English Grammar Summaryn

Content
Preface.............................................................................................................................................5
1. Simple Present (Present Simple).................................................................................................6
1.1. Structure....................................................................................................................................6
1.2. The use of present simple tense................................................................................................6
1.3. Third persons singular..............................................................................................................6
1.4. Negative and question forms....................................................................................................7
2. Present Continuous tense.............................................................................................................7
2.1. Structure....................................................................................................................................7
2.2. The use of present continuous tense.........................................................................................7
2.3. Negative and question forms....................................................................................................8
2.4. Verbs that are not usually used in the continuous tenses..........................................................8
2.4.1. Exceptions..............................................................................................................................8
3. Past simple tense..........................................................................................................................9
3.1. Past simple formation...............................................................................................................9
3.2. Use of Past simple tense...........................................................................................................9
3.3. Negative and question forms..................................................................................................10
4. Past continuous tense.................................................................................................................10
4.1. Structure..................................................................................................................................10
4.2. Use of Past Continuous tense.................................................................................................11
5. Future Simple Tense..................................................................................................................11
5.1. Structure..................................................................................................................................11
5.1.1. Future with WILL/SHALL..................................................................................................12
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5.1.2. Future with GOING TO.......................................................................................................12
5.2. The use of future simple tense................................................................................................12
5.3. WILL & GOING TO..............................................................................................................13
5.3.1. When to use GOING TO.....................................................................................................13
5.3.2. When to use WILL..............................................................................................................14
6. Future continuous tense.............................................................................................................15
6.1. Structure..................................................................................................................................15
6.2. The use of future continuous..................................................................................................15
7. Future Perfect tense...................................................................................................................16
7.1. The structure...........................................................................................................................16
7.2. The use of the future perfect tense..........................................................................................16
8. Present Perfect tense..................................................................................................................17
8.1. Structure..................................................................................................................................17
8.2. The uses of the present perfect tense......................................................................................18
8.3. Past simple & present perfect.................................................................................................19
9. Present perfect continuous.........................................................................................................19
9.1. The structure...........................................................................................................................20
9.2. The uses of the present perfect continuous tense....................................................................20
9.3. Already, for, ever since, still, yet............................................................................................20
10. Past perfect tense.....................................................................................................................23
10.1. Structure................................................................................................................................23
10.2. The use of past perfect tense.................................................................................................24
11. Conditional..............................................................................................................................24
11.1. Zero conditional....................................................................................................................24
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11.2.First conditional.....................................................................................................................25
11.3. Second conditional................................................................................................................26
11.4. Third conditional..................................................................................................................27
12. Passive voice............................................................................................................................28
12.1. The use of passive voice.......................................................................................................28
13.2. The structure of Passive........................................................................................................29
12.3. Examples of passive voice....................................................................................................29
12.4. Passive Sentences with Two Objects....................................................................................30
12.4. Personal and Impersonal Passive..........................................................................................31
13. Modal verbs.............................................................................................................................31
13.1. Usage of specific verb..........................................................................................................33
13.1.1. Can and could....................................................................................................................33
13.1.2. May and might...................................................................................................................33
13.1.3. Shall and should.................................................................................................................34
14. Prepositions..............................................................................................................................35
14.1. Preposition of time................................................................................................................36
14.2. Prepositions – Place (Position and Direction)......................................................................37
14.3. Other important Prepositions................................................................................................38
14.4. Preposition-dependent verbs.................................................................................................39
14.5. Preposition-dependent adjectives.........................................................................................40
15. Nouns.......................................................................................................................................41
15.1. Definition..............................................................................................................................41
15.2. Classification of nouns.........................................................................................................41
15.3. Concrete nouns and abstract nouns.......................................................................................42
15.4. Countable and uncountable nouns........................................................................................42
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15.5. Formation of plural...............................................................................................................43
15.6. Quantifiers............................................................................................................................46
15.6.1. Some & Any......................................................................................................................46
16.6.2. Much / Many......................................................................................................................47
15.6.3. How Much / How Many....................................................................................................48
15.6.4. A Few / Few & A Little / Little.........................................................................................48
15.6.5. A lot of/ a bit of/ a plenty of..............................................................................................49
16. Articles.....................................................................................................................................50
16.1. Indefinite articles..................................................................................................................50
16.2. Definite article......................................................................................................................51
16.3. Negative article.....................................................................................................................51
1.7. Pronouns.................................................................................................................................52
17.1. Personal Pronouns................................................................................................................52
17.1.1. Subject and object Pronouns..............................................................................................52
17.2. Relative pronouns.................................................................................................................54
17.3. Demonstrative Pronouns.......................................................................................................55
17.4. Possessive Pronouns.............................................................................................................56
17.4.1. Possessive adjectives.........................................................................................................57
17.4.2. Possessive adjectives and possessive pronoun..................................................................58
17.5. Indefinite Pronouns...............................................................................................................59
17.6. Reflexive Pronouns...............................................................................................................62
17.7. Reciprocal pronouns.............................................................................................................63
18. Conjunctions............................................................................................................................64
18.1Definition................................................................................................................................64
18.2. Coordinating conjunctions....................................................................................................64
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The Others.....................................................................................................................................65
18.3. Subordinating Conjunctions.................................................................................................67
18.4. The case of Like and As........................................................................................................67
18.5. Correlative Conjunctions......................................................................................................68
18.5. WH-EVER phrases...............................................................................................................69
18.6. Whatever & whichever.........................................................................................................70
19. Phrasal Verbs...........................................................................................................................70
19.1. Position of the particle..........................................................................................................70
19.2. List of the most common phrasal verbs and their meaning..................................................71
19.1. Position of the particle..........................................................................................................73
20. List of Irregular Verbs.............................................................................................................74
21. List of regular verbs and their meanings in Portuguese..........................................................77
References......................................................................................................................................82
v
Preface
In attempt to make the learning of English language easier, some important grammar points were
selected and summarized, so as to help the learners improving their abilities, especially the
grammar competences.
This book was made through the summaries from different grammarians devoting on the
different grammar points and it’s intended to assist front-line second language learners. As
policy-maker on Summary English Grammar read through the book, it becomes clear that the
author has covered all important grammar aspects for intermediate and advanced students and
again, due to the difficulties faced and presented by students regarding to their reading,
especially in assignments, the author came to an understanding that there was a great need of
collecting and putting together different aspects of grammar considered indispensible to their
progress in this language.
This book was designed for secondary schools students in Mozambique, especially in Nampula,
to minimize all the problems presented by the learners and due to the lack of the materials to be
used in the English Language Learning. So, with this effort, it’s believed that the school life of
the students was made easier than it was before.
The book is not only strongly recommended for every single student in Escola Secundária de
Mecubúri to read as the way of reinforce their grasp or knowledge as the primary target but also
it should be used in the assignment as one of the materials that they have.
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1. Simple Present (Present Simple)
1.1. Structure
The present simple has the following structure:
Subject + verb + complement (object)
1.2. The use of present simple tense

The simple present expresses an action in the present taking place once, never or several times,
and it can be used:
 To talk about habits, general truths, repeated actions or unchanging situations, emotions
and wishes:
She drinks tea at breakfast (habit);

We catch the bus every morning (repeated action)
I work in Maputo (Unchanging situation);
London is large city (truth).
 to give instructions or directions:

You walk for two hundred meters, and then you turn left.
 To express fixed arrangements, present or future:
Your exam is at 9h00.

Our holiday starts on the 26th March.
1.3. Third persons singular
In the third persons singular (he, she, it) the verb always end in ‘–s’ as it is illustrated below:
 Adding‘s’ to the verbs ending in t, e, r, l, m, n, b, g,…: bring – brings; smell – smells,

come – comes, sit - sits…
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 Adding ‘es’ to the verbs ending in sh, ch, s, o…: wash – washes; express – expresses;
watch – watches, do – does.
 Adding ‘s’ to the verbs ending in y (preceded by a vowel ): play – plays, obey – obeys
and removing ‘y’ (preceded by a consonant) and replacing with ‘ies’: fly – flies; identify
- identifies
1.4. Negative and question forms
In the negative and questions forms use the verb ‘’to do’’ (DO/DOES) with the following
structure:
 Subject + do/does + not + verb + complement - Negative form:
She does not (doesn’t) smoke any longer.

I don’t (do not) like so much salt in my food.
 Do/Does + subject + verb + complement - Question form:

Do you study mathematics, this term?
Does your brother drive a car?
2. Present Continuous tense
2.1. Structure
The present continuous puts emphasis on the course or duration of an action with following
structure: subject + auxiliary verb (to be: am; are; is) + verb + ing + object:
She’s watching football on the TV.
Note: for short verbs, we double the last letter and then, we add the ing form:
Put – putting; plan – planning; shut – shutting; get – getting….
The day is getting hotter and hotter.
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2.2. The use of present continuous tense
The present continuous tense is used:
 To describe an action that is going on at moment of speaking

She’s using the internet.
You are studying English grammar.
 To describe an action that is going on this period of time or a trend.
Are you still working for the same company?
More and more people are dying of cancer in all over the world.
 To describe an action in the future using time expressions:

We are going on holiday tomorrow.
Are they visiting you next winter?
 To describe and emphasize a continuing series of repeated actions using adverbs of
frequency:
Harry and Alan are always arguing!
You are constantly complaining about your mother-in-law!

In the negative and question forms there is not any additional auxiliary verb as we are using the
verb “to be”, see the structures below:
Subject + auxiliary verb + not + verb + ing + complement – negative form.
Auxiliary verb + subject + verb + ing + complement – question form.
2.4. Verbs that are not usually used in the continuous tenses
Some verbs are not used in the continuous tense because refer to states rather than an action or a
process, these are used in the present simple as it is illustrates below:
 Sense/ Perceptions: to feel, to hear, to see, to smell, to taste
 Opinion: to assume, to believe, to consider, to doubt, to suppose…
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 Mental states: to forget, to imagine, to know, to mean, to notice, to recognize, to
remember, to understand…
 Emotions / Desires: to envy, to fear, to like/dislike, to hate, to hope, to love, to mind,
to prefer, to regret, to want, to wish…
2.4.1. Exceptions
Perception verbs (see, hear, fell, taste, smell…) are often used with can (I can see…). These
verbs may be used in the continuous tenses but with different meaning.
 This coat feels nice and warms (your perception of the coat’s qualities).
John’s feeling much better now (his healthy is improving)
 He has three dogs and a cat (possession). She’s having breakfast (she’s eating);
 I can Smalls in the garden (perception). I’m seeing Smalls later (we are planning to
meet)
3. Past simple tense
Past simple, sometimes, called preterite, is used to talk about a completed action in a time
before now. The simple past is the basic form of past tense in English. Te time of the action
can be in the recent past or better yet, the distant past and the action duration is not
important:
 My father died last year.
 We crossed the channel, yesterday.
 Portuguese colonizers entered Mozambique in 1498.
3.1. Past simple formation
As it’s known that in English, there are two groups of verbs, such as regular and irregular verbs
and again, the past simple is the only reason of the separation above presented. We add the suffix
‘’ed’’ to the regular verbs: use +ed = used; play – played; watch – watched; stop – stopped (we
doubled the last letter); hurry – hurried (we dropped y and replaced with i and then, we added
ed).
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Check the list of irregular verbs as there is not a basic form of their formation.
3.2. Use of Past simple tense

The simple past is used in the following situations:
 Actions in the past taking place one after the other
Example: He came in, took off his coat and sat down.
We can also use past when we say when something happened, so it’s associated with certain past
time expressions:
 Frequency: often, sometimes, always

I sometimes walked home at lunchtime
She often bought her lunch to school.
 A definite point in time: last week, when I was a child, yesterday, six months ago…
Yesterday, I arrived in Nacala.
We saw a good film, last night.
She finished her homework at seven o’clock.
I went to the theatre last week.
 An indefinite point in time: the other day, ages ago, a long time ago.
People lived in caves a long time ago.
In the negative and question forms, we use the auxiliary verb to do in the past simple (did), so
the simple past has the following structures:
 Subject + did + not + verb+ complement – Negative form: they did not (didn’t) see any
film.
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 Did + subject + verb + complement - question form: did you finish your homework?
4. Past continuous tense

4.1. Structure
Past continuous tense uses past simple forms of the verbs: was/were as auxiliary verb as it
illustrates in the structure:
 Subject + auxiliary verb (to be: was/were) + verb + ing + complement
She was watching a movie on TV.

They were chatting to a policeman on the street.
4.2. Use of Past Continuous tense
The past continuous describes an action or an event in a time before now that was still going at
time of speaking or better yet, it describes an unfinished or incomplete action in the past. It is
used:
 To describes an unfinished action that was interrupted by another event ot action.

I was having a beautiful dream when the alarm clock rang.
We were waiting for the bus when the accident happened.
 To puts emphasis on the course of an action in the past
He was playing football.
 To talk about two actions happening at the same time (in the past)
While she was preparing dinner, he was washing the dishes.

 Subject + was/were + not + verb + ing + complement - negative form:
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She wasn’t having a bath.
You and I were not singing correctly at the concert.
 Was/were + subject + verb + ing + complement – question form:
Was she having bath?
Were you driving at high speed?
5. Future Simple Tense

5.1. Structure
Future refers to time later than now, it expresses facts or certainty. In English, there are two (2)
types of future simple as they are shown below.
5.1.1. Future with WILL/SHALL

Subject + SHALL/WILL + verb + complement
She will travel to Maputo on Monday.
I shall write a letter to my parents.
5.1.2. Future with GOING TO
In the future with going to, there is a use of the auxiliary verb ‘’to be’’ as it is shown or
illustrated in the structure below:
Subject + to be (am, are, is) +going to + verb + complement

She is going to travel to Maputo on Monday
I am going to write a letter to my parents
5.2. The use of future simple tense

The future simple tense is used:
 To predict future event
It will rain tomorrow
 To express willingness and unwillingness:
I will do the washing – up. – Willingness
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I will carry your bag for you. - Willingness
The baby won’t eat this soup. - Unwillingness
I won’t leave until I’ve seen the manager!
 To make suggestions, to ask for instruction or a piece of advice and asking for
permition with “Shall …?’’
What shall I tell the boss about this money? - asking for advice
Shall I open the window? – asking for permition
Shall we go to the cinema, tonight? – making suggestion
 giving orders with you
You will do exactly as I say!
Note: in modern English WILL is more used than SHALL, Shall is mainly used with “I and
WE’’ to make an offer or suggestion or ask for advice (the example above). With other persons
or pronouns (you, he, she, and they) SHALL is only used in literary or poetic situations: with
ring on her fingers and bells on her toes, she shall have music wherever she goes. That’s to say
that, WILL is used for all grammatical persons, on the other way, SHALL can only be used with
‘’I and WE’’ in formal conversation or writing and, with other grammatical persons in the
figurative language.
5.3. WILL & GOING TO

A very confusing concept is when to use WILL and when to GOING TO when [we refer to
future. Both refer to future and there is a slight different the two, though in the most cases they
can be used interchangeably with no difference in meaning.
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5.3.1. When to use GOING TO
The structure GOING TO is normally used to indicate the future with some type of connection to
the present, as it is illustrated below:
 When we have already decided or we intend to do something in the future (prior plan):
The decision has been made before the moment of speaking:

They are going to retire to the beach – in fact; they have already bought a little beach house.
I am going to accept the job.
 When there are definite signs that something is going to happen (evidence):
Something is going to happen based on the evidence or experience we have
I think it’s going to rain - I felt a drop of it.
I don’t feel well. I thing I’m going to vomit
 When something is about to happen

Get aback! The bomb is going to explode.
5.3.2. When to use WILL

In other cases, where there is no implicit or explicit connection with present, we use WILL:
 For things that we decide to do now (rapid decision)

This when we make a decision at that moment, in a spontaneous way:
I’ll buy one for you too
I think I’ll try one of these (I just decided this right now)
 When we believe something about the future (prediction)
My team will not win the league this season.
I think it will rain later, so take an umbrella with you.
Note: we can use both WILL and GOING TO for making future predictions according to
situation.
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 To make an offer, a promise or a threat
I’ll give a discount if you buy it right now’
I promise I will behave next time
I’ll take to the movies if you you’d like

Subject + will / Shall + not + verb + complement – future with WILL / SHALL, negative form
Subject + to be + not + going to + verb + complement – future with GOING TO, Negative form
Will / shall + subject + verb + complement – question form

To be +subject + going to + verb + complement - question form
Examples:
I promise I will not behave like this, next time.

Will you come to my house?
They are not going to give a discount.
Is it going to rain again?
6. Future continuous tense

6.1. Structure
The future continuous is made up of two elements: the future simple of the verb ’’to be’’ + the
present participle of the main verb as it is illustrated below:
 Subject + WILL / SHALL + be + verb + ing + complement
I will be watching TV, tomorrow morning
She will be staying at home when we leave
6.2. The use of future continuous
The future continuous refers to an unfinished action or event that will be progress at a time later
than now. The future continuous can be used for quite a few purposes:
15
 To project ourselves in the future into the future
This time next week, I will be swimming in the pool.
By Christmas, she will be singing for us.
Just think, next Monday you will be working in your new job.
 To predict or guess about future events

He’ll be coming to the meeting, I expect.
I guess you will be feeling thirsty after working in the sun.
You’ll be missing the sunshine once you’re back in England.
 To refer to continuous event that we expect to happen

I’ll be seeing Alan the conference next week.
When he is in Australia, He will be staying with friends.
I’ll be eating with Jane this evening, so I can tell her.
 Combined with STILL the future continuous refers to events that are already
happening now and we expect to continue some time in the future
In an hour I will still be ironing my clothes.
Tomorrow he’ll still be suffering from his cold\
Unfortunately, sea levels will still be ironing my clothes.
7. Future Perfect tense
7.1. The structure

In English, the future perfect construction consists of the auxiliary verb will (or shall; see shall
and will) to mark the future, the auxiliary verb have to mark the perfect, and the past participle of
the main verb (the second component of the English perfect construction). It has the following
structure: Subject + will have + past participle of the main verb + complement
Examples:
16
She will have fallen asleep by the time we get home.
I shall have gone by then.
Will you have finished when I get back?
7.2. The use of the future perfect tense

The future perfect tense refers to a completed action in the future. When we use this tense we are
projecting ourselves forward into the future and looking back at an action that will be completed
some time later than now. It is most often used with a time expression.
Examples:
I will have been here for six months on June 23rd.
By the time you read this I will have left.
You will have finished your report by this time next week.
Won't they have arrived by 5:00?
Will you have eaten when I pick you up?
Most commonly the future perfect is used with a time marker that indicates by when (i.e. prior to
what point in time) the event is to occur, as in the previous examples. However it is also possible
for it to be accompanied by a marker of the retrospective time of occurrence, as in "I will have
done it on the previous Tuesday". This is in contrast to the present perfect, which is not normally
used with a marker of past time: one would not say *"I have done it last Tuesday", since the
inclusion of the past time marker last Tuesday would entail the use of the simple past rather than
the present perfect.
The English future perfect places the action relative only to the absolute future reference point,
without specifying the location in time relative to the present. In most cases the action will be in
the future relative to the present, but this is not necessarily the case: for example, "If it rains
tomorrow, we will have worked in vain yesterday."
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8. Present Perfect tense
The present perfect is used to indicate a link or connection between the present and past. The
time of action before now but not specified, and we are often more interested in the result than in
the action itself.
8.1. Structure
The present perfect tense is composed of the auxiliary verb ‘’to have’’ in the present simple and
the past participle of the main verb. Check the list of verbs:
Subject + to have (have/has) + past participle (main verb) + complement
She has visited her family recently

I have finished all my tasks.
We haven’t gone to school, yet.
8.2. The uses of the present perfect tense

The present perfect tense is used to describe:
 An action or situation that started in the past and continues in the present:
I have lived in Maputo since 2014
They haven’t lived here for years.
We have had the same car for ten years.
 An action performed during a period that has not finished yet:

She has been to cinema twice this week (and the week is not over yet).
I have worked hard this week.
It has rained a lot this year.
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 A repeated action in an unspecified period between past and now:
We have visited Portugal several times.
They have seen that film six times.
It has happened several times already
 An action that was completed in the very recent past expressed by JUST:
I have just finished my work.
I have just eaten.
We have just seen her
 When the precise time of the action is not important or not known
Someone has eaten my soup!
She has studied English, Russian and Japanese.
Have you seen Gone with the wind?
8.3. Past simple & present perfect

We must always use present perfect when the time of an action is not important or not specified.
We must always use the past simple when the details about time or place that an action occurred
are given or requested, compare:
Present perfect Past simple

I have lived in Lyon I lived in Lyon in 1998
They have eaten Chinese food They ate Chinese food last night
Have you seen Smalls? Where did you see Smalls?
We have been to Ireland. When did you go to Ireland?
There is also a difference in attitude between the two tenses, which is often an important factor in
choosing which tense to use.
 What did you do at school today? We use the past simple tense because the question is
about activities, and the school day is considered finished.
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 What have you done at school today? We use the present perfect tense because the
question is about the result: “show me”. The time at which the question is asked is
considered as a continuation of the school day.
9. Present perfect continuous

The present perfect continuous tense is used to refer to an unspecified time between ‘before now’
and ‘now’. The speaker is thinking about something that started but perhaps did not finish in that
period of time. The speaker is interested in process as well as the result, and this process may
still be going on, and may have just finished.
9.1. The structure

The present perfect tens is made up of two elements: the present perfect of the verb ‘’to be’’
(have/has been) and the present participle of the main verb (base + ing) as the structure below
illustrates:
Subject + have / has + been + verb + ing + complement

Example: I have been looking for you all the day.
She has been reading her note since last night.
9.2. The uses of the present perfect continuous tense

Present perfect continuous tense is used to describe:
 An action that started in the past and continues in the present:

She has been waiting for you all day (and she’s still waiting for you)
I’ve been working on this report since eight o’clock this morning (and I still haven’t finished it)
They have been travelling since last October (and they’re not home yet)
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 action that have just finished, but we are interested in the results :
She has been cooking since last night (and the food on the table looks delicious)
It’s been raining (and the streets are still wet)
Somebody’s been eating my chips (half of them have gone)
9.3. Already, for, ever since, still, yet

These words are often used with perfect tenses, although can be used with other tenses:
 Ever - we use ever in the interrogative and negative forms

Have you ever cheated in the exams?
Have you ever travelled b y train?
I haven’t ever cheated in the exam.
She has not ever tried any chocolate ice cream.
We use never (not + ever) in the affirmative sentences, but the meaning is negative, it means
NUNCA:
I have never cheated in the exams
My son has never been to Moscow.
My brother has never gone to London.
Note: in the sentences with the verb in negative, we use ever instead of never:
I wouldn’t ever say that (= I would never say that)
I haven’t ever gone to school earlier (= I have never gone to school earlier)
With other words with negative meaning, we also use ever instead of never. These words are:
without, hardly, anybody, no one, nothing….
Without ever seeing him.
I hardly ever do that.
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Nobody would ever do that!
Nothing is ever ready on time.
 Just – it’s used to express a recently complete action, and it means ‘a short time ago’:
The cat has just caught bird.
The guests have just arrived.
I have just finished my homework.
 Already – we use already to express that something has happened sooner than it is
expected:
Don’t forget to bring your book! Oh, I have already brought it.
The boys are going to pack, aren’t they? No, they have already packed.
Is Adam going to buy a new car? No, he isn’t. He has already bought it!
 Still – it’s used to talk about something that hasn’t finished, especially when we expect it
to finish earlier:
I’ve still got all those letters you sent me.
Still is often used with other tenses as well as the present perfect:
She’s still working.
The baby is still asleep
We are still waiting for his reply.
It’s still raining.
 Yet – it’s used in the interrogative and negative sentences. In the interrogative sentences,
it means the same as already, and it’s used to talk about something is expected to happen.
in the negative sentences, it’s as the same as still, and it suggests a later than expected:
Have you finished your homework, yet? No, I haven’t done it yet.
Have the visitors arrived? No, they haven’t arrived yet.
Note: yet often comes at end of the sentences differently the other words which come after
auxiliary and before main verb.
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 For – we use for when we measure the duration – when we say how long something
lasts: for + a period of time to measure a period of time up to the present. It’s used in the
present perfect and not the present simple:
I have known her for a long time
I have lived here for ten year.
But we cannot say like that:
I live here for ten.
I know her for a long time.
The present simple with for refers to the period of time that extends into the future:
How long are you here for? (Until when)
How long have you been here? (Since when)
In reality, we can use all verb tenses with for, however we cannot it with expressions such as: all
day or all the time:
I was there all day (correct)
I was there for all day (incorrect)
 Since – since gives the starting point of actions, events or states. It refers to when things
began: since + a point in time (in the past), until now. It’s used with present perfect or
past perfect tenses:
I have been waiting since 7 o’clock.
I have known him since January.
I have been here since 5 o’clock and I am getting tired.
I had been here since 5 o’clock and I was getting tired
Since can also be used in the structure: it has been + period of time + since:
It has been two months since I last saw her.
It has been three years since the last earthquake
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10. Past perfect tense
The past perfect refers to a time earlier than before now. It is used to make it clear that one event
happened before another in the past. It does not matter which event is mentioned first - the tense
makes it clear which one happened first.
10.1. Structure
The past perfect tense is made up of the auxiliary ‘to have’ in the past simple tense (had) and, the
past participle of the main verb as it is illustrated below:
Subject + had + past participle (main verb) + complement

Examples:
They had played the game in the morning
She had already left
10.2. The use of past perfect tense

The past perfect tense is used to describe:
 action taking place before a certain time in the past (putting emphasis only on the fact,
not the duration)
Before I came, I had spoken to Jack
 Conditional Sentences Type III (condition that was not given in the past)
If I had seen him, I would have talked to him.
 'Just' is used with the past perfect to refer to an event that was only a short time earlier
than before now.
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The train had just left when I arrived at the station.
She had just left the room when the police arrived.
I had just put the washing out when it started to rain.
11. Conditional
11.1. Zero conditional

When we talk about things that are generally or always true, we can use:
If /+ present simple + present simple / imperative

Examples:
If he gets there before me, ask him to wait.
When you fly budget airline, you have to pay for your drinks and snacks.
Unless you need more space, a small car is big enough for one person.
Note that we are not talking about a specific event but something which is generally true, and
note that we may use when or unless instead of if.
In the condition clause, we can use a variety of present forms. In the result clause, there can only
be the present simple or imperative.
If you visit London, go on the London Eye.
If unemployment is rising, people tend to stay in their present jobs.
If you've done that, go and have a coffee.
When you go on holiday, take plenty of sun cream. It'll be very hot.
When I'm concentrating, please don't make so much noise.
When I've finished an article, I always ask Kate to read it through.
Notice that 'unless' means the same as 'if not'.

Unless he asks you politely, refuse to do any more work on the project.
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Unless prices are rising, it's not a good investment.
Unless you've been there yourself, you don't really understand how fantastic it is.
11.2. The first conditional
We use the First Conditional to talk about future events that are likely to happen:
If + present simple, + future simple
If we take John, he'll be really pleased.
If you give me some money, I'll pay you back tomorrow.
If they tell us they want it, we'll have to give it to them.
If Mary comes, she'll want to drive.
 The 'if' clause can be used with different present forms.

If I go to New York again, I'll buy you a souvenir from the Empire State Building.
If he's feeling better, he'll come.
If she hasn't heard the bad news yet, I'll tell her.
 The ‘’future clause’’ can contain GOING TO or the future perfect as well as WILL
If see him, I'm going to tell him exactly how angry I am.
If we don't get the contract, we'll have wasted a lot of time and money.
 The "future clause" can also contain other modal verbs such as 'can' and 'must'.
If you go to New York, you must have the cheesecake in Lindy's.
If he comes, you can get a lift home with him
11.3. Second conditional
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The Second Conditional is used to talk about 'impossible' situations or imaginations:
If + past simple tense + would + verb + complement
If we were in London today, we would be able to go to the concert in Hyde Park.

If I had millions dollars, I'd give a lot to charity.
If there were no hungry people in this world, it would be a much better place.
If everyone had clean water to drink, there would be a lot less disease.
 Note that after I / he/ she /it we often use the subjunctive form 'WERE' and not 'WAS'.
(Some people think that 'were' is the only 'correct' form but other people think 'was' is
equally ‘correct’.).
If she were happy in her job, she wouldn't be looking for another one.
If they were to enter our market, we'd have big problems.
 'If I were you' which is often used to give advice:

If I were you, I'd look for a new place to live.
If I were you, I'd go back to school and get more qualifications.
 The Second Conditional is also used to talk about 'unlikely' situations.

If I went to China, I'd visit the Great Wall.
If I was the President, I'd reduce taxes.
If you were in my position, you'd understand.
 Note that the 'If clause' can contain the past simple or the past continuous:
If I was still working in Brighton, I would commute by train.
If she were coming, she would be here by now.
If they were thinking of selling, I would want to buy.
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 Note that the main clause can contain 'would' 'could' or 'might.
If I had the chance to do it again, I would do it differently.
If we met up for lunch, we could go to that new restaurant.
If I spoke to him directly, I might be able to persuade him.
 Also note that sometimes the 'if clause' is implied rather than spoken:
What would I do without you? ("if you weren't here")
Where would I get one at this time of night? ("if I wanted one")
He wouldn't agree. ("if I asked him")
11.4. Third conditional
We can use the Third Conditional to talk about 'impossible' conditions, impossible because they
are in the past and we cannot change what has happened.
If + past perfect tense + would + have + past participle (main verb)
If I had worked harder at school, I would have got better grades.
If I had had time, I would have gone to see him. But I didn't have time.
If we had bought that house, we would have had to rebuild the kitchen.
If we had caught the earlier train, we would have got there on time but we were late.
 Notice that the main clause can contain 'would', 'could' or 'might.
If I had seen him at the meeting, I would have asked him. (But he wasn't there so I didn't.)
If I had seen him at the meeting, I could have asked him. (But he wasn't there so it wasn't
possible.)
If I had seen him at the meeting, I might have asked him. (But I'm not sure. Perhaps if the
opportunity had arisen.)
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 It talks about the past. It's used to describe a situation that didn't happen, and to
imagine the result of this situation.
If she had studied, she would have passed the exam (but, really we know she didn't study and so
she didn't pass)
If I hadn't eaten so much, I wouldn't have felt sick (but I did eat a lot, and so I did feel sick).
If we had taken a taxi, we wouldn't have missed the plane
She wouldn't have been tired if she had gone to bed earlier
She would have become a teacher if she had gone to university
He would have been on time for the interview if he had left the house at nine.
12. Passive voice
12.1. The use of passive voice
Passive voice is used when the focus is on the action. It is not important or not known, however,
who or what is performing the action.
Example: My bike was stolen.
In the example above, the focus is on the fact that my bike was stolen. I do not know, however,
who did it.
Sometimes a statement in passive is more polite than active voice, as the following example
shows:
Example: A mistake was made.
In this case, I focus on the fact that a mistake was made, but I do not blame anyone (e.g. You
have made a mistake.).
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13.2. The structure of Passive
Subject + finite form of to be + Past Participle
Example: A letter was written.
When rewriting active sentences into passive voice, note the following:
 The object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence
 The finite form of the verb is changed (to be + past participle)
 The subject of the active sentence becomes the object of the passive sentence (or is
dropped)
12.3. Examples of passive voice
Tense Subject Verb Object

Active Houry writes a letter
Passive A letter is written by Houry
Simple Present
Active Houry wrote a letter

Passive A letter was written by Houry
Past simple
Active Houry has written a letter
Passive A letter has been written by Houry
Present Perfect
Active Houry will write a letter
Passive A letter Will be written by Houry
Future simple
Present Active Houry is writing a letter
Passive A letter is being written by Houry
continuous
Active Houry was writing A letter
Passive A letter was being written by Houry
Past continuous
Past perfect Active Houry had written a letter
Passive A letter had been written by Houry
Future Perfect Active Houry will have written a letter
Passive A letter will have been written by Houry
Second Active Houry would write a letter
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conditional Passive A letter would be written by Houry
Third Active Houry would have written a letter
Passive A letter would have be written by Houry
conditional
12.4. Passive Sentences with Two Objects
Rewriting an active sentence with two objects in passive voice means that one of the two objects
becomes the subject, the other one remains an object. Which object to transform into a subject
depends on what you want to put the focus on.
Voice Subject Verb Object 1 Object 2

Active Smalls wrote a letter to me
Passive A letter was written to me by Smalls
Passive I was written a letter by Smalls
As you can see in the examples, adding by Smalls does not sound very elegant. That’s why it is
usually dropped.
12.4. Personal and Impersonal Passive
Personal Passive simply means that the object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the
passive sentence. So every verb that needs an object (transitive verb) can form a personal
passive.
Example: They build houses. – Houses are built.
Verbs without an object (intransitive verbs) normally cannot form personal passive sentence (as
there is no object that can become the subject of the passive sentence). If we want to use an
intransitive verb in passive voice, we need an impersonal construction – therefore this passive is
called Impersonal passive.
Example: he says – it is said
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Impersonal Passive is not as common in English as in some other languages (e.g. German,
Latin). In English, Impersonal Passive is only possible with verbs of perception (e. g. say, think,
know).
Example: They say that women live longer than men. – It is said that women live longer than
men.
Although Impersonal Passive is possible here, Personal Passive is more common.

Example: They say that women live longer than men. – Women are said to live longer than men.
The subject of the subordinate clause (women) goes to the beginning of the sentence; the verb of
perception is put into passive voice. The rest of the sentence is added using an infinitive
construction with 'to' (certain auxiliary verbs and that are dropped).
Sometimes the term Personal Passive is used in English lessons if the indirect object of an active
sentence is to become the subject of the passive sentence.
13. Modal verbs
The modal verbs of English are a small class of auxiliary verbs used mostly to express modality
(properties such as possibility, obligation, etc.). They can be distinguished from other verbs by
their defectiveness (they do not have participle or infinitive forms) and by the fact that they do
not take the ending -(e)s in the third-person singular.
The principal English modal verbs are can, could, may, might, must, shall, should, will and
would. Certain other verbs are sometimes, but not always, classed as modals; these include
ought, had better, and (in certain uses) dare and need. Verbs which share some but not all of
the characteristics of the principal modals are sometimes called "semi-modals". The following
verbs can be classed as the principal modal verbs of English. They are listed here in present–
preterite pairs where applicable:
 Can and could
 May and might
 Shall and should
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 Will and would
 Must (no preterite)
Note that the preterite forms are not necessarily used to refer to past time, and in some cases are
near synonyms to the present forms.
A modal verb serves as an auxiliary to another verb, which appears in infinitive form (the bare
infinitive or the to-infinitive in the cases of ought and used as discussed above). Examples: You
must escape; this may be difficult.
Like other auxiliaries, modal verbs are negated by the addition of the word not after them. (The
modification of meaning may not always correspond to simple negation, as in the case of must
not.) The modal can combines with not to form the single word cannot. Most of the modals have
contracted negated forms in n't which are commonly used in informal English: can't, mustn't,
won't (from will), etc.
Again like other auxiliaries, modal verbs undergo inversion with their subject, in forming
questions: Could you do this?; On no account may you enter. When there is negation, the
contraction with n't may undergo inversion as an auxiliary in its own right: Why can't I come in?
(or: Why can I not come in?).
13.1. Usage of specific verb
13.1.1. Can and could
The modal verb can expresses possibility in a dynamic, deontic or epistemic sense, that is, in
terms of innate ability, permissibility, or possible circumstance. For example:
 I can speak English means "I am able to speak English" or "I know how to speak
English".
 You can smoke here means "you may (are permitted to) smoke here" (in formal English
may or might is sometimes considered more correct than can or could in these senses).
 There can be strong rivalry between siblings means that such rivalry is possible
(Possibility)
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Both can and could can be used to make requests: Can/could you pass me the cheese? Means
"Please pass me the cheese" (where could indicates greater politeness).
It is common to use can with verbs of perception such as see, hear, etc, as in I can see a tree.
Aspectual distinction can be made such as I could see it (ongoing state) & I saw it (event).
The use of Could with the perfect infinitive expresses past ability or possibility, either in some
counterfactual circumstances (I could have told him if I had seen him), or in some real
circumstance where the act in question was not in fact realized: I could have told him yesterday
(but in fact I didn’t). The use of Can with perfect infinitive can have… is rarer alternative to may
have (for negative see below).
13.1.2. May and might
The verb may expresses possibility in either an epistemic or deontic sense, that is, in terms of
possible circumstance or permissibility. For example:
 The mouse may be dead means that it is possible that the mouse is dead.
 You may leave the room means that the listener is permitted to leave the room.
In expressing possible circumstance, may can have future as well as present reference (he may
arrive means that it is possible that he will arrive; I may go to the mall means that I am
considering going to the mall).
The preterite form might is used as a synonym for may when expressing possible circumstance. It
is sometimes said that might and could express a greater degree of doubt than may. For uses of
might in conditional sentences, and as a past equivalent to may in such contexts as indirect
speech.
May (or might) can also express irrelevance in spite of certain or likely truth: He may be taller
than I am, but he is certainly not stronger could mean "While it is (or may be) true that he is
taller than I am, that does not make a difference, as he is certainly not stronger."
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May can indicate presently given permission for present or future actions: You may go now.
Might used in this way is milder: You might go now if you feel like it. Similarly May I use your
phone? is a request for permission (might would be more hesitant or polite).
When used with the perfect infinitive, may have indicates uncertainty about a past circumstance,
whereas might have can have that meaning, but it can also refer to possibilities that did not occur
but could have in other circumstances.
 She may have eaten cake (the speaker does not know whether she ate cake).
 She might have eaten cake (this means either the same as the above, or else means that
she did not eat cake but that it was or would have been possible for her to eat cake).
13.1.3. Shall and should
Shall can be used in the following situations:
 Future (first singular and plural) replacing Will: I shall| We shall…

 Command or prophecy with second and third: Cinderella, you shall go to the ball!
In the laws and specifications: Those convicted of violating this law shall be imprisoned for a
term of not less than three years; the electronics assembly shall be able to operate within a
normal temperature range.
Should can be used in the following situations:
 To describe an expected or recommended behavior, to give advice: You should never lie.
 To express what will happen according to theory or expectations: This should work.
 Shall have is used to expresses something which would have been expected, or
normatively required, at some time in the past, but which did not in fact happen (or is not
known to have happened): I should have done that yesterday; you shall have finished
your duties by nine o'clock.
The negative forms are shall not and should not, contracted to shan't and shouldn't.
13.1.4. Will and would
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Will is often used to express futurity: The next meeting will be held on Thursday; will do, will be
doing, will have done and will have been doing.
 It can express habitual aspect; for example, he will make mistakes may mean that he
frequently makes mistakes (here the word will is usually stressed somewhat, and often
expresses annoyance).
 It can express strong probability with present time reference, as in that will be John at the
door.
 It can be used to give an order, as in You will do it right now.
Would can be used in conditional sentences (see conditionals) and it can indicate an expression
of habitual aspect in past time, as in Back then, I would eat early and would walk to school.
The negative forms are will not (contracted to won't) and would not (contracted to wouldn't).
14. Prepositions
Prepositions are short words (on, in, to) that usually stand in front of nouns (sometimes also in
front of gerund verbs).
Even advanced learners of English find prepositions difficult, as a 1:1 translation is usually not
possible. One preposition in your native language might have several translations depending on
the situation.
There are hardly any rules as to when to use which preposition. The only way to learn
prepositions is looking them up in a dictionary, reading a lot in English (literature) and learning
useful phrases off by heart (study tips).
The following table contains rules for some of the most frequently used prepositions in English:
14.1. Preposition of time

Preposition Usage Examples
on days of the week on Monday
dates on July 11tn
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in months / season in January/ in winter
time of the day in the morning
year in 1998
after a certain period of time (when?) in an hour
at for weekend at weekend
for night at night
a certain point of time (when?) at half past nine
since from a certain point of time (past till now) since 1975
for over a certain period of time (past till now) for 2 years
ago a certain time in the past 2 years ago
before earlier than a certain point of time Before 2012
to / till / until marking the beginning and end of a period of From Monday to / till
time Friday
by in the sense at the latest I will be back by 6 o’clock

up to the certain time By 11 o’clock, I had read
five pages
14.2. Prepositions – Place (Position and Direction)
Preposition Usage Examples

in room, building, street, town, country In the kitchen, in the world
book, paper, etc In London, in a taxi, in the
car, taxi, world car
at meaning next to, by an object at the door, at the station
for table at the table
for events at a concert, at the party
place where you are to do something typical at the cinema, at school, at
(watch a film, study, work) work
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on attached the picture on the wall
for a place with a river London lies on the Thames.
being on a surface on the table
for certain side (left, right) on the left
for a floor in a house on the first floor
for a public transport on the bus, on a plane
for television, for radio on the radio, on TV
by, next to, beside left or right of somebody or something Jane is standing by / next to
/ beside the car.
under on the ground, lower than (or covered by) the bag is under the table
something else
below lower than something else but above ground the fish are below the
surface
over covered by something else put a jacket over your shirt
meaning more than over 16 years of age
getting to the other side (also across) walk over the bridge
overcoming an obstacle climb over the wall
above higher than something else, but not directly a path above the lake
over it
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across getting to the other side (also over) walk across the bridge
getting to the other side swim across the lake
through something with limits on top, bottom and the drive through the tunnel
sides
enter a room / a building go into the kitchen / the

into house
towards movement in the direction  go 5 steps towards the

of house
onto movement to the top of something jump onto the table
from in the sense of where from a flower from the garden
14.3. Other important Prepositions

Preposition Usage Example
from who gave it a present from Jane
by who made it / did it a book by Mark Twain
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on walking or riding on horseback on foot, on horseback
entering a public transport vehicle get on the bus
in entering a car / Taxi get in the car
off
leaving a public transport vehicle get off the train
out of leaving a car / Taxi get out of the taxi
by
rise or fall of something prices have risen by 10
percent
travelling (other than walking or horse riding) by car, by bus
at for age she learned Russian at 45
about for topics, meaning what about we were talking about you
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14.4. Preposition-dependent verbs
A D O
abide by deal with object to
abstain from decide about/on/upon offer something to someone
accuse someone of depend on/upon P
add something to something disagree on/with participate in something
adhere to discriminate against pay for something
advise someone to distinguish from pay something to someone
agree on/with do research on/into/about persist in
aim at/for allow for do something for someone praise someone for
apologize for dream of/about pray for
apply to/for E prepare for
approve of escape from excel in present someone with
argue with/about exchange something for prevent someone/something
arise from excuse someone for from
arrest someone for arrive expect someone to prohibit someone from
in/at protect someone/something
ask for F from
attend to face up to protest about
find something for someone provide someone/something
B fine someone for with punish someone for
beg for forget about
believe in forgive someone for R
belong to recover from
beware of G refer to rely on/upon
blame someone for get something for someone rescue from respond to
boast about give something to someone
borrow something from S
someone H save someone from
brag about hide from hope for sell something to someone
buy something for someone I send something to someone
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insist on/upon sentence someone to
C interfere with/in show something to someone
call for introduce to invite someone smile at
care about/for to stare at
choose between stop from
comment on J subscribe to
compare to/with joke about substitute for
complain about/of succeed in
comply with L suffer from
conceal something from laugh at
concentrate on leave for some place T
condemn someone for leave something for someone take advantage/care of
conform to lend something to someone talk with/to someone about
congratulate someone on/for listen to something
something long for thank someone for
consent to think of/about
consist of M
contribute to make something for someone V
cook something for someone mistake someone for volunteer to
count on/upon vote for
cure someone of a disease W
wait for
warn someone about
worry about
14.5. Preposition-dependent adjectives

A D known for
abreast of dedicated to limited to
absent from devoted to located in
accused of/by disappointed with made of/from
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accustomed to discriminated against married to
acquainted with divorced from O
addicted to done with opposed to
adjacent to dressed in P
afraid of / to (infinitive) E patient with
angry at engaged in/to pleased with
annoyed with/by envious of polite to
associated with equipped with prepared for
aware of equivalent to protected from
B excited about proud of
blessed with exhausted from Q
bored with/by exposed to qualified for
C F
capable of faithful to R
close to familiar with related to
cluttered with filled with relevant to
committed to finished with remembered for
compatible with fond of responsible for
composed of friendly to/with S
concerned about frightened of/by satisfied with
confronted with full of scared of/by
connected to furnished with suitable for
conscious of G T
consistent with gone from terrified of/by
content with grateful to/for tired of/from
contrary to guilty of U
convinced of I upset with
coordinated with innocent of used to
covered with interested in useful to
crowded with invited to W
involved in worried about
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J
jealous of
15. Nouns
15.1. Definition
A noun is a word that functions as the name of some specific thing or set of things, such as living
creatures, objects, places, actions, qualities, states of existence, or ideas. Note, linguistically, a
noun is a member of a large, open part of speech whose members can occur as the main word in
the subject of a clause, the object of a verb, or the object of a preposition.
15.2. Classification of nouns

Nouns are classified into three sub groups such as: common nous, proper nouns and collective
noun.
 Common noun – it’s a noun which represents a class entities or a word that denotes a
member of a class such as: house, car, boy……
 Proper noun or proper name – it’s a noun representing unique entities (such as India,
Jupiter, Harry, or BMW), as distinguished from common nouns which describe a class of
entities as it is illustrated above.
 Collective nouns – these are nouns that – even when they are inflected for the singular –
refer to groups consisting of more than one individual or entity. Examples include
committee, government, and police.
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In English these nouns may be followed by a singular or a plural verb and referred to by a
singular or plural pronoun, the singular being generally preferred when referring to the body as a
unit and the plural often being preferred to.
A committee was appointed to consider this subject. (singular)
The committee were unable to agree. (plural)
15.3. Concrete nouns and abstract nouns

Concrete nouns refer to physical entities that can, in principle at least be observed by at least one
of the senses (for instance, chair, apple, Janet or atom). Abstract nouns, on the other hand, refer
to abstract objects; that is, ideas or concepts such as justice or hatred.
15.4. Countable and uncountable nouns

 Countable nouns are common nouns that can take a plural, can combine with numerals or
counting quantifiers (e.g., one, two, several, every, most), and can take an indefinite
article such as a or an (in languages which have such articles). Examples of count nouns
are chair, nose, and occasion.
 Uncountable (or non-count) nouns differ from countable nouns in precisely that respect:
they cannot take plurals or combine with number words or the above type of quantifiers,
for examples: water, furniture, oil, air, bread …
Many nouns have both countable and uncountable uses; for example, beer is countable in "give
me three beers", but uncountable in "he likes beer".
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15.5. Formation of plural
Nouns, generally, are words which name people, place, things or ideas. They have numbers
singular and plural. Uncountable nouns have only one form and they do not have plural and,
countable nouns vary, that is, they have singular and plural forms as it follows:
 Most regular nouns form their plural by adding –s
Nouns
Singular Plural
boat boats
house houses
cat cats
river rivers
girl girls
 Singular nouns ending in s, x, ch, sh form their plural by adding - es
Nouns
Singular Plural
bus buses
wish wishes
pitch pitches
box boxes
 Singular nouns ending in consonant and then y form their plural by dropping the y and
adding ies:
Nouns
Singular Plural
daisy daisies
baby babies
city cities
penny pennies
spy spies
 Singular nouns ending in f or fe form their plural by changing f to v and adding es:
Nouns
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Singular plural
wolf wolves
wife wives
leaf leaves
life lives
 Singular nouns ending in o form their plural by adding - oes:
Nouns
Singular Plural
Mango Mangoes
Tomato tomatoes
Potato potatoes
 Irregular nouns have different forms for singular and plural. Some are listed below:
Nouns
Singular Plural Singular Plural
woman women man men
child children tooth teeth
foot feet person people
mouse mice louse lice
Goose geese cactus cacti
focus foci fungus fungi
nucleus nuclei syllabus syllabi/syllabuses
Analysis Analyses diagnosis diagnoses
oasis oases thesis theses
crisis crises phenomenon phenomena
criterion criteria datum data
ox oxen
 Some nouns have the same form in the singular and the plural:
Nouns
Singular Plural
sheep sheep
fish fish
deer deer
aircraft aircraft
species species
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Some plural nouns are used with singular verbs such as news, athletics, linguistics, darts, and
billiards:
 Linguistics is the study of language

 The news is at 6 o’clock.
 Billiards is played over all the world
Some nouns have their fixed plural and they are used plural verbs such as trousers, saving,
thanks, stairs, wages, jeans, spectacles, customs, congratulations, outskirts, scissors, tropics,
gasses, etc.
 My trousers are too tight

 Her jeans are black.
 Those glasses are his.
15.6. Quantifiers
Quantifiers state precisely or suggest approximately the amount or the number of a noun. (They
quantify) They can be grouped by the noun types they quantify. These expressions are mainly
“some, any, many, much, a lot of, a little, a few …etc.
15.6.1. Some & Any

Some and Any are determiners and they express an indefinite quantity or number. “Some and
Any” are used when it is not easy, necessary or important to say exactly how many / how much
we want to mean. They are both used with countable and uncountable nouns.
 Some - is often used in affirmative statements.
SOME + COUNTABLE NOUNS: In this case, some means a few
There are some postcards in my bag.
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There are some students in the class.
There are some cherries in the basket.
There are some mistakes in the list.
 Any - is often used in negative sentences and questions.
There aren’t any people on the moon.

There are not any empty chairs for the guests.
Are there any doctors in your family?
Yes, there are some doctors in my family.
No, there aren’t any doctors in my family.
NOTE: in a negative sentence, we can use no in place of not any. However, no can also be used
with countable singular nouns. When no is used, the verb is always positive.
There are no wild animals in the forest. - There aren’t any wild animals in the forest.
There isn’t any milk at home. - There is no milk at home.
 Some is also used in offers and requests.
Would you like some cake?

Could you do some typing for me?
16.6.2. Much / Many

Many and Much express a large quantity.
 Many is used with countable nouns
I have many postcards.
There are many students in the class.
There aren’t many people in the streets.
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Are there many books in your bag?
 Much is used with uncountable nouns.

She has got much influence on you.
There is much orange juice in the glass.
There isn’t much sugar in the kitchen.
Is there much rain in Istanbul?
NOTE: too much and too many indicate an excess and are used in affirmative sentences.
There is too much noise in big cities.
There are too many people at the party.
15.6.3. How Much / How Many

We use the expressions above to ask the quantity of the nouns
 How many - with plural nouns or better yet, it’s u7sed with countable nouns:
How many eggs…..?

How many sisters……?
How many countries….?
 How much – it’s used with uncountable nouns:
How much flour?

How much butter?
How much money?
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15.6.4. A Few / Few & A Little / Little
 A few expresses a small quantity. Few implies that something is not many, not enough or
almost none. It expresses a negative idea and it’s countable nouns.
I have a few close friends in town, and we have a very good time together.
I have few friends in town, so I feel lonely from time to time.
 A little expresses a small quantity. Little implies that something is not much, not enough
or almost none. It expresses a negative idea and it’s used with uncountable nouns.
We have a little milk. Let’s make a cake.

We have little milk. We can’t make a cake.
Let's go and have a drink. We've got a little time before the train leaves. (a little time = some
time, enough time to have a drink)
15.6.5. A lot of/ a bit of/ a plenty of

 A bit of expresses a small amount of something and it’s used with uncountable nouns
The dress is a bit too big for me

Would you like a bit more cake?
It’s a bit like a Swiss chalet
Notice that a bit of may be used to mean:
 Very
It’s a bit cold! And she didn’t invite him. That was a bit mean!
 Gradually
I saved up the money bit by bit
 Not in a way
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She wasn’t a bit worried about the test.
Are you getting tired? Not a bit.
 Into small pieces

The car was blown to bits
It just fell to bits to my hands.
 A lot of expresses a large amount of something, it’s used with both countable and
uncountable nouns.
I’ve got a lot of plans today

There’ll be a lot of your friends there.
 A plenty of expresses a large amount of something and, it’s used with uncountable nouns.
I’ve got a plenty of time.
There’s no need to rush. We’ve got plenty of time.
16. Articles
An article is a kind of adjective which is always used with and gives some information about a
noun. There are only two types articles (definitive and indefinite) a/an and the, but they are used
very often and are important for using English accurately.
16.1. Indefinite articles

The words a and an are called the indefinite article because the noun it goes with is indefinite or
general. The meaning of the article a is similar to the number one, but one is stronger and gives
more emphasis. It is possible to say I have a book or I have one book, but the second sentence
emphasizes that I do not have two or three or some other number of books.
 A – it’s used before singular nouns starting in a consonant:
I have a book
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She rides a bike
 An – it’s used before singular nouns starting in a vowel or a mute h:

Alan is holding an umbrella.
It takes us to an impossibility.
An honor is not for everyone.
16.2. Definite article

The word the is known as the definite article and indicates a specific thing. The article the is
used with either singular and plural nouns
 I sat on a chair and I sat on the chair
The difference between the sentences above is that the second sentence refers to a particular,
specific chair, not just any chair.
Many nouns, especially singular forms of countable nouns must have an article. In English, it is
not possible to say I sat on chair without an article, but a demonstrative or possessive adjective
can be used instead of an article as in the sentences:
 I sat on that chair.

 I sat on his chair.
Whenever you see an article, you will find a noun with it. The noun may be the next word as in
the sentence the man or there may be adjectives and perhaps adverbs between the article and the
noun:
 He’s got an interesting book.

 I have read a marvelous story,
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Notice that in the first example was used the article an because of the adjective interesting which
stars in a vowel and yet, in the second example, there is a use of the article a because of the
adjective. The adjective are qualifying the in sentences, therefore, the article should be used
according to the words that come before the nouns and not the noun itself
16.3. Negative article

A negative article specifies none of its noun, and can thus be regarded as neither definite nor
indefinite. On the other hand, some consider such a word to be a simple determiner rather than
an article. In English, this function is fulfilled by no, which can appear before a singular or plural
noun:
 No man has been on this island.

 No dogs are allowed here.
 No one is in the room.
1.7. Pronouns
A pronoun is a word that replaces a noun or noun phrase or better yet, pronoun is a word used
instead of a name. There are many types of pronouns as they follow.
17.1. Personal Pronouns

Personal pronouns represent specific people or things. We use them depending on:
 Number: singular (I), plural (we);

 Person: 1st person (I, we), 2nd (you); 3rd (he, she, it, they)
 Gender: male (he), female (she), neuter (it)
 Case: subject (I); object (me)
We use personal pronouns in place of the person or people that we are talking about. My name is
Josef but when I am talking about myself I almost always use "I" or "me", not "Josef". When I
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am talking direct to you, I almost always use "you", not your name. When I am talking about
another person, say John, I may start with "John" but then use "he" or "him". And so on.
17.1.1. Subject and object Pronouns

 Subject pronoun is used in the subject of a sentence. Singular subject pronouns are /,
you, he, she, and it. Plural subject pronouns are we, you, and they. When you use a
person's name and a pronoun in a compound subject, be sure to use a subject pronoun.
He has many original ideas.
They are exciting and unusual.
Mom and I made bird feeders.
 Object pronoun is used in the predicate of a sentence after an action verb or with a
preposition, such as for, at, into, with, or to. Singular object pronouns are me, you, him,
her, and it. Plural object pronouns are us, you, and them. When you use a person's name
and a pronoun in a compound object, be sure to use an object pronoun.
The teacher asked him about his project. It seemed brilliant to me.
This project was fun for James and me.
See the table as well:
Personal Pronouns
Subject Object
Number
I me
You you
He him
Singular She her
It it
We us
You you
Plural
They them
When we are talking about a single thing, we almost always use it. However, there are a few
exceptions. We may sometimes refer to an animal as he/him or she/her, especially if the animal
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is domesticated or a pet. Ships (and some other vessels or vehicles) as well as some countries are
often treated as female and referred to as she/her. Here are some examples:
This is our dog Rusty. He's an Alsatian.

The Titanic was a great ship but she sank on her first voyage.
My first car was a Mini and I treated her like my wife.
Thailand has now opened her border with Cambodia.
 For a single person, sometimes we don't know whether to use he or she. There are several
solutions to this:
If a teacher needs help, he or she should see the principal.
If a teacher needs help, he should see the principal.
If a teacher needs help, they should see the principal.
 We often use it to introduce a remark:

It is nice to have a holiday sometimes.
It is important to dress well.
It's difficult to find a job.
Is it normal to see them together?
It didn't take long to walk here.
 We also often use it to talk about the weather, temperature, time and distance:
It's raining.
It will probably be hot tomorrow.
Is it nine o'clock yet?
It's 50 kilometres from here to Nampula.
17.2. Relative pronouns
Relative pronouns are used to link two sentences that have the same noun or pronoun in them.
Relative pronouns form the beginning of a relative clause. In English there are five basic relative
pronoun forms:
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 That - used when referring to either an animate or inanimate noun, or better yet,
it’s used to refer people, things or objects:
The boy that sits next to me is my brother
The book that is on the table belongs to my teacher
 Who - used when referring to an animate noun or to refer people:

The boy who is nest to is my brother
She saw the lady who you were talking to
Smalls is the boy who won the prize
 Which - used when referring to an inanimate noun or to refer things:
The book which is on the table belongs to my teacher.

These are the books which she spoke about.
I bought the car which needs repairs.
 Whose - used as a possessive
This is my friend whose name is Kelvin.

I saw the girl whose father works Nation Bank
17.3. Demonstrative Pronouns

Demonstrative pronoun is pronoun that is used to point something specific within a sentence.
These pronouns can indicate items in space and time, and they can be either singular or plural.
A demonstrative pronoun represents a thing or things:
 Near in distance or time: this, these

 Far in distance or time: that, those
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See the table as well:
Demonstrative pronouns
Near Far
Number
Singular this that
Plural these those
Here are some examples with demonstrative pronouns
This tastes good.

Have you seen this?
These are bad times.
Do you like these?
That is beautiful.
Look at that!
Those were the days!
Can you see those?
These are bigger than those.
 Normally we use demonstrative pronouns for things only. But we can use them for
people when the person is identified. Look at these examples:
This is Josef speaking. Is that Mary?

That sounds like John.
17.4. Possessive Pronouns

We use possessive pronouns to refer to a specific person/people or thing/things belonging to a
person/people (and sometimes belonging to an animal/animals or thing/things).
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We use possessive pronouns depending on:
 Number: singular ( mine) or plural (ours)

 Person: 1st person (mine), 2nd person (yours) or 3rd person (his)
 Gender: male (his), female (hers)
See the table below:
Number Person Gender (of owner) Possessive pronouns

First male / female mine
Second male / female yours
Singular
Third male his
female hers
First male / female ours
Second male/female yours
Third Male / female / neuter theirs
Plural
Below are the possessive pronouns, followed by some example sentences. Notice that each
possessive pronoun can:
 be subject or object
 refer to a singular or plural antecedent
Look at these pictures. Mine is the big one. (mine = my picture)
I looked everywhere for your key. I found John's key but I couldn't find yours. (Yours = your
key)
All the essays were good but his was the best. (his = his essay)
John found his passport but Mary couldn't find hers. (hers = her passport)
Here is your car. Ours is over there, where we left it. (ours = our car)
These aren't John and Mary's children. Theirs have black hair. (theirs = their children)
John and Mary don't like your car. Do you like theirs? (theirs = their car)
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17.4.1. Possessive adjectives
Possessive adjectives are used to show possession or ownership of something. While we use
when refer to people, it is more the sense of relationship than ownership
The possessive adjectives need to agree with possessor and with thing that is possessed. See the
table below:
Subject Pronouns Possessive Adjective Examples

I my My shirt is green
You your Your book is new
He his His pillow is soft
She her Her dog is small
It our Its bone is old
We its Our bird is noisy
You your Your house is big
They their Their car is slow
 we do not add an S to the adjective when the noun is plural:

Our cars are expensive (correct)
Ours cars are expensive (incorrect)
 The verb that is used needs to be in agreement with the noun – if the noun is singular,
then the verb is singular, plural noun and then the verb is plural:
My pen is black. (Singular)
My pens are black. (Plural)
Our child is intelligent. (Singular)
Our children are intelligent. (Plural)
17.4.2. Possessive adjectives and possessive pronoun

Possessive adjectives and pronouns as they were describe above are confused by many English
Language speakers, however they are used in the different ways as they as shown below:
 A possessive pronoun is used instead of a noun:
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Julie’s car is red. Mine is blue. Mine was used by the speaker instead of car to mean a car
belonging to them.
 A possessive adjective is usually used to describe a noun, and it comes before it, like
other adjective:
My car is bigger than her car.
17.5. Indefinite Pronouns

An indefinite pronoun does not refer to any specific person, thing or amount. It is vague and "not
definite". Some typical indefinite pronouns are:
all, another, any, anybody/anyone, anything, each, everybody/everyone, everything, few, many,
nobody, none, one, several, some, somebody/someone
Note that many indefinite pronouns also function as other parts of speech. Look at "another" in
the following sentences:
He has one job in the day and another at night. (pronoun)
I'd like another drink, please. (adjective)
Most indefinite pronouns are either singular or plural. However, some of them can be singular in
one context and plural in another. The most common indefinite pronouns are listed below, with
examples, as singular, plural or singular/plural.
Notice that a singular pronoun takes a singular verb AND that any personal pronoun should also
agree (in number and gender). Look at these examples:
Each of the players has a doctor.

I met two girls. One has given me her phone number.
Similarly, plural pronouns need plural agreement:
Many have expressed their views.
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Number Pronoun Meaning Examples
another an additional or different That ice-cream was
person or thing good. Can I have
another?
Sing anything no matter what thing The doctor needs to

ular know if you have eaten
anything in the last
hours.
each everyone of two or more Each one has his own

people or things, seen thoughts
separately
either one or another of two Do you want coffee or
people or things tea? I don’t mind. Either
is good for me.
enough as much or as many as There are enough pens
needed for us all.
everybody all people We can start the meeting
/everyone because everybody has
arrived
everything all things They have no house or
possessions. They has
lost everything
less a small amount
little a small amount There is very little water
much a large amount Much has happened
since we met
neither not one and not the other I keep telling Jack and
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of two people or things Bill but neither believe
me
nobody/ no-one no person I phoned many times but
nobody answered
nothing no single thing, not If you don’t know the
Singular
anything answer it’s better to say
nothing
one an unidentified person Can one smoke here?
All students arrived but
one is missing
other a different person or One was tall and the
thing from one other was short
mentioned already
somebody/ an unspecified or Clearly some murdered
someone unknown person him. It’s not suicide
something unspecified or unknown Listen! I just heard
thing something! What could
it be
both two people or things John likes coffee but not
seen together tea. I think both are
good.
few a small number of Few have disobeyed him
people or things and lived
fewer a reduced number of Fewer are smoking these
people or things days
Plural many a large number of Many have come
people or things already
others other people, not us I’m sure that others have
tried before us.
several more than two but not They all complained and
many several left the meeting.
all the whole quantity of All is forgiven
something or of some All have arrived
things or people
most the majority, almost all Most is lost
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Most have refused
any no matter how much or Is any left?
Singular / Plural
how many Are any coming?
such of the type already He was a foreigner and
mentioned he left that he was
treated as such
17.6. Reflexive Pronouns

We use a reflexive pronoun when we want to refer back to the subject of the sentence or clause,
that is, the action reflects on the subject like a mirror. Reflexive pronouns end in "-self"
(singular) or "-selves" (plural).
There are eight reflexive pronouns:
Number Personal pronouns Reflexive pronouns

I myself
You yourself
He himself
Singular She herself
It itself
We ourselves
You yourselves
Plural
They themselves
Examples:
I saw myself in the mirror.

Why do you blame on yourself
Mu dog hurt itself
They cannot look after themselves
We blame on ourselves
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Notice that all the above reflexive pronouns can also act as intensive pronouns, but the function
and usage are different. An intensive pronoun emphasizes its antecedent. Look at these
examples:
I made it myself. OR I myself made it.

Have you yourself seen it? OR Have you seen it yourself?
The President himself promised to stop the war.
She spoke to me herself. OR She herself spoke to me.
The exam itself wasn't difficult, but the exam room was horrible.
17.7. Reciprocal pronouns
We reciprocal pronouns when each of two or more subjects is acting in the same ways toward
the other.
Example: john and Mary are talking to each other
The action is reciprocated as John talks to Mary and Mary talks to John. There are only two
reciprocal pronouns, and they are both two words:
 Each other (used with two people or things)
 One another (used with three or more people or things)
When we use these reciprocal pronouns:

 There must be two or more people, things, or group involved , so we cannot use
reciprocal pronouns with singular personal pronouns (I, She, He, It and singular you).
 They must be doing the same thing.
Mary and John love each other.
Peter and David hate each other
The ten prisoners were all blaming one another.
The gangsters were fighting one another.
They can’t see each other.
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18. Conjunctions
18.1Definition
Some words are satisfied spending an evening at home, alone, eating ice-cream right out of the
box, watching Seinfeld re-runs on TV, or reading a good book. Others aren't happy unless they're
out on the town, mixing it up with other words; they're joiners and they just can't help
themselves. A conjunction is a joiner, a word that connects parts of a sentence.
18.2. Coordinating conjunctions

The simple, little conjunctions are called by coordinating conjunctions such as and, but, so, nor,
or, yet, so. Among the coordinating conjunctions, the most common, of course, are and, but, and
or. It might be helpful to explore the uses of these three little words. The examples below by no
means exhaust the possible meanings of these conjunctions.
AND
Used to join or link different ideas: Juanita is brilliant and Shalimar has a pleasant personality.
 To suggest an element of surprise (sometimes replaced by yet in this usage): Hartford is

a rich city and suffers from many symptoms of urban blight."
 To suggest that one clause is dependent upon another, conditionally (usually the first
clause is an imperative): Use your credit cards frequently and you'll soon find yourself
deep in debt.
 To suggest a kind of "comment" on the first clause: Charlie became addicted to

gambling — and that surprised no one who knew him.
BUT
 To suggest a contrast that is unexpected in light of the first clause: Joey lost a fortune in
the stock market, but he still seems able to live quite comfortably.
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 To suggest in an affirmative sense what the first part of the sentence implied in a negative
way (sometimes replaced by on the contrary): The club never invested foolishly, but used
the services of a sage investment counselor.
 To connect two ideas with the meaning of "with the exception of" (and then the second
word takes over as subject): Everybody but Golden breath is trying out for the team.
OR
 To suggest that only one possibility can be realized, excluding one or the other: You can
study hard for this exam or you can fail.
 To suggest the inclusive combination of alternatives: We can broil chicken on the grill
tonight, or we can just eat leftovers.
The Others
The conjunction NOR is not extinct, but it is not used nearly as often as the other conjunctions,
so it might feel a bit odd when nor does come up in conversation or writing. It’s most common
use is as the little brother in the correlative pair, neither-nor (see below):
He is neither sane nor brilliant.

That is neither what I said nor what I meant.
 It can be used with other negative expressions:

That is not what I meant to say, nor should you interpret my statement as an admission of guilt.
 It is possible to use nor without a preceding negative element, but it is unusual and, to an
extent, rather stuffy:
George's handshake is as good as any written contract, nor has he ever proven untrustworthy.
The word YET functions sometimes as an adverb and has several meanings: in addition ("yet
another cause of trouble" or "a simple yet noble woman"), even ("yet more expensive"), still ("he
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is yet a novice"), eventually ("they may yet win"), and so soon as now ("he's not here yet"). It
also functions as a coordinating conjunction meaning something like "nevertheless" or "but." The
word yet seems to carry an element of distinctiveness that but can seldom register.
John plays basketball well, yet his favorite sport is badminton.
The visitors complained loudly about the heat, yet they continued to play golf every day.
In sentences such as the second one, above, the pronoun subject of the second clause ("they," in
this case) is often left out. When that happens, the comma preceding the conjunction might also
disappear: "The visitors complained loudly yet continued to play golf every day."
Yet is sometimes combined with other conjunctions, but or and. It would not be unusual to see
and yet in sentences like the ones above. This usage is acceptable.
Be careful of the conjunction SO. Sometimes it can connect two independent clauses along with
a comma, but sometimes it can't. For instance, in this sentence,
Soto is not the only Olympic athlete in his family, so are his brother, sister, and his Uncle Chet.
Where the word so means "as well" or "in addition," most careful writers would use a semicolon
between the two independent clauses. In the following sentence, where so is acting like a minor-
league "therefore," the conjunction and the comma are adequate to the task:
Soto has always been nervous in large gatherings, so it is no surprise that he avoids crowds of
his adoring fans.
Sometimes, at the beginning of a sentence, so will act as a kind of summing up device or

transition, and when it does, it is often set off from the rest of the sentence with a comma:
So, the sheriff peremptorily removed the child from the custody of his parents.
18.3. Subordinating Conjunctions
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A Subordinating Conjunction (sometimes called a dependent word or subordinator) comes at
the beginning of a Subordinate (or Dependent) Clause and establishes the relationship between
the dependent clause and the rest of the sentence. It also turns the clause into something that
depends on the rest of the sentence for its meaning.
He took to the stage as though he had been preparing for this moment all his life.
Because he loved acting, he refused to give up his dream of being in the movies.
Unless we act now, all is lost.
Notice that some of the subordinating conjunctions in the table below — after, before, since —
are also prepositions, but as subordinators they are being used to introduce a clause and to
subordinate the following clause to the independent element in the sentence.
Common subordinating conjunctions

after If Though
although if only till
as in order that unless
as if now that until
as long as once when
as though rather than whenever
because since where
before so that whereas
even if than wherever
even though that while
18.4. The case of Like and As

Strictly speaking, the word like is a preposition, not a conjunction. It can, therefore, be used to
introduce a prepositional phrase ("My brother is tall like my father"), but it should not be used to
introduce a clause ("My brother can't play the piano like as he did before the accident" or "It
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looks like as if basketball is quickly overtaking baseball as America's national sport."). To
introduce a clause, it's a good idea to use as, as though, or as if, instead.
Like As I told you earlier, the lecture has been postponed.
It looks like as if it's going to snow this afternoon.

Johnson kept looking out the window like as though he had someone waiting for him.
In the examples above, it’s strictly wrong to have the word like in them, so the sentence would be
grammatical correct if it’s remove as it shown in the examples below:
As I told you earlier, the lecture has been postponed.
It looks as if it's going to snow this afternoon.

Johnson kept looking out the window as though he had someone waiting for him.
In formal, academic text, it's a good idea to reserve the use of like for situations in which
similarities are being pointed out:
This community college is like a two-year liberal arts college.
However, when you are listing things that have similarities, such as is probably more suitable:
The college has several highly regarded neighbors, like such as the Mark Twain House, St.
Francis Hospital, the Connecticut Historical Society, and the U Conn Law School.
18.5. Correlative Conjunctions
Some conjunctions combine with other words to form what are called correlative conjunctions.
They always travel in pairs, joining various sentence elements that should be treated as
grammatically equal.
She led the team not only in statistics but also by virtue of her enthusiasm.
Polonius said, "Neither a borrower nor a lender be."
Whether you win this race or lose it doesn't matter as long as you do your best.
both . . . and neither . . . nor
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not only . . . but also whether . . . or
not . . . but as . . . as
either . . . or
18.5. WH-EVER phrases

We can use interrogative pronouns + EVER to form conjunctions like whatever, whichever,
whoever, whenever and wherever.
 Whatever means anything or everything; regardless of what or better yet, no matter what
Whatever you do, don’t forget to buy the drinks for dinner tonight
Ignore David, whatever he says. He's just a joker.
 Whenever means every time; at any time; when is not important:
Whenever I plan a barbeque it rains.

Peter interrupts me whenever I speak.
 Wherever means everywhere; in doesn't matter where; where is not important:
Wherever you go in the world you'll always find someone who speaks English.
We can go wherever you like tonight; it's your birthday.
 Whichever means the person or thing which; it doesn't matter which; which is not
important:
Choose whichever dress you like.

Wear whichever dress is most comfortable.
 Whoever means everyone; any person, it doesn't matter who:
You can invite whoever you like to the concert.
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Whoever prepared dinner made a mess in the kitchen.
18.6. Whatever & whichever

Whatever and whichever are confusing words (relative pronouns) and, they can be used in the
same way but with different meanings, so see the examples below:
‘There are three books on the table, which can I read?’’ ‘’you read whichever you want”.
Go to the library and whatever book you find in there!
In the first sentence, the speaker has got only three book and, he can read any he wants and
again, in the second example, somebody is ordered to any book from the library, so to sum up,
we whichever with a few option while, whatever is used with unlimited options.
19. Phrasal Verbs

Phrasal verbs are mainly used in spoken English and informal texts. (The more formal a
conversation or text, the less phrasal verbs are found.)
Phrasal verbs consist of a verb plus a particle (preposition, adverb). The particle can change the
meaning of the verb completely, e.g.:
 look up – consult a reference book (look a word up in a dictionary)
 look for – seek (look for her ring)
 look forward – anticipate with pleasure (look forward to meeting someone)
There are no rules that might explain how phrasal verbs are formed correctly - all you can do is
look them up in a good dictionary and study their meanings. In our lists, you will find some
frequently used phrasal verbs and their meanings.
19.1. Position of the particle

The particle is placed either after the verb or after the object.
72
Example:
Write down the word. / Write the word down.
If the object is a pronoun, however, the particle has to be placed after the pronoun (object).
Example:
Write it down
19.2. List of the most common phrasal verbs and their meaning
Phrasal verb Meaning Examples
Account for To explain. They had to account for all the money that had
gone missing.
Act out Perform something with They acted out the story on stage.
actions and gestures..
Aim at To target The magazine is aimed at teenagers.
Answer To reply rudely to someone Her mother was shocked when she started
in authority. answering her back and refusing to help.
Ask for Request to have or be given. I asked for the menu.
Ask in To invite somebody into 'Jon's at the door.' 'ask him in.'
your house.
Be after Try to find or get. The police are after him because of the theft.
Be away Be elsewhere; on holiday, She's away on business for three weeks.
etc..
Be in Be at home or at work. They are never in; I always get their answer
phone.
Be on Take place, happen The show is on for the next three
Be out Be absent from a place. She is out on a visit for the day.
Be out of Have no more left. We're out of coffee so I'll have to go and get
some.
Black out Lose light. Everything blacked out when the power supply
failed.
Block in Park a car and obstruct I couldn't drive here this morning because
another car someone had blocked me in.
Block off Obstruct an exit to prevent The police blocked off the road
people from leaving. after the murder.
Boil over When a hot liquid spills out I left the milk on the cooker and it boiled over.
73
of a container
Book in Make a reservation in I'll book us in at the Intercontinental.
advance.
Book in Check in at a hotel. WE took a taxi from the airport to the
hotel and booked in.
Break down Stop working. My car's broken down, so I came by taxi.
Bring back Return. He took the calculator home yesterday
and hasn't brought it back yet.
Bring Make something happen The meeting has been brought
forward earlier than originally forward to this Friday instead of next
planned. week because some people couldn't make
it then.
Brush up Improve a skill quickly. She took a two-week course to brush
up her Spanish before she went travelling
around South and Central America.
Burst into Laugh, cry or clap loudly. She burst into laughter when she heard the joke.
Call back Return a phone call. I must call her back when we get to the office.
Call on Visit. As we were in the area, we called on my sister-
in-law.
Carry on Continue Carry on quietly with your work until the
substitute teacher arrives.
Catch up Reach someone who was He started well, but I caught him up on the third
ahead of you. lap.
Come apart Break into pieces It came apart when I tried to lift it off
the floor and I had to glue it back together
Come back Return. I left work and came back home early.
Cool down Get cooler I left the tea for a minute until it had cooled
down enough to drink.
Cut back Reduce. The firm cut back production because sales
were sluggish.
Cut down Reduce a vertical thing to The logger cut the tree down.
ground level by cutting.
Do without Manage without something There's no sugar, so you'll have to do without.
Eat out Eat in a restaurant. We couldn't be bothered to cook so we ate out
last night.
End up with Get as a result of something He tried hard but ended up with a poor grade.
Fall apart Break into pieces. The box fell apart when I picked it up.
Fight back Defend yourself, resist an The army attacked the town and the inhabitants
74
attack. fought back fiercely.
Fill in Complete a form. I filled in the application form and posted it off.
Find out Discover. I went to the library to find out all I could about
the life and work of Joe Meek
Get away Escape. The robbers got away in a stolen car, which the
police later found abandoned.
Get back Return. The train was held up so we didn't get back
home until midnight.
Give back Return something you've I gave the money back that she'd lent to me.
borrowed.
Give up Stop doing something. I have given up trying to help them.
Give up Surrender, stop trying. I can't think of the answer; I give up
Go after Chase, try to get. The cat went after the pigeon, but it flew away.
Go ahead Proceed. The construction of the bypass went ahead
despite the protests from environmentalists.
Go back Return to, start doing We went back to work after the break.
something again
Go on Continue. He went on and on talking and I was
so bored.
Hear about Get to know some Have you heard about the company takeover?
information.
Knock down Hit and injure someone. The car knocked her down and she broke her
arm.
Let in Allow someone to enter. The door staff didn't let him in the night club
because he was wearing jeans.
Let out Allow to leave or go out. The convict was let out of prison after serving
five years of an eight-year sentence.
Lie down Rest. I'm going to lie down for a few minutes before
we have to go out.
Look out Be careful. look out; you're going to drop that!
Pass away Die. Sadly, Georgia's uncle passed away yesterday
after a short illness.
Pay back Repay money borrowed. I paid back the twenty pounds I'd borrowed.
Run out of Have none left. We've run out of sugar; I'm going to the shops
for some.
Shut down Turn a computer off. You should close all programs before you
Shut up Stop talking or making He told us to shut up and start working.
noise.
75
Sign up Subscribe. I signed up for their newsletter.
Take out Kill, murder. The gang took him out after he spoke to the
police.
Take away Remove. The police took the protestors away
Throw in Join, accompany. May I throw in with you? My companions left
me behind.
Time out End or close because of a The program timed out before I could reply.
time limit.
Try on Put clothes on to see if they I tried the jacket on before I bought it.
fit.
Walk on Continue walking. I saw the accident but just walked on as I didn't
want to have to give a statement.
19.1. Position of the particle

The particle is placed either after the verb or after the object.
Example:
Write down the word. / Write the word down.
If the object is a pronoun, however, the particle has to be placed after the pronoun (object).
Example:
Write it down.
20. List of Irregular Verbs

Infinitive Past Simple Past Participle Meaning (Portuguese)
abide abode abode aguentar/cumprir/habitar
arise arose arisen levantar-se
asleep aslept aslept adormecer
awake awoke awoken acordar
be was/were been ser / estar
bear bore born nascer
bear bore borne suportar/ aguentar
beat beat beaten bater
become became become tornar-se
beget begot begotten causar
begin began begun começar
bend bent bent curvar/dobrar
bet bet bet apostar
bid bid bid despedir-se
bind bound bound amarrar/encadernar
76
bite bit bitten morder
.bleed bled bled sangrar
bless blest blest abençoar/santificar
blow blew blown soprar
break broke broken partir/quebrar
breed bred bred procriar
bring brought brought trazer
broadcast broadcast broadcast transmitr/espalhar
build built built construir
burn burned/burnt burned/burnt queimar
burst burst burst explodir
buy bought bought comprar
catch caught caught apanhar
choose chose chosen escolher
clap clapt clapt aplaudir
come came come vir
cost cost cost custar
crow crew crewed cacarejar
cut cut cut cortar
deal dealt dealt negociar
dig dug dug cavar
dive dove dived mergulhar
do did done fazer
draw drew drawn desenhar
dream dreamt dreamt sonhar
drink drank drunk beber
drive drove driven conduzir
eat ate eaten comer
fall fell fallen cair
feed fed fed alimentar
feel felt felt sentir
fight fought fought lutar
find found found achar/encontar
fit fit fit caber/server
flee fled fled fugir/escaper
fling flung flung arremessar
fly flew flown voar
forbid forbade forbidden proibir
forecast forecast forecast prever
forget forgot forgotten esquecer
forgive forgave forgiven perdoar
forsake forsook forsaken abandoner
freeze froze frozen congelar
get got gotten obter/cheger/consguir….
give gave given dar
77
go went gone ir
grind ground ground triturar/moer
grow grew grown crescer
hang hung hung pendurar/enforcar
have had had ter
hear heard heard ouvir
hide hid hidden esconder
hit hit hit bater/pisar/atingir
hold held held segurar
hurt hurt hurt doer/magoar
keep kept kept quardar/conserver/manter
kneel knelt knelt ajoelhar
knit knit knit tricotar
know knew known conhecer/saber
lay laid laid pôr
lead led led liderar/comandar
learn learnt/learned learnt/learned aprender
leave left left partir/deixar
lend lent lent emprestar
let let let deixar
lie lay lain deiatr-se
light lit/lighted lit/lighted acender/ligar (lampâda)
lose lost lost perder
make made made fazer
mean meant meant significar/querer dizer
meet met met econtar-se
melt melt molten deterrter
mislay mislaid mislaid colocar em lugar errado
mislead misled misled desencaminhar/desviar
mistake mistook mistaken errar/confudir
pay paid paid pagar
prove proved proven provar
put put put pôr
quit quit quit abandoner/deixar
read read read ler
rid rid rid livrar-se
ride rode ridden guiar/ montar (cavalo)
ring rang ring tocar (campainha/telefone)
rise rose rison erguer
run ran run corer
saw sawed sawn serrar
say said said dizer
see saw seen ver
seek sought sought procurer
sell sold sold vender
78
set set set acertar/ajustar
sew sewed sewn costurar
shake shook shaken sacudir/agitar
shed shed shed derramar
shine shone shone brilhar
shoot shot shot atirar`
show showed shown mostrar
shut shut shut fechar
sing sang sung cantar
sink sank sunk afundar
sit sat sat sentar-se
slay slew slain matar
sleep slept slept dormer
slide slid slid escorregar
sling slung slung atar
sow sowed sown semear
speak spoke spoken falar
speed sped sped apressar-se
spell spelt spelt soletrar
spend spent spent gastar/passer
spit spat spat cuspir
speak spoke spoken falar
spread spread spread espalhar/ espalhar-se
stand stood stood ficar de pé/ aguentar
strike struck struck estrilhar, atacar, golpear
steal stole stolen roubar
sweep swept swept varrer
swim swam swum nadir
take took taken levar
teach taught taught ensinar
tear tore torn rasgar, despedaçar
tell told told dizer, contar (histórias)
think thought thought pensar
throw threw thrown aremessar, lançar, atirar
tread trod trodden trilhar, pisar
understand understood understood compreender, entender
wear ‘ wore worn vestir
weep wept wept chorar
win won won ganhar
write wrote written escrever
79
21. List of regular verbs and their meanings in Portuguese
present s. tense past s. tense past participle meaning

abandon abandoned abandoned abandonar
accept accepted accepted aceitar
act acted acted agir
ache ached ached doer
add added added adicionar,
acrescentar
admire admired admired adnirar-se
affect affected affected afectar
agree agreed agreed concordar
appreciate appreciated appreciated apreciar, gostar
apply applied applied aplicar, requerer
answer answered answered responder
ask asked asked perguntar
attach attached attached anexar
attack attacked attacked atacar
attend attended attend participar, assistir
(reunião)
attempt attempted attempted tentar
behave behaved behaved comportar – se
believe believed believed acreditar
belong belonged belonged pertencer
borrow borrowed borrowed pedir emprestado
brush brushed brushed escovar
call called called called
carry carried carried transportar, levar
check checked checked verificar
clean cleaned cleaned limpar
climb climbed climbed subir
close closed closed fechar
collect collected collected recolher
compare compared compared comparar
complain complained complained queixar-se,
reclamar
comprehend comprehended comprehended compreeender
commit committed committed cometer
confuse confused confused confundir
contribute contributed contributed contribuir
cook cooked cooked cozinhar
80
copy copied copied copiar
cough coughed coughed tossir
crash crashed crashed embater
cross crossed crossed atrvessar, riscar
cry cried cried chorar
delay delayed delayed demorar
deliver delivered delivered entregar
deny denied denied negar
design designed designed elaborar
die died died morrer
desire desired desired desejar
despise despised despised desprezar
distinguish distinguished distinguished distinguir
dress dressed dressed vestir-se
earn earned earned ganhar (salário,
pão)
embrace embraced embraced abraçar
end ended ended terminar, findar
enjoy enjoyed enjoyed gozar, divertir – se
enter entered entered entrar
escape escaped escaped escapar / fugir
explain explained explained explicar
express expressed expressed expressar-se
exposs expossed expossed expor
erase erased erased apagar
establish established established estabelecer
frighten frightened frightened assustar
fill filled filled encher, preencher/
abastecer
(automóveis)
finish finished finished acabar
follow followed followed seguir
found founded founded fundar
fulfill fulfilled fulfilled cumprir
greet greeted greeted cumprimentar
gossip gossiped gossiped fofocar
happen happened happened acontecer, suceder
help helped helped ajudar
hug hugged hugged abraçar
identify identified identified identificar
imagine imagined imagined imaginar
imitate imitated imitated imitar
imply implied implied implicar
increase increased increased acrescentar,
81
aumentar
infect infected infected infectar
insert inserted insert inserir
invest invested invested investir
invite invited invited convidar
join joined joined juntar
jump jumped jumped saltar
kick kicked kicked pontapear / chutar
kiss kissed kissed beijar
knock knocked knocked bater(porta), dar
carolo
laugh laughed laughed rir-se
lick licked licked lamber
lie lied lied mentir
lift lifted lifted levantar (algo)
like liked liked gostar
limp limped limped coxear
listen listened listened escutar, ouvir
locate located located localizar
look looked looked olhar, reparar
love loved loved amar, adorar
manage managed managed gerir, conseguir
marry married married casar-se
measure measured measured medir
memorize memorized memorized memorizar, decorar
miss missed missed perder, falhar,
sentir faltar
move moved moved mover, mexer,
avançar, andar
murder murdered murdered assassinar
notice noticed noticed notar
obey obeyed obeyed obedecer
oblige obliged obliged obrigar
offer offered offered oferecer
open opened opened abrir
organize organized organized organizar
owe owed owed dever
paint painted painted pintar
pass passed passed passar
pick picked picked apanhar/ colher/
recolher
plant planted planted plantar
play played played jogar / brincar
please pleased pleased agradar
82
practice practiced practiced praticar
predent predented predented fingir
predict predicted predicted prever
present presented presented apresentar
prevent prevented prevented prevenir
press pressed pressed pressionar
produce produced produced produzir
procriate procriated procriated procriar /
reproduzir
protect protected protected proteger
prove proved proved provar
publish published published publicar
punish punished punished castigar / castigo
rain rained rained chover
reach reached reached alcançar
recall recalled recalled recordar
recite recited recited recitar
reduce reduced reduced reduzir
refuse refused refused negar
reject rejected rejected rejeitar
remove removed removed tirar
repeat repeated repeated repetir
replace replaced replaced substituir
reply replied replied responder (carta,
sms)
report reported reported relatar
reproduce reproduced reproduced reproduzir
request requested requested pedir / solicitar
rent rented rented alugar
respected respected respected respeitar
respond responded responded responder
scare scared scared assustar
seem seemed seemed parecer
select selected selected seleccionar /
coleccionar
sign signed signed assinar
smash smashed smashed esmagar
sound sounded sounded soar
sow sowed sowed semear
spy spied spied espionar
sponsor sponsored sponsored patrocinar
start started started começar
stop stopped stopped parar
surprise surprised surprised surpreender
suppose supposed supposed supor
83
surrender surrendered surrendered render-se / dar-se
por vencido
talk talked talked falar / conversar
tie tied tied atar /amarrar
touch touched touched tocar
try tried tried tentar/provar/expre
mentar
update updated updated actualizar
undress undressed undressed despir-se
use used used usar
verify verified verified verificar
walk walked walked andar
want wanted wanted querer
wash washed washed lavar
watch watched watched ver/assistir
water watered watered regar
wish wished wished desejar
work worked worked trabalhar
84
References
85

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1. Simple Present (Present Simple).................................................................................................6

1.2. The use of present simple tense................................................................................................6

1.3. Third persons singular..............................................................................................................6

1.4. Negative and question forms....................................................................................................7

2. Present Continuous tense.............................................................................................................7

2.2. The use of present continuous tense.........................................................................................7

2.3. Negative and question forms....................................................................................................8

3. Past simple tense..........................................................................................................................9

3.1. Past simple formation...............................................................................................................9

3.2. Use of Past simple tense...........................................................................................................9

3.3. Negative and question forms..................................................................................................10

4. Past continuous tense.................................................................................................................10

4.2. Use of Past Continuous tense.................................................................................................11

4.3. Negative and question forms..................................................................................................11

5. Future Simple Tense..................................................................................................................11

5.1.1. Future with WILL/SHALL..................................................................................................12

5.2. The use of future simple tense................................................................................................12

5.3. WILL & GOING TO..............................................................................................................13

5.3.1. When to use GOING TO.....................................................................................................13

5.3.2. When to use WILL..............................................................................................................14

5.4. Negative and question forms..................................................................................................14

6. Future continuous tense.............................................................................................................15

6.2. The use of future continuous..................................................................................................15

7. Future Perfect tense...................................................................................................................16

7.1. The structure...........................................................................................................................16

7.2. The use of the future perfect tense..........................................................................................16

8. Present Perfect tense..................................................................................................................17

8.2. The uses of the present perfect tense......................................................................................18

8.3. Past simple & present perfect.................................................................................................19

9. Present perfect continuous.........................................................................................................19

9.1. The structure...........................................................................................................................20

9.2. The uses of the present perfect continuous tense....................................................................20

9.3. Already, for, ever since, still, yet............................................................................................20

10. Past perfect tense.....................................................................................................................23

10.2. The use of past perfect tense.................................................................................................24

11.1. Zero conditional....................................................................................................................24

11.3. Second conditional................................................................................................................26

11.4. Third conditional..................................................................................................................27

12. Passive voice............................................................................................................................28

12.1. The use of passive voice.......................................................................................................28

13.2. The structure of Passive........................................................................................................29

12.3. Examples of passive voice....................................................................................................29

12.4. Passive Sentences with Two Objects....................................................................................30

12.4. Personal and Impersonal Passive..........................................................................................31

13. Modal verbs.............................................................................................................................31

13.1. Usage of specific verb..........................................................................................................33

13.1.1. Can and could....................................................................................................................33

13.1.2. May and might...................................................................................................................33

13.1.3. Shall and should.................................................................................................................34

14.1. Preposition of time................................................................................................................36

14.2. Prepositions – Place (Position and Direction)......................................................................37

14.3. Other important Prepositions................................................................................................38

14.4. Preposition-dependent verbs.................................................................................................39

14.5. Preposition-dependent adjectives.........................................................................................40

15.2. Classification of nouns.........................................................................................................41

15.3. Concrete nouns and abstract nouns.......................................................................................42

15.4. Countable and uncountable nouns........................................................................................42

15.6.1. Some & Any......................................................................................................................46

16.6.2. Much / Many......................................................................................................................47

15.6.3. How Much / How Many....................................................................................................48

15.6.4. A Few / Few & A Little / Little.........................................................................................48