Lab # 01

Objevtive:
 To Perform fatigue test on a different specimen.

Introduction:
Stress:
 Stress is defined as “The restoring force per unit area of the material”. It is a tensor
quantity.
 Denoted by Greek letter σ. Measured using Pascal or N/m2. Mathematically
expressed as –
 
σ=F/A
 
Where,
 F is the restoring force measured in Newton or N.
 A is the area of cross-section measured in m2.
 σ is the stress measured using N/m2 or Pa.

Strain:
 It is defined as the amount of deformation experienced by the body in the direction
of force applied, divided by initial dimensions of the body.
 The relation for deformation in terms of length of a solid is given below.

ϵ=δl/L
where,
 ϵ is the strain due to stress applied.
δl is the change in length.
L is the original length of the material.
 The strain is a dimensionless quantity as it just defines the relative change in
shape.
Shear Stress:
 When the deforming force are such that there is change in the shape of body, then
the stress produce is called shearing stress.
 Shearing stress is also called tangential stress.

Types of Loading:
There are five fundamental types of loading: compression, tension, shear, torsion, and
bending.
Cyclic Loading:
 Cyclic loading is the application of repeated or fluctuating stresses, strains, or
stress intensities to locations on structural components.
 The degradation that may occur at the location is referred to as fatigue
degradation.

Fatigue:
 Fatigue is a form of failure that occurs in structures subjected to dynamic and
fluctuating stresses (e.g. bridges, aircrafts, machine components).
 This type of failure normally occurs after a lengthy period of repeated stress or
strain cycling.
 The process occurs by the initiation and propagation of cracks, and typically the
fracture surface is perpendicular to the direction of an applied tensile stress.

Factors Causing Fatigue Failure:

Following factors are mainly responsible for causing fatigue failure.

 A maximum tensile stress of sufficiently high value.

 A large number of variation or fluctuation in the applied stress.
 A sufficiently large number of cycles of applied stress.
 Additional Factors
 Stress concentration.
 Temperature.
 Corrosion.
 Overload.
 Residual stress.
Types of Fatigue Failure:
Fatigue failure can be divided into two types
 High cycle fatigue that require more than 104 cycles to failure where stress is low
and primarily elastic.
 Low cycle fatigue where there is significant plasticity. Experiments have shown
that low cycle fatigue is also crack growth.

S-N Curve:
 Materials fatigue performance is commonly characterized by an S-N curve, also
known as a Wohler curve.
 This is often plotted with the cyclic stress (S) against the cycles to failure (N) on a
logarithmic scale.

Apparatus:
 Tachometer

 Spring Load
Procedure:
 Adjust the spring balance so that the load application assembly is hung freely on
the spring balance.
 Lift the load application bearing and insert the specimen into the bearing, then
insert the large end into the specimen grip and tighten the grip with wrench.
 Apply the desired load by tightening the load adjusting screw.
 Set the revolution counter to read “0” by pressing the reset button.
 There are two coil springs around the columns to protect the spring balance when
specimen fails. Free the set screws above the coil springs on the columns.
 Reset the set screws on the columns such that the coil spring are not compressed.
 Turn on the motor by pressing green button.
 When specimen fails, record the number of revolution from the speed/counter
indicator.
 Test should begin at a high load such as 30kg in order to know the specimen
fatigue strength then gradually reduce the load.
Lab 02
Objective:
 To demonstrate and calculate creep in different materials at different stresses and
temperatures.
Introduction:
Creep:
 When materials under severe service conditions are required to sustain steady
loads for long periods of time, they undergo a time dependent deformation. This is
known as creep.
 It can also be defined as ‘ the slow and progressive deformation of a material with
time at constant stress.’
 Creep is found to occur at higher temperature than at lower temperature.
 Therefore the study of creep is very important for those materials which are used
at high temp like components of gas turbines, furnaces, rockets, missiles etc.

Creep Curve:
The creep curve is obtained by applying a constant tensile load below the yield point
to a specimen maintained at constant temperature.
As soon as the specimen is loaded, there will be an instantaneous strain which is
denoted by εo on the creep curve.
Further deformation of the metal only after the instantaneous strain is considered as
‘creep deformation’.

Stages if Creep Curve:

Creep deformation of materials up to failure are divided into 3 stages
 Primary creep
 Secondary creep
 Tertiary creep.

Primary Creep:
 This is the first stage of the creep which represents a region of decreasing creep
rate.
 It is also known as transient creep.
 In this region the rate at which the material deforms decreases with time until it
reaches a constant value.
Secondary Creep:
 Nearly constant creep rate, because strain-hardening and recovery effects balance
each other.
 It is also known as steady state creep.
 Creep in this region takes place by the viscous flow in the materials.
 It is characterized by the viscous flow of the material means that there is a constant
or a steady increase in deformation at constant stress.
 Viscous creep is stopped when there is considerable reduction in cross sectional
area and enters the tertiary stage .
 Viscous creep also known as ‘hot creep', since it is observed only at higher
temperature.

Tertiary Creep:
 This stage is period of increasing strain rate.
 The rate of deformation increases rapidly in this 3rd stage and fracture occurs at
the end of this stage.
 Tertiary creep occurs when there is an effective reduction in cross-sectional area
due to necking or internal void formation.

Effects of Low Temperature on Creep:

 Temperature below Tm/4 are called as LOWER TEMP.
 Lower temp have an effect of decreasing the creep rate.
 This is because strain hardening effects will be more and recovery process is
negligible.
 Creep occurring at lower temp is known as ‘logarithmic creep’.
 Low temperature logarithmic creep obeys a mechanical equation of state i.e the
rate of strain at a given time depends only on the instantaneous values of stress and
strain and not on the previous strain history.

Effects of High Temperature on Creep:

At Higher temp. the creep rate increases.
Structural changes takes place.
Material failure (Fracture):
When a material is subject to creep, after enough time, the material will fail (fracture).

Different materials will fracture after different amounts of deformation.

Creep Rate:
 Secondary creep is linear, so to find it you only need a measurement of the change
in dimension (strain) of the material over time, from a test at a constant
temperature and stress.
 The equation for this is

Apparatus:
Procedure:
 Create a blank table of time v/s extension.
 You will need a timer, with an accuracy of one second.
 Accurately measure and record the width and thickness of the specimen.
 Put the weight hanger in position and fit its support pin in its highest hole to hold
the arm up and ready for the test specimen.
 .Fit the specimen into place between the black support block and the arm, and fit
the pins.
 Put the transparent cover into place around the specimen. Make sure that the
thermometer is in its hole in the top of the cover and its tip is near to the specimen.
 Wait for at least five minutes for the temperature reading to stabilize, and then
record the temperature around the specimen.
 Fit a suitable weight to the Weight Hanger, to give a stress that gives the longest
test time that you can allow.
 Ask an assistant to prepare the timer.
 Carefully remove the Weight Hanger support pin from the highest hole in the
Weight Hanger.
 Switch on the digital indicator and press its button to set its display to zero.
 Lift the Weight Hanger and support it while you fit the support pin in the lowest
hole.
 Gently (and at the same time) - let go of the Weight Hanger and start your timer.
 Record the specimen extension every 30 seconds (0.5 minutes), until it fractures or
stops extending due to the limits of the machine.
 Repeat the test on new specimens at higher loads (stresses), so that you have a set
of at least two more stress results.

Lab 03
Objective:
 To show the linearity of the strain gauges in the open ends condition.
 To find the hoop stress and strain relationship (young's modulus) for the cylinder
material in open end connection.
 To find the longitudinal and hoop strain relationship (Poisson’s Ratio) for the
cylinder material in open end connection.

Introduction:
Pressure Vessels:
 The pressure vessels (i.e. cylinders or tanks) are used to store fluids under
pressure.
 The fluid being stored may undergo a change of state inside the pressure vessel as
in case of steam boilers or it may combine with other reagents as in a chemical
plant.

 The pressure vessels are designed with great care because rupture of a pressure
vessel means an explosion which may cause loss of life and property.
 The material of pressure vessels may be brittle such as cast iron, or ductile such as
mild steel.
 In many engineering applications, cylinders are frequently used for transporting or
storing of liquids, gases or fluids e.g. Pipes, Boilers, storage tanks etc.
 These cylinders are subjected to fluid pressures.

Stresses in Cylinders:
When a cylinder is subjected to a internal pressure, at any point on the cylinder wall,
three types of stresses are induced on three mutually perpendicular planes:
 Hoop or Circumferential Stress (σC)
 Longitudinal Stress (σL )
 Radial pressure ( pr )

Hoop or Circumferential Stress (σC):

 This is directed along the tangent to the circumference and tensile in nature.
 Thus, there will be increase in diameter.
Longitudinal Stress (σL ):
 This stress is directed along the length of the cylinder.
 This is also tensile in nature and tends to increase the length.

Radial pressure ( pr ):
 It is compressive in nature.
 Its magnitude is equal to fluid pressure on the inside wall and zero on the outer
wall if it is open to atmosphere.

Classification of Pressure Vessels:

The pressure vessels may be classified as follows:
 According to the dimensions.
 According to the end construction
According to the Dimensions:
The pressure vessels, according to their dimensions, may be classified as:
 Thin shell
 Thick shell

Thin Shell:
 If the wall thickness of the shell is less than 1/20 of the diameter of the shell (d),
then it is called a thin shell.
 Magnitude of radial pressure is very small compared to other two stresses in case
of thin cylinders and hence neglected.

Thick Shell:
 If the wall thickness of the shell is greater than 1/20 of the diameter of the shell,
then it is said to be a thick shell.
 Thin shells are used in boilers, tanks and pipes, whereas thick shells are used in
high pressure cylinders, tanks, gun barrels etc.

According to the end construction:

The pressure vessels, according to the end construction, may be classified as:
 Open end
 Closed end

Open End:
 A simple cylinder with a piston, such as cylinder of a press is an example of an
open end vessel.
 In case of vessels having open ends, the circumferential or hoop stresses are
induced by the fluid pressure.
Closed End:
 A tank is an example of a closed end vessel.
 In case of closed ends, longitudinal stresses in addition to circumferential stresses
are induced.

Strain Gauge:
 A Strain gauge (sometimes refered to as a Strain gage) is a sensor whose resistance
varies with applied force.
 It converts force, pressure, tension, weight, etc., into a change in electrical
resistance which can then be measured.
 When external forces are applied to a stationary object, stress and strain are the
result.

Young's modulus:
 Young's modulus, or the Young modulus, is a mechanical property that measures
the stiffness of a solid material.
 It defines the relationship between stress (force per unit area) and strain
(proportional deformation) in a material in the linear elasticity regime of a uniaxial
deformation.

Poisson's ratio:
 It is a measure of the Poisson effect, that describes the expansion or contraction of
a material in directions perpendicular to the direction of loading.
 The value of Poisson's ratio is the negative of the ratio of transverse strain to axial
strain.
 Most materials have Poisson's ratio values ranging between 0.0 and 0.5.
 Incompressible materials such as rubber, have a ratio near 0.5.

Apparatus:

Open End Connection:

 A Hand Wheel at the end of the frame sets the cylinder for the open and Closed
Ends experiments.
 When the user screws in the Hand Wheel, it clamps the free-moving pistons in the
cylinder.
 The frame then takes the axial (longitudinal) stress and not the cylinder wall, as if
the cylinder has no ends.
 This allows ‘Open Ends’ experiments.

Procedure:
 Create a blank table of results, similar to table shown.
 Switch ON the power to the thin cylinder and leave it for five minutes before you
 do the experiment. This allows the strain gauges to reach a stable temperature and
give you accurate readings.
 Look at the positions of the strain gauges.
 Open (turn anticlockwise) the pressure control and screw in the hand wheel to set
up the open ends condition.
 From VDAS interface select the 'open ends' experiment condition.
 Shut (turn clockwise) the pressure control and use the 'press & hold to zero' button
to zero the strain gauge display reading. All the strain gauge reading should now
read 0 µ (+/-5 µ), and the pressure meter should read 0 MN.m⁻².
 The strain gauge reading may vary slightly (+/-2 µ) as you take readings. This is
normal.
 Enter your first set of reading (at zero pressure) into your blank result table.
 Pump the hand pump until the pressure is approximately 0.5 MN.m⁻². Wait a few
seconds for the reading to stabilize and record the reading into the result table.

 Carefully increase the pressure in 0.5 MN.m⁻² increment up to 3 MN.m⁻². At each

increment, wait for a while for the reading to stabilize and record the reading into
your result table.
 Warning: do not exceed a cylinder pressure of 3.5 MN.m⁻²
 Open (turn anticlockwise) the pressure control to reduce the indicated pressure
back to 0MN.m⁻².

Lab 04
Objective:
 To show the linearity of the strain gauges in the closed end condition.
 To find the hoop stress and strain relationship (young's modulus) for the cylinder
material in closed end connection.

Introduction:
Pressure Vessels:
 The pressure vessels (i.e. cylinders or tanks) are used to store fluids under
pressure.
 The fluid being stored may undergo a change of state inside the pressure vessel as
in case of steam boilers or it may combine with other reagents as in a chemical
plant.

 The pressure vessels are designed with great care because rupture of a pressure
vessel means an explosion which may cause loss of life and property.
 The material of pressure vessels may be brittle such as cast iron, or ductile such as
mild steel.
 In many engineering applications, cylinders are frequently used for transporting or
storing of liquids, gases or fluids e.g. Pipes, Boilers, storage tanks etc.
 These cylinders are subjected to fluid pressures.

Stresses in Cylinders:
When a cylinder is subjected to a internal pressure, at any point on the cylinder wall,
three types of stresses are induced on three mutually perpendicular planes:
 Hoop or Circumferential Stress (σC)
 Longitudinal Stress (σL )
 Radial pressure ( pr )

Hoop or Circumferential Stress (σC):

 This is directed along the tangent to the circumference and tensile in nature.
 Thus, there will be increase in diameter.
Longitudinal Stress (σL ):
 This stress is directed along the length of the cylinder.
 This is also tensile in nature and tends to increase the length.

Radial pressure ( pr ):
 It is compressive in nature.
 Its magnitude is equal to fluid pressure on the inside wall and zero on the outer
wall if it is open to atmosphere.
Classification of Pressure Vessels:
The pressure vessels may be classified as follows:
 According to the dimensions.
 According to the end construction

According to the Dimensions:

The pressure vessels, according to their dimensions, may be classified as:
 Thin shell
 Thick shell

Thin Shell:
 If the wall thickness of the shell is less than 1/20 of the diameter of the shell (d),
then it is called a thin shell.
 Magnitude of radial pressure is very small compared to other two stresses in case
of thin cylinders and hence neglected.

Thick Shell:
 If the wall thickness of the shell is greater than 1/20 of the diameter of the shell,
then it is said to be a thick shell.
 Thin shells are used in boilers, tanks and pipes, whereas thick shells are used in
high pressure cylinders, tanks, gun barrels etc.

According to the end construction:

The pressure vessels, according to the end construction, may be classified as:
 Open end
 Closed end
Open End:
 A simple cylinder with a piston, such as cylinder of a press is an example of an
open end vessel.
 In case of vessels having open ends, the circumferential or hoop stresses are
induced by the fluid pressure.

Closed End:
 A tank is an example of a closed end vessel.
 In case of closed ends, longitudinal stresses in addition to circumferential stresses
are induced.

Strain Gauge:
 A Strain gauge (sometimes refered to as a Strain gage) is a sensor whose resistance
varies with applied force.
 It converts force, pressure, tension, weight, etc., into a change in electrical
resistance which can then be measured.
 When external forces are applied to a stationary object, stress and strain are the
result.

Young's modulus:
 Young's modulus, or the Young modulus, is a mechanical property that measures
the stiffness of a solid material.
 It defines the relationship between stress (force per unit area) and strain
(proportional deformation) in a material in the linear elasticity regime of a uniaxial
deformation.
Poisson's ratio:
 It is a measure of the Poisson effect, that describes the expansion or contraction of
a material in directions perpendicular to the direction of loading.
 The value of Poisson's ratio is the negative of the ratio of transverse strain to axial
strain.
 Most materials have Poisson's ratio values ranging between 0.0 and 0.5.
 Incompressible materials such as rubber, have a ratio near 0.5.

Apparatus:

Open End Connection:

 A Hand Wheel at the end of the frame sets the cylinder for the open and Closed
Ends experiments.
 When the user unscrews the Hand Wheel, the pistons push against caps at the end
of the cylinder and become ‘Closed Ends’ of the cylinder.

Procedure:
 Create a blank table of results, similar to table shown.
 Switch ON the power to the thin cylinder and leave it for five minutes before you
do the experiment. This allows the strain gauges to reach a stable temperature and
give you accurate readings.
 Look at the positions of the strain gauges.
 Open (turn anticlockwise) the pressure control and screw in the hand wheel to set
up the open ends condition.
 From VDAS interface select the ‘Closed ends' experiment condition.
 Shut (turn clockwise) the pressure control and use the 'press & hold to zero' button
to zero the strain gauge display reading. All the strain gauge reading should now
read 0 µ (+/-5 µ), and the pressure meter should read 0 MN.m⁻².
 The strain gauge reading may vary slightly (+/-2 µ) as you take readings. This is
normal.
 Enter your first set of reading (at zero pressure) into your blank result table.
 Pump the hand pump until the pressure is approximately 0.5 MN.m⁻². Wait a few
seconds for the reading to stabilize and record the reading into the result table.
 Carefully increase the pressure in 0.5 MN.m⁻² increment up to 3 MN.m⁻². At each
increment, wait for a while for the reading to stabilize and record the reading into
your result table.
 Warning: do not exceed a cylinder pressure of 3.5 MN.m⁻²
 Open (turn anticlockwise) the pressure control to reduce the indicated pressure
back to 0MN.m⁻².
Lab 05
Objective:
 To measure hoop and radial stress in thick wall cylinder and compare it with
theoretical values
Introduction:
Pressure Vessels:
 The pressure vessels (i.e. cylinders or tanks) are used to store fluids under
pressure.
 The fluid being stored may undergo a change of state inside the pressure vessel as
in case of steam boilers or it may combine with other reagents as in a chemical
plant.

 The pressure vessels are designed with great care because rupture of a pressure
vessel means an explosion which may cause loss of life and property.
 The material of pressure vessels may be brittle such as cast iron, or ductile such as
mild steel.
 In many engineering applications, cylinders are frequently used for transporting or
storing of liquids, gases or fluids e.g. Pipes, Boilers, storage tanks etc.

Stresses in Cylinders:
When a cylinder is subjected to a internal pressure, at any point on the cylinder wall,
three types of stresses are induced on three mutually perpendicular planes:
 Hoop or Circumferential Stress (σC)
 Longitudinal Stress (σL )
 Radial pressure ( pr )

Hoop or Circumferential Stress (σC):

 This is directed along the tangent to the circumference and tensile in nature.
 Thus, there will be increase in diameter.
Longitudinal Stress (σL ):
 This stress is directed along the length of the cylinder.
 This is also tensile in nature and tends to increase the length.

Radial pressure ( pr ):
 It is compressive in nature.
 Its magnitude is equal to fluid pressure on the inside wall and zero on the outer
wall if it is open to atmosphere.
Classification of Pressure Vessels:
The pressure vessels may be classified as follows:
 According to the dimensions.
 According to the end construction

According to the Dimensions:

The pressure vessels, according to their dimensions, may be classified as:

 Thin shell
 Thick shell

Thin Shell:
 If the wall thickness of the shell is less than 1/20 of the diameter of the shell (d),
then it is called a thin shell.
 Magnitude of radial pressure is very small compared to other two stresses in case
of thin cylinders and hence neglected.

Thick Shell:
 If the wall thickness of the shell is greater than 1/20 of the diameter of the shell,
then it is said to be a thick shell.
 Thin shells are used in boilers, tanks and pipes, whereas thick shells are used in
high pressure cylinders, tanks, gun barrels etc.
According to the end construction:
The pressure vessels, according to the end construction, may be classified as:

 Open end
 Closed end

Open End:
 A simple cylinder with a piston, such as cylinder of a press is an example of an
open end vessel.
 In case of vessels having open ends, the circumferential or hoop stresses are
induced by the fluid pressure.

Closed End:
 A tank is an example of a closed end vessel.
 In case of closed ends, longitudinal stresses in addition to circumferential stresses
are induced.

Strain Gauge:
 A Strain gauge (sometimes refered to as a Strain gage) is a sensor whose resistance
varies with applied force.
 It converts force, pressure, tension, weight, etc., into a change in electrical
resistance which can then be measured.
 When external forces are applied to a stationary object, stress and strain are the
result.

Apparatus:
 Control Panel

 Positions of Strain Gauges

 Pressure Gauge
 Hydraulic Pump

 Software Interface

Procedure:
 Place the unit on top of a platform of an appropriate size.
 Make sure the unit is depressurized.
 Connect the unit to 220V AC Power Supply.
 Turn the main power on and LCD. Select the mode of experiment via LCD control
or Software Control.
 With the depressurized cylinder, press the tare button to zero all the values already
being displayed.
 Close the pressure relief screw present on the pump.
 Start applying the pressure with help of the mechanical lever arm.
 Note: Maximum allowable pressure is 150 bar. Do not exceed this limit.
 Note down strain values at 50, 80, 110, 130 & 150 bar.