CHAPTER 2 – BIOLOGICAL BEGINNINGS

Natural selection. The evolutionary process by which those individuals of a species that
are best adapted are the ones that survive and reproduce.

Evolutionary psychology. Emphasizes the importance of adaptation, reproduction, and

“survival of the fittest” in shaping behavior. “Fit” in this sense refers to the ability to bear
offspring that survive long enough to bear offspring of their own. In this view, natural
selection favors behaviors that increase reproductive success, the ability to pass your
genes to the next generation.

Genotype. The genetic endowment that an individual inherits. It is only one-twentieth

the size of the head of a pin. Yet, this tiny cell contains the code, or biochemical recipe,
for the zygote’s development from a single cell into a recognizable human being.

Phenotype. A hereditary blueprints for development that are transmitted unchanged

from generation to generation.

Chromosome. A threadlike structure made up of genes; in humans there are 46

chromosomes in the nucleus of each body cell, it come in matching pairs. Each member
of a pair corresponds to the other in size, shape and the hereditary functions it serves.

Deoxyribonucleic acid. A complex, “double helix” molecule that resembles a twisted ladder and
provides the chemical “code” for development.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitosis

Mitosis.  A process in which a cell duplicates its chromosomes and then divides into two
genetically identical daughter cells.

Meiosis. A process  in which a germ-cell divides, producing gametes(sperm or ova) that

each contain half of the parent cell’s original complement of chromosomes; in humans,
the products of meiosis contain 23 chromosomes.
 
Crossing-over. A process in which genetic material is exchanged between pairs of
chromosomes during meiosis.
 
Independent assortment. A principle stating that each pair of chromosomes segregates
independently of all other chromosome pairs during meiosis.

Monozygotic or Identical twins. Twins who develop form single zygote that later
divides to form two genetically identical individuals.
 
Dizygotic or Fraternal twins. Twins that result when a mother releases two ova at
roughly the same time and each is fertilized by a different sperm, producing two
zygotes that are genetically different.
 
Alleles. Alternative forms of a gene that can appear at a particular site on a
chromosome.
 
Simple dominant-recessive inheritance. A pattern of inheritance in which one allele
dominates another so that only its phenotype is expressed.
 
Sickle cell anemia. A genetic blood disease that causes red blood cells to assume an
unusual sickled shape and to become inefficient at distributing oxygen.
 
     Sex-linked characteristic. An attribute determined by a recessive gene that appears
on the X-chromosome; more likely to characterize males. (Santrock, J., W (2017). Life
Span Development 16th  Ed. McGraw-Hill Education. New York. 69-76)
 
 
Chromosomal and genetic abnormalities
 
·         Congenital defect. A problem that is present (though not necessarily apparent) at
birth; such defects may stem from genetic and prenatal influences or form complications
of the birth process.
 
·         Huntington’s disease. A genetic disease, caused by a dominant allele, that
typically appears later in life and causes the nervous system to degenerate.
 
·         Fragile-X syndrome. Abnormality of the X chromosome caused by a defective
gene and associated with mild to severe mental retardation, particularly when the
defective gene is passed from mother to child.
 
·         Down syndrome.  A chromosomal abnormality caused by the presence of an
extra twenty-first chromosome; people with this syndrome have a distinctive physical
appearance and are moderately to severely retarded.
 
·         Mutations. Changes in the chemical structure of one or more genes that produce
new phenotype. Many mutations occur spontaneously and are harmful or even fatal.
Mutations can also be induced by environmental hazards such as toxic industrial waste,
radiation, agricultural chemicals that enter the supply, and possibly even some of the
additives and preservatives in processed foods.
 
Genetic counselling. A service that helps prospective parents to assess the likelihood
that their children will be free of hereditary defects. Genetics counsellors are trained in
genetics, the interpretation of family histories, and counselling procedures. They may be
geneticists, medical researchers, or practitioners, such as paediatricians.
 
Amniocentesis. A method of extracting amniotic fluid from a pregnant woman so that
fetal body cells within the fluid can be tested for chromosomal abnormalities and other
genetic defects.
 
Chorionic Villus Sampling (CVS). An alternative to amniocentesis in which fetal cells are
extracted from the chorion for prenatal tests. CVS can be performed earlier in pregnancy than is
possible with amniocentesis.

Ultrasound (sonar). A method of scanning the womb with sound waves that is most
useful after the fourteenth week of pregnancy. It is particularly hepful for:
 
·         Detecting multiple pregnancies
·         Gross physical defects
·         Age and sex of the fetus
·         Guide for CVS
 
Phenylketonuria. A genetic disease in which the child is unable to metabolize
phenylalanine; if left untreated, it soon causes hyperactivity and mental retardation.
 
Germline Gene Therapy. A procedure, not yet perfected or approved for use with
humans, in which harmful genes would be repaired or replaced with healthy ones,
thereby permanently correcting a genetic defect.
 
In vitro fertilization. A method of conception inn which ova are fertilized in a petri dish
and one or more of the resulting embryos are transferred to the woman’s
uterus.  (Santrock, J., W (2017). Life Span Development 16 th  Ed. McGraw-Hill Education.
New York. 77-83)
 
Adoption. A social and legal process by which a parent-child relationship is established
between persons unrelated at birth. Following are some of the problems parents face
when their adopted children are at different points in development and some
recommendations for how to handle these problems.
 
·         Infancy. Researchers have found few differences in the attachment that adopted
and non-adopted infants form with their parents. However, attachment can become
problematic if parents have unresolved fertility issues or the child does not meet the
parents’ expectations. Counselors can help prospective adoptive parents develop
realistic expectations.
 
·         Early childhood. Because many children begin to ask where they came from
when they are about 4 to 6 years old, this is a natural time to begin to talk in simple
ways to children about their adoption status. Some parents (although not as many as in
the past) decide not to tell their children about the adoption. This secrecy may create
psychological risks for the child if he or she later finds out about the adoption.
 
·         Middle and late childhood. During the elementary school years, children begin
to show more interest in their origins and may ask questions related to where they came
from, what their parents looked like, and why their parents abandoned them. As they
grow older, children may develop mixed feelings about being adopted and question
their adoptive parents’ explanations. It is important for adoptive parents to recognize
that this ambivalence is normal. Also, problems may arise from the desire of adoptive
parents to make life too perfect for the adoptive child and to present a perfect image of
themselves to the child. The result too often is that adopted children feel that they
cannot release any angry feelings and openly discuss problems.
 
·         Adolescence. Adolescents are likely to develop more abstract and logical
thinking, to focus their attention on their bodies, and to search for an identity. These
characteristics provide the foundation for adopted adolescents to reflect on their
adoption status in more complex ways, such as focusing on how they look so different
from their adoptive parents. As they explore their identity, adopted adolescents may
have difficulty incorporating their adopted status in positive ways into their identity. It is
important for adoptive parents to understand the complexity of the adopted
adolescent’s identity exploration and be patient with the adolescent’s lengthy identity
search.  (Santrock, J., W (2011). Life Span Development 13 th  Ed. McGraw-Hill Education.
New York. 68-70)
 
Hereditary influences on behaviour and personality
 
·         Behavioral Genetics. The scientific study of how genotype interacts with
environment to determine behavioural attributes such as intelligence, personality, and
mental health. It use two major strategies to assess hereditary contributions to
behaviour:
-       Selective breeding
-       Family studies
 
·         Concordance rates. The percentage of cases in which a particular attribute is
present for one member of a twin pair if it is present for the other.
 
·         Nonshared environmental influence (NSE). An environmental influence that
people living together do not share which should make these individuals different from
one another.
 
·         Shared environmental influence (SE). An environmental influence that people
living together share which should make these individuals similar to one another.
·         Introversion/Extroversion. The opposite poles of a personality dimension:
introverts are shy, anxious around others, and tend to withdraw from social situations;
extroverts are highly sociable and enjoy being with others.
 
·         Emphatic concern. A measure of the extent to which a person recognizes the
needs of others and is concerned about their welfare.
 
 
Canalization. A genetic restriction of phenotype to a small number of developmental
outcomes; a highly canalized attribute is one for which genes channel development
along predetermined pathways, so that the environment has little effect on the
phenotype that emerges. One example of  a highly canalized human attribute is
babbling in infancy. All infants, even deaf ones, babble in pretty much the same way
over the first 8 to 10 months of life.
 
Range-of-reaction principle. The idea that genotype sets limits on the range of
possible phenotypes that a person might display in response to different environments.
 
Passive genotype/ environment correlations. The notion that the rearing
environments that biological parents provide are influenced by the parent’s own genes,
and hence are correlated with the child’s own genotype.
 
Evocative genotype/ environment correlations. The notion that our heritable attributes
affect other’s behaviour toward us and thus influence the social environment in which
development takes place.
 
Active genotype/ environment correlations. The notion that our genotypes affect the
types of environments that we prefer and seek out. (Santrock, J., W (2017). Life Span
Development 16th  Ed. McGraw-Hill Education. New York. 87-98)