand then by machine – cutter mill
 Sifter
 Blended and funneled into tea bags
o Celestial seasonings- hippies tea – weeds for needs
o Celestial seasonings don’t add strings, tags or overwrap on tea bags eliminates 361700
pounds of waste/ year
 Health benefits of tea
o Role in preventing obesity, osteoporosis, gum disease  especially green tea (9% of market)
 Antioxidants that prevents cell damage and slows aging
 Number 1 antioxidant in green tea= EGCG
 Targets cancer causing protein
 Neutralizes anti-death protein – doesn’t allow cancer cells to die
 Luxury teas
o Inconsistency in teas
o Expensive
o Most prized tea: improves with age cueair
o L- theanine – stimulates alpha brain waves- relaxation (coffee doesn’t have this soothing effect)
Chocolate:
 Initially consumed as a drink now solid forms dominate
 Native to the new world and was important crop to Aztec and Mayans- consumed it ritualistically
o Mixed it with achiote seeds, chilli peppers and vanilla- making it bitter and spicy
 Crtes brought chocolate to Europe- not immediately popular
 Replacement of spices with cinnamon and sugar made it popular
 Cacao tree is an understory plant cultivated in the shade
o Fruit is produced in an unusual way on the stem= cauliflory
o Pods are harvested by hand and split to release seeds. Seeds and pulp are fermented for a
week to break down seed coat and develop aroma and flavor
o Seeds are dried and polished by tumbling to remove pulp. Seeds are graded and sorted and
sent for more processing

Alcoholic beverages
 Alcohol- many different compound – alcohol in beverages = ethanol
 Ethanol- 2 carbon alcohol soluble in water and fat
o Readily cross membranes
 Traces of rice wine in china 9000 years ago
 Production based on process of fermentation
 Anaerobic conditions- microbes produce ethanol as a by-product of respiration
o Results in conversion of simple sugars into ethanol
o Inoculating solution with yeast in a sealed container= basis for beers and wines
o High concentrations of alcohol requires distillation
 High levels are toxic to people and microbes
o Fermentation stops when sugar is used up

Wine
 Definition of wine refers to any fermented fruit juice – even applies to rice (grains are fruits)
 Wine made by crushing fruit and allowing natural microbes to ferment sugars
 Grapes used because they have a high sugar content, good chemical profile- acidity, tannin content
and flavour
 First evidence of grape wine- Iran 7000 years ago where alcohol is now banned
 Vitis vinifera is the most popular
o Grafted onto North American rootstock to prevent loss due to root aphids
o Root aphids spread to European vineyards and destroyed them

Unit 11: Wood, cork, bamboo and fibers

chapter 19: wood, cork and bamboo
overview
 Wood- accumulated mass of secondary xylem
 Woods differ due to different types, orientation and contents in the xylem
 Major materials to build home: logged and milled lumber
 Cellulose fibers used to make paper and fiberboard
 Cork- protective layer in bark of woody plants
 Bamboo used in construction
 Wood is used to heat homes and construct them than any other material
  World deforestation 13.7 million hectares/ year

Definitions of wood
 Wood: accumulations of secondary xylem in angiosperms and gymnosperms
 Vascular tissue produced by terminal meristems
 Woody plants- cambium layer forms between primary xylem and phloem
o Cambium: lateral meristem capable of dividing – producing mainly xylem toward the inside of
the stem and phloem toward the outside – increased diameter
o Conducting tissues formed by the cambium= secondary (primary derived directly from cell
division of apical meristems)
o Secondary xylem cells are shorter than primary and their walls get harder and full of lignin
o Conducting xylem vessels are fully functional when they are dead
 Herbaceous dicots- xylem and phloem arranged in a ring  contain wood
o Everyday use of the term wood is applied to large amounts of xylem that make up the bulk of
the trunk and branches
 Each year the cambium adds one or more layers of xylem to increase circumference and compensate
for expansion
 Old phloem on the outside cannot divide or stretch to accomadate the increase in stem size
o Old ring phloem is crushed as stem expands
o The only part of the phloem with functioning cells- part closest to the cambium= sapwood
 Sap wood contains the only functional conducting cells
 Older, non functional xylem= heartwood
 Most wood is the combination of sapwood and heartwood
 Ray parenchyma cells- horizontal conduction system within the functional xylem tissue
 Bark: all material living and dead, external to the cambium in woody plants
o Change constantly to accomadate growth by making new protective layers as old layers are
shed
o Principle part of the bark= phellogen  produces phellom (cork) and phelloderm (tissue of
parenchyma like cells)
o As bark develops- old dead phloem cells and cork and old phelloderm separate from living
tissues- separated tissues tie and form cork

Hardwoods and softwoods

 Refers to type of plants that produce wood
 All wood produced by gymnosperms= softwood
o Xylem of gymnosperms composed of tracheids long cells that conduct water through
openings in their walls
o Conatins fewer types of cells – wood tends to be uniform
 Wood that comes from angiosperms= hardwood
o Xylem composed of vessels – short cells that conduct water through openings in walls
o Laticifers

Tree rings
 Effects on xylem production: temperature changes and seasonal acidity
 Cold, temperate regions- smaller xylem cells continuously produced and ceases during freezing months
and begins to produce more cells in the spring
o Rings can be counted to give accurate age of the tree
 Dendrochronologists- study growth patterns of xylem
  Arid regions- cambium produces small cells in the dry season and large vessels in the wet season
o Poor age indicators – less predictable than temperate winters

Characteristics of wood
 Spectrum of wood colours: black to green, yellow, red, white , purple  produced by adding cells with
different coloured compounds to the xylem
 Porosity: way large vessels are dispersed in a given year’s growth
 Grain: alignment of xylem vessels
 Figure: determined by the colour, number of rays, porosity, grain and arrangement of annual rings
 Presence or absence of knots- formed by inclusion of branches in the xylem contributes to a wood’s
figure
 Density: mass divided by volume
o Oven dried wood usually used to calculate density
o Mass is equal to weight
o Wood below 1gm/ cm3 – lighter and can float on water
o Balsa is one of the lightest woods
 Pine is the most commonly used in home construction – density of 0.35-0.5
 Softwoods and light hardwoods are used for kindling
o Conifers contain resins with flammable materials – avoid when making fires
 Hardwoods with medium to high density= best firewood
 Charcoal- produced by burning wood slowly in an atmosphere with little oxygen

Wood lumbering and milling

 Lumber allowed a season to dry to reach equilibrium with surroundings
 Drying needs to occur beacsue green wood/ fresh wood contains a lareg amount of water- can result in
warping when used in construction
 Logs can be cut into shingles
 Shakes- differ from shingles because they are the same thickness at both ends
o Shingles and shakes have chemicals added to prevent rotting

Wood products
 Veneers, plywood, particle board and textiles
o Veneers: sheets of wood less than 3mm often affixed to another surface
 Made by shaving across a flat wood surface or peeling a revolving log
 Used for furniture surfaces
 Rotary peeling methods yields larger, more uniform sheets
o Plywood: economically important use of veneer gluing sheets of veneer together with the
grain of each sheet at right angles to the grain of sheets above and below
 odd number of sheets used – 3-ply, 5-ply
 Egyptians invented plywood 5500 ya- Immanuel Nobel invented modern plywood
 Cut veneer to make plywood for decorative objects
 Marquetry- inlaying pieces of veneer to make designs
 Manufacture is limited by availability of large sheets of veneer
 Now limited to rise in popularity of particleboard, fiberboard and Hardie board
 Particleboard: wood is reduced to small chips by shaving or splintering – particles
are then sorted and graded , mixed with resins and chemicals and pressed into
shapes and sizes
  Fiberboard: wood fibers (not small pieces of wood) are used – placing small
wood particles in solution to dissolve pectins that hold fibers together
o When fibers separated – mixed with additives and pulp can be pressed
into sheets
 Hardie board: fiber cement product with cement, sand, water and cellulose
fibers
o Major components of homes
o Water resistance
 Paper
o Egyptians pressed strips of papyrus, Asia- rice paper
o Modern day paper: made from plant fibers separated from one another and matted together to
form a thin sheet
 Chinese were the first to make true paper by this process 100AD
 Used paper mulberry- separated fibers and mixed them with flax or hemp or
fibers from rags
 Fibers settled in a thin film on a screen , screen shaken
 Resultant damp sheet of paper peeled from the screen and dried
 1000 years for paper making to spread from Asia to Europe (12 th century)
 most made from fibers extracted from linen, cotton or hempen rags
 expensive and not widely available
 1799- papermaking machine in France
 1840s- - pulping methods developed – produced paper that yellowed
 chemical methods for extracting wood fibers- 19th century
o today- almost all paper made from wood
o conifer woods preferred over hardwoods – xylem tracheids are longer
o paper can also be made from banana plants, sugar cane pressings and bamboo
o paper making
 produce pulp – logs tripped of bark and wood reduced to chips
 mechanical pulping used in the ground wood process:
o grinding chips to free the fibers that can be bleached or used directly to
make paper – put on screens to make thick sheets , sheets drain and
rolled into wet pulp  this process is rarely sized, ye;;pws rapidly and
crumbles because pectins and lignins degrade – used for newspaper
 sulfite process:
o alkaline process that uses sodium sulfide, sulfate and hydroxide – most
widely used process because it dissolves out the pulp and can be used for
gymnosperm wood
o when fibers are separated they are washed and centrifuged to separate
bark bits and debris
o fibers treated with chlorine bleach flushed with sodium hydroxide
o moxed with water and other additives and put on screens
o alum and mordant (dye) is added
o rollers, driers
o high acid content – disintegrate after 100 years
 acid free/ don’t use sulfate – not subject to disintegration
o us produces 1/3 of world’s paper
o paper is 34% municipal waste
 o paper is easy to recycle – re-dissolving fibers and flooding them onto a screen to form new
sheets
 complicated with different sizes, ink and coatings on paper
o recycling all type sof paper involves shredding, dissolving into a slurry, removing inks that float
off easily and more ink removal by pumping air into the slurry
o using recycled paper could reduce deforestation

rayon, cellophane, acetate, arnel and lyocell

 rayon and cellophane are the same product in different forms
o both made from pure cellulose derived from wood
o follows same process of papermaking- then clean cellulose pulp is steeped in a solution to swell
the fibers- pressed and shredded = small fluffy particles. Form cellulose xanthate – dissolved to
form vicose final mixture is extruded in sheets = cellophane or forced through small opening
to produce rayon threads
o rayon threads drawn through an acid bath- neutralized alkali and makes fibers more flexible,
stranda re wound onto spools
o new rayons are marketed as Avril
o acetate and acetate fibers differ from rayon and cellophane
 acetate fibers made from purified cellulose- acetyl groups added
 acetate- wood pulp left on cotton seeds are reduced to purified pulp by chemical means
 triacetates- dissolving triacetate in alcohol and methylene chlorine and spinning it
 masses of acetate not spun are used to make cigarette filters
 under the name Arnel
o lyocell- new textile fiber
 made from cellulose extracted from plantations of eucalyptus trees and are chemically
treated
 more environmentally friendly because the solvent is reused
 cloth made from lyocell- feels like silk
o PLA: similar to polyester – made from starch in corn kernels  renewable

Cork
 Cork is not wood- no secondary xylem in bark
 Quercus suber- produces thick layers of cork that can be stripped from trees without damaging them
 Bark of the cork oak – result of selection for protection against forest fires
 Cork is an insulating material- air filled cells  make it light weight and able to float
 First stripping of bark= virgin bark- considered inferior
 Superior cork formed after initial stripping used for stopper, barrel bungs, cork veneers

Bamboo
 Does not contain secondary xylem= not wood
 China- symbolic meaning of resistance to hardship
 Only cell division by apical meristems produce new growth- continuous growth is vertica
 Hollow tubes- flexibility, light weight and strength
 Processing bamboo fibers into textiles requires toxic chemical solvents
o Bamboo production decrease
o Other strategies to make items out of bamboo- gluing strips to make laminates that resemble
wood
Chapter 18: fibers, dyes and tannnis
Overview
 Plant fibers major use in textiles
 Textile fibers come from seeds, fruit walls or strings of cells associated with phloem in flowering plants
 Cotton= seed fiber- dominates world market
 Textile dyes and tannins now replaced by synthetic forms
 Plant dyes important due to potential toxicity of artificial dyes
 Discovery that individual fibers could be separated from cells and woven to make textiles
 Prehistoric hunter gatherers used flax 30,000 years ago for rope, baskets etc
 Plant fibers are composed of cellulose (long strings of glucose attached to each other)
o Not affected by temperatures like animal proteins
o Attack by mold and fungi
o Less elastic than animal fibers- but have a higher affinity to water= more absorbent
 Animal fibers are made of protein
o Promote dye adherence – plant fibers need elaborate treatments
o Attack by pests
 Plant fibers and synthetic fibers
o Most synthetic fibers made from petroleum
o Petroleum more expensive
o Synthetic fibers cant match feeling of cotton or linen
 Vegetable fibers
o Classified on use or the plant part they are obtained from
o Based on use divides them into: textiles, brushes, plaiting or coarse weaving, stuffing material,
paper
o Spun to form yarns and thread
 bast fibers: come from phloem tissues in the stem of dicots
 hard fibers: leaves of few monocots
 fibers can only be spun if they have properties that cause strands to clasp when twisted
 factors that determine value of fibers
o fiber length and structure- affect look and feel
 round fibers feel silkier and smoother appearance than flat fibers
o strength – depends on cross sectional area, length of each cell and way cells are held together
o elastic- ability to retain original shape after stretched
 depends on amount of fiber, way cells are held together, and number of cells per fiber
o density, weight- affect draping
o chemistry- react with sun, water, head, acids etc

fiber extraction
 ginning: unique to separating fibers- pulls seeds free from fibers covering them
 retting: soft plant parts are rotted away by microorganisms – leaving the fibers intact
o used mainly by bast fibers and takes advantage of fibers having thicker cell walls and resistant
to break down
o dissolves gums and pectins that hold plant cells together
o retting by dumping into pools of water
o tissues absorb water and swell- release soluble compounds that nourish decomposing bacteria
o takes several weeks
 o doesn’t remove all non fiber material – removes the rest when washed and dried
o beating and rolling – breaks up remaining brittle material
o broken pieces of woody matter then removed by shaking and scraping scotching
o fibers hackled or carded to separate and align them
o hackling- drawing a mass of fibers across vertical pins (like a comb) , carding- array of pins on
flat brushes or rotating drums
o decorticating: crushing plant material and scraping extraneous material from fibers – used
mainly for leaf fibers
o after extracted and cleaned fibers are usually bleached before dying
seed and fruit fibers
 naturally selected to aid in seed dispersal
 few plants have seed or fruit fibers long enough for spinning
o cotton an exception – seed hairs spun into thread
 milkweed and kapok- stuffing material
 coir- only commercial textile fiber extracted from a fruit pericarp
 cotton
o most important natural fiber used today
o inexpensive- can be done my machinery
o textiles that dye well
o seeds – vegetable oil industry
o each fiber is an extension from a single epidermal seed coat cell
o linters- second layer of short, fuzzy hairs- removed and employed for papermaking
o cottonseed used as an oilseed crop
o genus: gossypium
o first use of cotton in the old world – south central asia
 G. arboretum- domesticated in india and Pakistan
 G. herbaceum- domesticated in east Africa
 Both are diploids
o G. hirsutum and G. barbadense- domesticated in the new world and are tetraploids
 Shows that there was a second colonization from the old world that produced a hybrid
that underwent polyploidy and gave rise to the ancestors of the 2 new world tetraploids
 G. hirsutum (cotton belt, west indian cotton) - 3400 BC in Mexico, 95% of the world crop
 Resistance to boll weevil predation
 G. barbadense- prima cotton, sea island cotton - 3500 BC
 Long and good quality threads
o Most species are tropical perennials – humans selected an annual habit and insensitivity to day
length ( allows plants to bloom and fruit as annual crop in temperate latitudes)
 Uniformity of plant size and synchronous blooming
o Seeds removed from fruit and hairs separated from seed coats
o 1794 Eli Whitney invented cotton gin – machine that pulls cottonseeds from the fibers
o dirtiest, most chemically dependent crops on the planet
 16% of world insecticide and 150g of fertilizer to give 454 g of raw product – enough for
an average t shirt
 sprayed with defoliants when mature so that leaves wont get in the way of the
harvesters
 genetically engineered cotton reduces pesticide use- residues are still appearing in food
chain
o after ginning- processing
  blended, picking machines that pluck and beat fibers – removes unwanted material
 cotton bales opened, blended and picked in a single operation in factories
 after picked, fibers are carded (similar to hackling)- to align them parallel
 rolled and teased fibers apart and drawn across a comb to produce a web of fibers
 wed twisted into a loose rope= silver
 silvers mixed and drawn, stretched and spun – resulting in yarn made of overlapping
parallel fibers held by mechanical forces
 cleaning- boiling thread or cloth with caustic soda and bleaching it (so they accept dyes)
 mercerizing: placing thread or textile that is stretched under pressure into a cold bath of
caustic soda for many hours
 causes fibers to swell and cellulose molecules to deform
 promotes uptake of dyes and durability, increase luster
 before weaving – sizing – adding a thick substance to the surfaces of fabrics to stiffen
them and fill surface irregularities
 permanent press cotton fabrics – reduce need to ironing and laundering- involve
chemicals that cross- link the cellulose polymers to cause cotton to retain the shape

coir
 coir: thick, fibrous mesocarp of the mature coconut fruit that is a source of fiber
 cocos nucifera
 coir fibers are made of bundles of cells that are longer than cotton fibers but shorter than most bast or
leaf fibers
 harvesting and husking immature coconuts produces high grade coir
 husks are retted in water, washed and beaten to remove pulpy remains
 clean, pure fibers are spun into yarn and used mainly for ropes and mats
 economic problem that high grade coir comes from unripe coconuts because of the value commodity
= copra – dried coconut endosperm  only obtained from mature fruits
 thus- most coir removed after copra removed
 fiber extraction produces 2 types of fibers
o mattress fibers- short and used as stuffing materials
o bristle fibers- combed, longer fibers- used in brushes, brooms and rough door mats
 coir used in netting for shellfish and seaweed harvesting since it is resistant to salt water
 coir inferior to fibers from other plants

bast fibers
 bast/ soft fibers consist of strings of thick walled cells that are mixed with phloem cells of many dicots
 fiber cells function to support stems and maintaining flexibility
 individual bast fiber made of hundreds of cells and can be 4.6 m long
 most can be bleached and dyned but are not mercerized or sanforized
 jute
o corchorus capsularis and C. olitorius – worlds prime bast fiber and 2 nd to cotton in world
production
o large scale production 18th century- when Europeans looked for inexpensive substitute for flax
o primary use= sacking
o domesticated in Asia
o india primary producer
o herbaceous annuals that yield 1.8-3 m long fibers
o not elastic and disintegrate in water rapidly
 o separated from the stems by deep water retting
o low cost- rapid growth and easily extracted fibers from stems
 flax and linen
o flax ( Linum usitatissumum)- linen is woven from
o oldest textile fiber used by humans
o 9000 years old – domesticated flax in Syria (seed extraction)
o line and lingerie – derived from the latin word for linen – linum
o flax- native to Europe and western asia
o fibers are smooth, 0.3-0.9m long and are 3x as strong as cotton
o used for making buttonholes, hoses , mail bags
o obtained by dew retting the stalks of mature plants , dried, scutched and hackled
o expensive- hand labor
 hemp
o cannabis sativa
o initially used for its fiber not psychoactive properties
o native to asia
o dioecious annual herbs that produce best fibers when frown under temperate conditions
o longest fibers of any bast species 1.5-4.6 m
o extracted from the stems by mechanical retting, hot water or dew retting
o processed hemp is creamy white and soft with a silky sheen
o most extracted quick and inexpensively – rough and dark fibers
 used for rope, canvas and sailcloth
o new methods- cottonization of hemp- produces fibers that can be processed on cotton
machines to make high quality textiles
 ramie
o china grass (boehmeria nivea)
o less common than other basts – due to agronomic problems and presence of unwanted
chemicals in the fibers
o monoecious perennial propagated by using rhizomes
o strands tend to mature unevenly and fibers contain gum and pectin that must be removed
o produces strong , durable fibers- silkiest plant fibres
o native to tropical asia
o used for fiber for 7000 years
o stalks are not retted – the bark and phloem are peeled from stems and fibers separated by
beating and scraping
o fibers held together by gums in ribbon like strips – treated with caustic soda

leaf, or hard fibers

 use rose in 1940- improved machinery
 from tropical monocots with fibers inexpensiviely removed
 fibers in the phloem in leaves and leaf bases- where thick celled walls provide support
 too stiff for textiles
 hard reflects its stiffness
 shorter than most bast fibers
 make better ropes
 agave and musa genera supply all commercially important leaf fibers
 sisal and henequen
 o come from species of agave: sisal from A. sislana and henequen from A. fourcroydes
o native to central America
o A. sisalana has sharp spines- term needle and thread plant
o Plants used for sacking, mats, tea bags
o Extraction
 Outer mature leaves, cut at the base , carted to the factory and fed between rollers
 Beaten, aligned, washed and dried
o Grow best in arid conditions – good for regions not suited for other types of agriculture
 Abaca
o Manila hemp (musa textilis)
o Relative to the banana
o Fibers from the outer leaf bases that make up the stem
o Used in tea bags, dollar bills, manila envelopes
o Used in textiles, ropes (resist water decay)
o Used primarily for paper and fibercraft products

unit content
wood
 secondary tissue- initiated later in development after primary tissues
 wood- refers to the secondary xylem produced and accumulated by angiosperms and gymnosperms
(naked seeded plants)
 bark- initiated later in development

o
 secondary xylem and phloem produced by the vascular cambium
o (all new growth from meristematic tissues)
o cambium is a lateral meristem that develops between the xylem and phloem and produces new
xylem cells on the interior side and new phloem on the outside
o as xylem matures- goes through programmed cell death and at maturity- no longer living
o cells that remain alive in wood: ray parenchyma cells
o wood is a combination of living and dead cells – metabolically active and responds to
environmental stimuli
 softwood: any wood derived from gymnosperms
 hardwood: any wood derived from angiosperms
o gymnosperms produce wood with tracheids
o angiosperms produce vessels
  classified based on mechanical properties: tension, shear, compression, cleavage, cross breaking
 tree rings formed due to seasonal variations in plant growth
o temperate regions- annual
o tropical regions- seasonal variation less pronounced and less reliable
paper
 crude paper production for papyrus, rice and paper mulberry
o made by pounding plant materials into thin sheets
 true paper made by separating fibers and then matting them together into thin sheets
 first record of modern paper- Chinese 100 AD
 another 1000 years for Chinese paper making to spread to Europe
 Chinese started paper manufacturing from mulberry bark
 When paper was made in Europe they used textile fibers (cloth)
 Wood fibers originally had to be separated using mechanical means and were short and poor quality
o Technological developments – chemical separation of intact, longer fibers = good paper
 Softwood trees- preferred for paper production – tracheids are longer than hardwood vessels

Bamboo
 Poaceae family (grass) – monocot
 Don’t produce secondary xylem – not wood
 New shoots come from apical meristems and there is no secondary growth (thickening)

Cork
 Found in all trees
 Usually a thin layer of tissue in the bark
 Commercial cork from the bark tissues from the cork oat (Quercus suber)- unusually thick layer of cork

Video: from bark to bottle

1. What is unique about the cork oak
 Only tree that you can remove all bark without harming the tree
2. Where does cork oak grow
 Mediterranean basin- 7 million acres in
o Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, morocco, Tunisia, Algeria
3. How does forest biodiversity in a cork oak forest compare to other ecosystems
 Arid, prone to forest fire, poor soil, low water table cork tree thrives
 Keeps this 7 million acres from being a desert
 3rd highest level of forest diversity in the world ( after amazon and Indonesian rain forest)
 13,000 species in cork forests that live no where else on earth
 endangered lynx
4. How is cork harvested and why is it considered among the most sustainable forestry industries
 Harvested by hand by skilled craftsman using an axe every 9 years
 90% of forests owned by family farmers
o highly trained so they don’t cut into cambium layer
o highest paid forest workers in Europe
 grows back and is re-harvested every 9 years and lasts 200 years
 protected by national law
 cork is flattened and brought to plants and cut into strips
 0% waste industry- use all pieces of bark
 5. How do cork producers avoid any waste?
o dust is vacuumed and compressed into biomass and burned to produce energy
6. How/why was cork used in the shuttle
 Space shuttle- fuel tanks encased in cork for protection because it is heat resistant
7. Is over use of cork threatening cork trees?
 In jeopardy due to under use of cork trees
 Wine industry concerned with TCA
o Alternative methods for caps
 Enough cork in the cork forest to close every bottle of wine for next 100 years
 Farmers aren’t harvesting bark- not planting new trees
o Planting trees not healthy for that region of the world
 Plastic caps- endocrine disputers in wine (cancer) – not sustainable

Rumor that corks are going extinct and that we should switch to screw caps on wine bottles is common – but
not based on fact

Non woody fibers

 First plant known to be used for fiber= flax
o Bast fibers used to produce linen
o Wild hunter gatherers using wild flax to make rope, baskets and sew clothing 30,000 years ago
before agriculture
 Plant fibers composed of cellulose- polymeric form of glucose
 Animal fibers (wool) made of protein
 Plant fibers can be classified by their use or where they come from- we classify them based on their
biological origin
 o Bast fibers produces within the phloem tissues of dicots like flax and hemp – reach up to 5m
long
o Hard fibers- leaf fibers- produced in the vascular bundles of monocots
 Cotton
o Each fiber is an extension from a single epidermal cell of the seed coat
o Before development of cotton gin – USA exported 500 bales of cotton
o With the invention of cotton gin- exported 30,000 bales
 Coir
o Obtained from the mesocarp of immature coconut fruit
o Retting 8-10motnhs in brackish water
o Most coir obtained from mature fruit even though it is lower quality as the most valuable part
of the coconut is the meat/ copra  can only be harvested when the fruit is mature

Unit 12: rubber

Chapter 11: vegetable oils and waxes
Overview
 Oils provide essential fatty acids and allow us to use fat soluble vitamins – A, D, E
 Overconsumption of oils and fats contributes to obesity, heart disease, diabetes
 Vegetable oils- triglycerides – double bonds determine solubility
 Importance back to the naming of Greece’s capital city- Athens – Athena put a spear in southern
Greece and an olive tree grew

Fats and oils stored by plants

 Most vegetable oils are from seeds
 Oils stored in the endosperm (coconut, castor bean), cotyledons ( cotton, peanut, soybean) and
scutellum (corn) – food for germinating embryo
 Oils need more energy than starch to be produced – contain more calories
 Oils from fruit pulps- olives and palm fruits
 Vegetable fats and oils
o Saturated fats, polyunsaturated oils, trans fats and omega 3 fatty acids
o Triglycerides – extracted from plants
 Fatty, neutral, fixed or non volatile oils because they feel greasy, non reactive chemically
and do not diffuse readily into the air ( like volatile oils)
 Formed from glycerol and fatty acids
 Hydrolysis- cleavage of fatty acids from a glyceride – usually affected by alkali solutions
 Soaps- metal salts of fatty acids
o Fatty acids differ in number of carbon atoms (chain length), position of carbon atoms and
double bonds between carbon atoms
o Saturated= fatty acids with a single bonds
o Unsaturated= fatty acids with double bonds
o Monounsaturated= 1 double bond
o Polyunsaturated= more than 1 double bond
o 4 fatty acids most commonly found in vegetable oils= oleic, palmitic, linoleic and steric acids
 palmitic has 16 carbons, the rest have 18
 stearic – saturated
 oleic acid- 1 double bond
  most heart healthy fatty acid
 linoleic acid- 2 double bonds
 linoleic (omega 6 fatty acid) and lineolenic (omega 3 fatty acid)= omega fatty acids
o polyunsaturated fatty acids- linked with production of free radicals – produce carcinogens
o monounsaturated fatty acids- least dangerous to health
o degree of ionization calculating the amount of iodine needed to saturate fatty acids
 higher the number- more double bond present
 range between 7-200
 oils with values < 70= fats  high melting point and solid at room temperature
o drying oil- oils with many double bonds link together – forming polymers dry into coatings
 iodine values >150
o non-drying and semidrying oils- don’t form coatings
 semidrying 100-150
 non-drying 70-100
 fats <70
o double bonds allow fatty acids to absorb oxygen  oxidation leads to production of volatile
compounds that smell= rancid
 preservatives added to prevent this

fats in processed foods

 fatty oils in foods carry essential oils that are the basis of smell and taste of food
 make foods juicy
 rise in fat consumption in US reaching 36kg in 2010
 temp that oils reach indicated by its smoke point- when oil degrades and begins to burn or smoke
 mono and diglyercides have lower smoke points than triglycerides
o longer chain= higher smoke point
 baking
o coat flour proteins and prevent formation of gluten strands- melt in mouth texture
 foods with high fat content= short meaning easily crumbled
 <1990- baking made with butter or animal lard
 oils used- don’t become rancid as easily
 fats and oils absorbed through the lining of small intestine, cleaved into fatty acids and glycerol

non-food uses of vegetable oils

 used to create paints, plastics
 soap- cleaning properties because COO- groups have an affinity for water- remaining parts attract
grease/ dirt
 oil paints
o boiling oils with compounds with heavy metals- help absorb oxygen after applied forming hard
films
o varnishes made by mixing boiled oils with gums and resins
o enamels- mixing pigments with varnishes
o oil paints replaced with modern latex paints
 fatty acids separated from glycerol backbone can be converted to alcohols and other compounds
 biofuels

vegetable oil and fat extraction

 early method- grinding seeds with stones to crush cells and release oils
  mechanized process in 17th century
o hydraulic press, screw press used to extract oil
o before screw press- cold or hot pressing
o screw press- made large scale oil production feasible
 feed seeds into one end and constantly turning a screw
 generates heat
 solvent extraction following pressing
o seeds cleaned and dried
o naked seeds pretreated by breaking and flaking them and flakes are cooked to reduce moisture
= conditioning process
purification and processing
 refining: produces a neutral oil by using alkali to remove unbound fatty acids
 degumming: mixing oil with water at high temps and centrifuging mixture to remove material
o lecithin recovered
 bleaching: removal of pigments by adding agents that colour particles adhere to
 deodorized: heated with steam under a vacuum
 winterizing: used to circumvent the clouding of oil under low temps and filtering matter
 these treatments produce an oil that is nonacidic, colorless, tasteless and stable
 hydrogenation (1990s): pumping H2 gas into the oil in the presence of nickel catalyst
o reduces double bonds and straightening of fatty acid chains
o saturation creates oils with waxy consistency
 hydrogenated oils have adverse effects on human health
o make fatty acids in the trans conformation not the cis
o raise possibility of heart disease
o cause alteration in compounds that normally break down carcinogens

waxes
 made from alcohol and fatty acids- forming an ester link
 species that produce large quantities of wax : jojoba, carnauba, candelilla and bayberry
 jojoba
o simmondsia chinensis
o grow in desert or N America
o similar to sperm whale oil- renewable oil to replace sperm whale oil as a lubricant in machinery
o penetrates the outer layer of human skin- primary use in cosmetics
 carnauba wax ( copernica cerifera)
o palm native to Brazil
o leaves from immature plants dried, beaten
o use din car waxes and shoe polishes
 candelilla wax ( euphorbia antisyphilitica)
o extracted from the stems and boiled in water
o wax on the surfaced is scooped and hardened
o native to chiuahuan desert US mexican border
o collection is forbidden in the US- species is endangered
 bayberry (Myrica pensylvanica)
o wax boiled and scooped off the top
o re-melted and used for candles
chapter 12: hydrocolloids, elastic latexes and resins
hydrocolloids
 hydrocolloids: products collected, extracted or synthesized that are use to alter the behaviour of water
 example of gravy
 used to texturize products , provide body, improve the mouth feel of foods, stabilize emulsions, retain
moisture, thicken liquids and suspend particles
 ice cream- stop the formation of ice crystals
 increase shelf life – prevent solid particles from settling out of suspensions and baked good retain
moisture
 plant derived hydrocolloids have 3 main classes:
o starches
o pectins
o gums
 starch is the dominant hydrocolloid
o 98% of world market by weight
o polymers of glucose in starch is broken down by amylases
o found in almost all plant parts – commercially extracted from seed, roots and some stems
o sources of commercial starch= corn, what, sorghum, arrowroot, cassava and sago
o starch granules extracted from seeds, tubers or roots- by flushing ruptured cells with cool water
which is evaporated= solid residue that is dried and powdered to make starch
o non-food use:
 added to drilling muds for drilling and pumping
 pharmaceutical industry
 papermaking
o drawbacks:
 must be used in large quantities
 disposal- eutrophication  algae – oxygen depletion
 pectin- plant polysaccharides with unbranched chains of 200-1000 sugar molecules
o number of methyl groups determine properties
o found between plant cells and component of the primary cell wall
o peels of fruits are sources of pectin
o humans cant digest pectin- but bacteria in intestines can – no nutritional source
o 75% of pectin used in jams and jellies
o used in anti-diarrhea meds
o most widely used pectin sources:
 apples for pastries, jellies or juice
 citrus peels
 Gums- branched or linear polymers of sugar except glucose- can be water soluble or can absorb water
and insoluble in oil
o Mixing gums with water= gel
o Produced in response to injury or wounding and by the breakdown of compounds in injured
cells
o In nature- seal wounds and prevent invasions
o Humans partially digest them
o Uses: foods, diet products, medicines, paper, cosmetic and petroleum industry
o Food industry
  Powdered crystals used to make instant drinks sprayed with gum to prevent water
absorption before use
 Thicken drink- improves mouth feel
 Bind processed protein particles- processed meat, hotdogs
o Medicine- holds tablets together
o Sizing agents in paper industry
 Sources of vegetable gums
o Exuded gums
o Most widely employed exuded gum= gum Arabic produced by acacia Senegal (native to Africa)
 Trees are slashed or punctured to induce a wound reaction
o Primary use of gum Arabic today= frostings, spray on glitter, edible cake decorations,
marshmallows, jelly beans
o Used to stabilize head of beer or foam of carbonated drinks
o Gum tragacanth- pharmaceutical industry as a binder for tablets, suspending agent for penicillin
or in lubricating gels
 Species of Astragalus mainly A. gummifer (native to the near east and asia)
 Gum obtained by tapping species
o Gum karaya/ sterculia gum- forms a stong adhesive gel when mixed with water
 Dental adhesives
 Sterculia urens- India
o Extracted gums
o Extracted from endosperm of seeds of some legume or woods
o Increase demand due to availability, consistency and price compared to exuded gums
o 2 most important gums come from guar bean (Cyamopsis tetragonoolubus) and locust bean
(ceratonia siliqua)
o guar gum- extracted from seeds after removed from pods, gum rich endosperm is dried and
ground into powder
 only as a cultivated plant- domesticated in India and native to Africa
 only commercialized exploited source of gum in mechanized agriculture
 used in baked good, dairy, processed meats, soups, sauces and salad dressings= food
industry , also used in paper industry, water proof agent in explosives
o locust trees
 seed gums used in Egyptian mummys
 obtained from the endosperm
 used mainly by the seed industry- stabilizer in ice creams , salad dressings and pie fillings
o larch gum (Larix occidentalis) is extracted from wood chips from the American Larch
 found in baby and pet food and binder for processed meats
o semisynthetic gums
o carboxymethylcellulose
o made by allowing purified cellulose to react in alkaline solution to produce a highly viscous gum
o added to detergents , used in drilling muds, toothpastes, laxatives, eye drops
o paper industry, latex paints, processed foods

Rubber producing latex

 latex: mixture of organic compounds produced in laticifers
 laticifers: single cells or strings of cells that form tubes, canals or networks in plant organs
 laticifers don’t occur in gymnosperms but are found in some angiosperms
 latex with long hydrocarbon chains yield elastic latexes that are insoluble in water
 o the latex in paints are synthetic plastic particles dispersed in water with a binding agent – when
water evaporates the particles fuse producing a latex like coating
o plant latexes: by products of primary plant reactions that are secreted into laticifers to keep
them form disrupting normal cell function
 rubber- hevea latex- named because it can be used to rub out writing errors
 today rubber= polymers of terpenes mainly isoprene or similar units with elastic properties
 Aztecs played a game using balls made of latex from castilla elastica
 Native uses
o Exposing layer to acidic smoke- made rubber soles
 Hevea brasiliensis- the species most rubber is obtained from
 Hevea rubber soluble in hexane
 Rubber coatings had problems
o Cracked in cold weather
o Sticky in warm weather
 Problems overcome when vulcanization was discovered  cross linking of rubber isoprene molecules
caused addition of sulfur with lead oxide – made rubber weather proof and improved elasticity
 Now many methods used to cross link isoprene units
 Before modern days:
o Hevea trees tapped and latex collected to be smoked – producing a ball of coagulated latex
 Modern
o Dilute acetic or formic acid is used to coagulate rubber instead of smoke – forms sheets not
balls
o Sheets are shredded and dissolved in organic solvent
 Rubber is primarily propagated by grafting buds of superior trees onto stalks grown from nurseries
 WW2- cut off rubber supply to US
o Began experimentation and discovered a process for producing a synthetic substitute
 Synthetic rubber made from petroleum
 2/3 of rubber used to make tires
 new sourec of rubber- parthenium argentatum = guayule
o native to chihuahuan desert
o latex in individual thin walled, single cells in the stems and roots
o isoprene latex in guayule is similar to hevea rubber
o good for people with latex allergies
o drawback- cant be harvested until 7 years old

resins
 now almost all resins synthetically produced
 resins in plants synthesized and secreted in specialized canals or ducts
 polymerizes tarpenes that are mixed with volatile oils
 resins are insoluble in water
 ancient use as incense
o Boswellia carteri and commiphora myrrha
 Resins collected by damaging the shrubs that produce them and collecting saps/ exudate (like gums)
 Resin also used in embalming – incense, varnish
 Matic and lacquer
o Mastic- sealing material, sweeten breath and adhesive for dental caps
o Lacquer- collected by tapping trunks native to china and japan- used to make art
  Copals and dammars
o Copal- fossilized resins, soluble to organic solvents and are lustrous and transparent when dry
o Dammars- turn shiny and transparent when dry
 Pine resin products= naval stores
 Turpentine and rosin
o Turpentine- cleaning agent for oil based paints
o Source of organic compounds
o Deodarants, shaving cream and medicines
 Limonene- aritifical lemon flavor from turpentine
 Natural resins played a role in development of linoleum
o Can be made into a surface
o Kauri resin
o Modern linoleum floors use synthetic resins
 Amber- fossilized resin 1.5-300 million years old

Course content
Oils
 Oils contain essential fatty acids that cant be synthesized in the body and must be obtained from diet
 Vitamins are fat soluble and oil acts as a delivery mechanism to make them available for digestion
 Vegetable oils are true oils
o Contain triglycerides- glycerine molecule with fatty acids attached
o Properties determined by number of single/ double bonds
o Vegetable oils used by plants to store energy- mainly obtained from seeds
 Cotyledon, endosperm or scutellum
 Seeds with high levels of oils have lower levels of carbohydrates , and seeds rich in
carbohydrates are usually low in oils
 2 common oils= fixed oils and waxes
o fixed oils are composed of glycerol and 3 fatty acids
o waxes: simple alcohol with 1 fatty acid
 most plants produce waxes on the surface of leaves and outer cells to prevent water
loss
 soap:
o hydrolysis with NaOH or KOH- fatty acids form salts with the metal ions
o metal salts= soaps and are basis for many detergents

hydrocolloids, resins and latex

 hydrocolloid
o hydro (water) and colloid (suspension)
o form a suspension in water and used as thickening agents to alter “mouth feel” and other uses
 foaming properties (beer)
o all polysaccharides and include starches, pectins and gums
o gravy is thickened with these compounds
o sizing paper
o divided into 3 classes:
 starch: liner or branched polymers of glucose
 pectin: specialized polysaccharide found in the middle lemmela of cell walls
 gum: polysaccharides composed of sugars other than glucose
  gum Arabic is most economically important and is an exudate from Acacia
 produced by wounding trees and collecting exuded gum
 some collected by extraction and purification  guar and larch gums
 resin
o heterogeneous mixture of polymeric terpenes
o aromatic compounds produced in intercellular spaces/ canals
o form in resin ducts that accumulate latex
o common in gymnosperms but also found in angiosperms
o single aromatic terpenes
o amber= the only jewel of plant origin that is formed from resin
o used in:
 incense, embalming, waterproofing woods and calking
 latex
o mixture of organic compounds produced within specialized cells
o many have polymeric terenoids used to make rubber
o plant latex
 produced within laticifers: specialized cells that accumulate organic compounds within
plants and can occur as single cells or connected in chains to form canals/ networks
 found in angiosperms but not gymnosperms
 plant latex is a source of rubber
 rubber made from polymers of terpenoids
 quality of rubber related to isoprene units – more units the better quality
 name coined in 1770 due to its ability to rub out mistakes
 independently discovered by various groups that harvested latex from the rubber tree
(Hevia braziliensis)
 can be harvested without hurting the trees because Hevia has laticifers that form
outside of the cambium (allows plant to resume secondary growth)
 natives dipped feet in rubber and smoke them over a fires to form shoes
 acidity of smoke caused latex to coagulate and form crude rubber
 rubber still coagulated for shipping and processing but is done using acids not smoke
 WW2- rubber supplies a concern and other sources evaluated
 Guayule- native to texas and mexico
 Not tapped like Hevia- extracted and purified
 Produces high quality latex like Hevia
 Takes 7 years to grow before being harvested – loss of commercial interest

Rubber
 First used by the Olmec people (rubber people)
 1800s rubber used commercially- when waterproofed shoes were invented
 early rubber used
o raw rubber melts in heat, smells bad and cracks in cold
 vulcanization – overcame these problems
o developed by Charles Goodyear
o involves heating it with sulfur and zinc oxide
o causes long polymers in rubber to cross link and become more rigid and elastic
 before rubber- oil soaked in leather used to seal joints in machines – only under low pressure
 rubber seal= higher pressures and speeds to be attained
 facilitated the industrial revolution
Video: rubber- quirky science
 1600 BC- latex extracted from Hevia tree mixed with juice from a local vine to make rubber
 called rubber people
 1493- columbus observed natives playing with bouncing balls
o extracted sap from a tree
o made waterproof shoes
 1820s- rubber shoes didn’t do well in heat- started to melt and stink and cracked in cold
 1770- gum erased pencil marks = named rubber
 1839- Goodyear- vulcanization
o cures rubber mass – sulfur and zinc oxide
o sulfur and zinc oxide heated- cross links
o before this oil soaked leather was used – not well under pressure
o revolutionized manufacturing
 Good Year tire and rubber company

1. where was the centre of the rubber boom

 19th century
 Manoas Brazil
 Middle of the amazon (only accessible by river) – home of rubber barons- who had a monopoly
on rubber production creating great wealth

2. how was the rubber monopoly disrupted

 ended when British traveller – Henry Wickham stole 70,000 Hevia seeds
 seeds sent to botanical gardens all over the world
 Ridley developed a way to harvest commercial quantities of latex without harming trees
3. what was Fordlandia
 Henry ford-
 1928- determined to secure rubber for ford motor company
 Fordlandia- plan to build rubber plbantation in Brazil
 Disaster- land was infertile and unsuitable and rubber trees died due to blight
 Workers didn’t want to work and revolted
 1945- after spending $200 million – Fordlandia didn’t produce any rubber

4. how did the rubber industry lead to commercial chewing gum

 Thomas Adams quest for synthetic rubber
 Tried to make rubber from chicle  sap of the sapodilla tree– failed on making rubber
 Ended up making Chiclets gum

 Fritz Hoffman- first to produce isoprene and led the way in synthetic rubber production
 Hoffman invented first man made rubber= methyl rubber 1909
 WW2- spurred rubber search- cut off US from rubber
o synthetic rubber production invented
 rubber research led to Kevlar, neoprene, silicone
o rubber made from oil
o medical purpose- prevent STDs- latex condoms
 disposal of rubber – hard to recycle
 rubber from insect skin- resilin
dandelions
 David Wolyn- domestic source of latex
 Dandelions have latex with rubber polymers that can be processed into rubber
 Russian dandelion- breeding it as a domestic rubber crop
 Natural rubber is needed for high impact items
o Car tires, airplane tires (100% natural rubber)
 2500 species of plants produce rubber
 good rubber defined by the polymer length
 guayule and Russian dandelion have long polymer lengths = good rubber
 golden rod= poor quality rubber with short polymers
 challenges with Russian dandelion:
o yield
o not a domesticated plant- seed dormancy, non uniform growth, bolting