UNIT III – SEQUENCES AND INFINITE SERIES

OVERVIEW

After mastering the processes of differentiation and integration, we will use this knowledge
for us to explore the concepts of infinite sequences and series. That is, we will focus on
determining whether a given infinite series converge to a sum, or will it diverge. For us to do
this, certain convergence tests will be introduced and applied depending on the form of the
given infinite series.

At the last part of this unit, focus on what we call as power series will be considered, wherein
the concepts of this will give us an idea on how to evaluate definite integrals that are not
possible to evaluate using just our knowledge of integration thus far.

LEARNING OUTCOMES: At the end of this unit, the students are expected to:

1. Determine the convergence of an infinite sequence by evaluating its limit.

2. Apply the concept of boundedness of an infinite sequence to determine its convergence
or divergence
3. Differentiate infinite series from an infinite sequence
4. Familiarize certain series that are known to be convergent or divergent
5. Apply the properties of infinite series to determine if the series converge or diverge
6. Use the series that are known to be convergent or divergent in the application of the
comparison and limit comparison tests
7. Determine the convergence or divergence of series by applying the integral test
8. Apply the alternating series test, ratio test and root test to describe the convergence or
divergence of alternating series.
9. Distinguish the particular test for convergence or divergence that can be used given a
random infinite series.
10. Determine certain values of variables for the given power series to be convergent

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SEMA 30143 (CALCULUS 3) | Prepared by: Prof Randy Cham T. Alignay (PUPSRC) 1
3.1. INFINITE SEQUENCES

In our study of mathematics, we have been encountering sequences of numbers. Even in our
early grade, we familiarized ourselves in skip counting, either by two’s, by three’s, by four’s and
so on. In this process, we are reciting a sequence of numbers. For instance, in skip counting by
four’s, we have these first five elements:

4, 8, 12, 16, 20

Note that to enumerate the elements of a sequence, we separate each distinct element with a
comma. Since we just mentioned here the first five elements of the sequence, we describe this
as a finite sequence. But actually, if we skip count by four’s, the elements of the resulting
sequence are infinite in number. If we consider each and every element of this sequence, then
we call this as an infinite sequence, with elements described by

4, 8, 12, 16, 20, …

where the ellipsis after the fifth element (three dots) indicate that there is a definite pattern in
predicting the next elements for the infinite sequence. By rule, we must mention a minimum of
three elements before placing an ellipsis to the involved infinite sequence, to allow the reader to
deduce the pattern involved in the said sequence. In this entire unit, we will be concerned with
the analysis of infinite sequences, so the term “sequence” will always mean an infinite
sequence.

To represent in a single expression the elements of an infinite sequence, we define what we

call as a sequence function as follows:

Definition: Sequence Function

A sequence function, denoted by an, is a function whose domain is the set

of all positive integers.

From the definition, note that the domain of all sequence functions are the same, which is
composed of the set of all positive integers. Applying this therefore, the sequence that we
obtained by skip counting by four’s can be described by the sequence function an  4n .
Substituting each of the possible values of n which is the domain of any sequence function
given by  1, 2, 3, ..., n, ...  to an  4n , we will obtain the elements 4, 8, 12, …, 4n, … The format
of the sequence written is called its sequence form. The following example will describe further
this definition.

SEMA 30143 (CALCULUS 3) | Prepared by: Prof Randy Cham T. Alignay (PUPSRC) 2
Example 1: Enumerate the first four elements of the following sequence functions and write
1 n
their corresponding sequence form: (a) a n  ; (b) an  .
n 2n  1

In general, to enumerate the elements of a sequence function, we substitute the first four
elements of the domain of any sequence function, which are 1, 2, 3 and 4. Doing this for
the two functions:

1 1 1 1
a. a1   1 ; a2  ; a3  ; a4 
1 2 3 4

Sequence Form: 1, 1
2
, 1
3
, 1
4
, …, 1
n
,…

1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
b. a1   ; a2   ; a3   ; a4  
21  1 3 22  1 5 23  1 7 24  1 9

Sequence Form: 1
3
, 2
5
, 3
7
, 4
9
, …, n
2 n 1 ,…

By definition, an infinite sequence has infinite elements, so we cannot define a last element.
But there are infinite sequences that seem to have a last element. For instance, in our previous
1
example involving a n  , as the value that we substitute along the domain increases, the next
n
elements seem to approach a certain value. To illustrate, its first 10 elements are given by 1, 21 ,
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
3
, 4
, 5
, 6
, 7
, 8
, 9
. Note that the denominator increases, so the fraction becomes smaller and
smaller as we enumerate its next elements. That is, as the value of n approaches a very large
value, it seems that the nth element approaches a very very small fraction, which is close to
zero. This description is similar to the concept of the limit, wherein we can incorporate its
concept to define what we call as the limit of a sequence, having this statement:

Definition: Limit of a Sequence

The limit of a sequence, whose domain increases without bound is equal to L,

written as

if it exists.

Note that this definition will allow us to determine if the involved sequence seems to come up
with a last element, as n becomes very large. If it is the case that the sequence seems to come
up with a last element, the sequence is described to be convergent. Therefore, the sequence is

SEMA 30143 (CALCULUS 3) | Prepared by: Prof Randy Cham T. Alignay (PUPSRC) 3
convergent if its limit exists. If the limit of the sequence is either infinity or does not exist, the
sequence is divergent.

n
Example 2: Determine if the following sequences are convergent or divergent: (a) an  ;
2n  1
4n 2 
(b) an  ; (c) an  n sin .
2n  1
2
n
1 2
a. The first four elements of this sequence from the previous example is given by 3
, 5
,
3 4 th
7
and 9
. Note that as we enumerate the next elements, wherein the 5 element is
5
11
and the 6th element to be 6
13
, the elements seem to approach a certain value. That
1
is, as the value of n increases, the involved element approach the number 2
.
Verifying this by evaluating the limit of the involved sequence:

n
 lim an  lim (divide both numerator and denominator by n)
n   n  2n  1

n
n 1
 lim  lim (distribute the limits)
n   2n 1 n   1
 2
n n n

lim 1 1
 n  

1 20
lim 2  lim
n   n   n

n 1
 lim 
n   2n  1 2

Note that our answer for the limit matches with our analysis earlier. Since the limit of
the involved sequence exists, therefore the sequence is convergent.

b. To check if this sequence converge or diverge, we can immediately compute its limit.
Doing this:

4n 2
 lim an  lim (divide both numerator and denominator by n2)
n   n   2n 2  1

4n 2
4 lim 4 4
 lim n2  lim  n  

n   2n 2
1 n   1 1 20
 2 2 lim 2  lim
n 2
n n2 n   n   n2

SEMA 30143 (CALCULUS 3) | Prepared by: Prof Randy Cham T. Alignay (PUPSRC) 4
 4n 2
 lim 2
n   2n 2  1

4n 2
The elements of the sequence an  from our answer for its limit seem to
2n 2  1
approach or becoming closer and closer to 2. To verify, note that upon substitution of
increasing positive numbers to the value of n starting from n = 1, we obtain 34 , 169 , 19
36

64 100
, 33
, 51
,… wherein as we proceed with higher values of n, it seems that the
sequence must end with 2. Therefore, since the limit of the involved sequence exists,
then the sequence is convergent.


c. For the sequence an  n sin , note that evaluating its limit directly results to an
n
indeterminate form    0 . Therefore we must devise a way here to apply L’Hôpital’s
0
Rule (LHR) by rewriting the sequence for it to result to indeterminate forms or
0

sin
  n . Evaluating the limit of this
. To consider this, we write n sin as
 n 1
n
redefined sequence:

  
 sin 
  0
 lim a n  lim  n sin   lim  n
n     0
n   n  
 n  1
 
 n 

Applying LHR:

       
 sin    cos Dn   
     lim   n   n 
 lim  n sin   lim  n
n     n   
n  
 n  1
 2
1
   
 n   n 

   1 
  cos    2 
 lim  
n  n    lim  cos  (Evaluate the limits)
n    1  n  n
  2 
 n 

 
 
 lim  cos lim    cos 0   1
n  
 n   n


SEMA 30143 (CALCULUS 3) | Prepared by: Prof Randy Cham T. Alignay (PUPSRC) 5
  
 lim  n sin   
n  
 n

Since the limit of the involved sequence exists, therefore the sequence is
convergent.

 n n 
Example 3: Determine if the sequence an   sin  is convergent or divergent.
 n 1 2 

Note that the involved sequence is composed of a product of two expressions, namely
n n
and sin . Thus, we can also interpret the given sequence as a product of two
n 1 2
individual sequences. Therefore to determine if the sequence is convergent or divergent,
we can distribute the limit expression and evaluate the limits separately. Doing this:

 n n   n  n 
 lim an  lim  sin    nlim  nlim sin 
n  n  1 n  1
n  
 2       2 

 n   
   
 
   
  lim n  sin lim n  lim    lim
 n  n 1   n   n  2   n 
1  sin    
1  2 
    1  
 n n  n

 
 lim 1 
 n   sin    1 sin  
 1 1 0
 nlim 1  lim 
   n   n

 n n 
 lim 
n   n  1
sin   sin  
 2 

From the limit computed, we obtained sin  . Recall that the range (possible values of
y if y  sin x ) of the sine function is given by the interval [1, -1]. From this, the value of
sin  is uncertain along the interval [1, -1] since we are not sure on exactly how large
is   . Therefore the limit does not exist and the given sequence is divergent.

As an added note, unlike the previous example wherein we devised a way to apply
L’Hôpital’s Rule to evaluate the limit, application of this is not possible for the sequence
 n n 
an   sin  because no such manipulation will be possible for it to reduce to
 n 1 2 
0 
indeterminate forms or .
0 

SEMA 30143 (CALCULUS 3) | Prepared by: Prof Randy Cham T. Alignay (PUPSRC) 6
 By description, sequences (whether convergent or divergent) can be classified into three
types, having their corresponding definitions:

Definition: A sequence is

(i) increasing if for all n.

(ii) decreasing if for all n.

A sequence is monotonic if it is either increasing or decreasing.

This stated definition just means that if the values of the consecutive elements of a sequence
are increasing (or with consecutive elements equal), then the entire sequence is increasing. And
if the values of the consecutive elements of a sequence are decreasing (or with consecutive
elements equal), then the entire sequence is decreasing. If the sequence is either increasing or
decreasing, it is monotonic. But if it has randomly increasing and decreasing elements,
then it is not monotonic. By definition, given that the inequalities in the definition are strict, say
if an  an 1 , the sequence is strictly increasing, and if an  an 1 , the sequence is strictly
decreasing.

Example 4: Determine if the following sequences are increasing, decreasing or not monotonic:

(a) an 
n 1
; (b) an  ; (c) an 
 1 n 1

2n  1 n n

In general, for us to suspect if the sequence is increasing, decreasing or not monotonic

(neither increasing nor decreasing), we first write each of them in terms of their
sequence form. Then we prove that all consecutive elements in general are indeed
increasing or decreasing by following the mentioned procedure for each sequence.

n
a. The sequence form of an  is given by:
2n  1

1 2 3 4 n
, , , , …, ,…
3 5 7 9 2n  1

From the trend of the first four elements, it seems that the sequence is increasing, so
our next step is to prove that for all consecutive elements of a n in general, an  an 1 .
n
Note that an  , so we must find an expression for a n 1 , by replacing “n” by “n
2n  1
+ 1” in a n . Doing this:

n 1 n 1
 an 1  
2n  1  1 2n  3
SEMA 30143 (CALCULUS 3) | Prepared by: Prof Randy Cham T. Alignay (PUPSRC) 7
To prove that an  an 1 , we substitute our expressions for a n and an 1 . Doing this:

an  an 1

n n 1

2n  1 2n  3

Since we have an assurance that 2n  1 and 2n  3 will always be positive since n

consists of positive integers, then we can safely multiply both sides of the inequality
by 2n  12n  3 without the worry that the inequality symbol will reverse. Executing
this:

 n n 1 
 2n  1  2n  3  2n  12n  3
 

n2n  3  n  12n  1

2n 2  3n  2n 2  3n  1

Observing the expression that we obtained thus far, it shows that the right side is
greater than the left side by an amount of 1, and from this fact, the involved
inequality is satisfied. Therefore, this inequality is true in general for all values of a n
and an 1 and the sequence is increasing.

Alternative Proof: We can also show that the sequence is increasing by applying
the definition of increasing and decreasing functions involving the first derivative
which is tackled in Calculus 2. Recall that if f ' x   0 for a certain interval of values
of x, then f x  is increasing while if f ' x   0 for a certain interval of values of x, then
n
f x  is decreasing. Again, we suspect that an  is increasing. Setting
2n  1
an  f n  and finding the 1st derivative of the function with respect to n, we have:

f n  
n
 (differentiate applying quotient rule)
2n  1

f ' n  
2n  11  n 2  2n  1  2n
2n  1 2
2n  1 2

f ' n  
1
2n  1 2

Recalling that the possible values of n are just positive integers, note that if every
number n is substituted to f ' n  , the result will always be a positive number, that is

SEMA 30143 (CALCULUS 3) | Prepared by: Prof Randy Cham T. Alignay (PUPSRC) 8
 f ' n   0 . Therefore from the definition of increasing functions, the sequence is
increasing.

1
b. Writing first the sequence form of an  :
n

1 1 1 1
1, , , , …, , …
2 3 4 n

From the first four terms, it seems that the sequence is decreasing, so we next prove
that for all the consecutive elements of the sequence, an  an 1 . The expression for
1
a n 1 is . Substituting this and a n to the condition an  an 1 and manipulating,
n 1
we have:

an  an 1

1 1 
 n  n  1 nn  1
 

n 1 n

The left side is greater that the right side by 1, so the inequality is satisfied. Therefore
indeed, the sequence is decreasing.

Applying the alternative solution, we differentiate f n  

1
. Doing this:
n

f n   f ' n   
1 1
 ;
n n2

For every value of n to be a positive integer, the corresponding value of f ' n  is

always negative, so f ' n   0 . Therefore for all values of n, the function is decreasing
from the definition of decreasing function. Thus, the sequence is decreasing.

c. For the sequence an 

 1 n 1

, note that it is almost the same as an 

1
, wherein
n n
the expression  1
n 1
just means that the signs of the consecutive elements are
alternating. For instance, if n  1,  1  1 ; if n  2 ,  1
11 2 1
 1 and if n  3 ,
 13 1
 1 so the expression  1
n 1
just serves for us to determine the sign of the
terms. Writing the involved sequence in sequence form:

1, 
1 1 1
, ,  , …,
 1 n 1

,…
2 3 4 n

SEMA 30143 (CALCULUS 3) | Prepared by: Prof Randy Cham T. Alignay (PUPSRC) 9
 1
Note that from the first three terms, the second element which is  is less than the
2
1
1st element which is 1 ( a1  a2 ) and the third element is greater than the 2nd
3
1
element  ( a2  a3 ), so it seems that the sequence is neither increasing nor
2
decreasing. Therefore we can immediately conclude here that the sequence is not
monotonic.

In general, to prove that the sequence is not monotonic, we just mention consecutive
elements that show trend wherein they neither increase nor decrease. But to prove
that the sequence increase or decrease, we must show a more general proof, just
like what is done in this example.

Recall that the convergence of a sequence is previously defined if the sequence has a limit
that exists but not equal to   . But sometimes given a particular sequence, its limit is difficult
or impossible to obtain using the usual limit theorems. Therefore the need arises for us to
establish an another possible way to determine the convergence of a given sequence, without
computing for its limit. For us to describe this particular method, we define next the upper and
lower bound of a sequence.

Definition: Upper and Lower Bounds of a Sequence

The number C is a lower bound of the sequence if for all positive

integers n, and the number D is an upper bound of the sequence if for
all positive integers n.

From the definition, the lower bound of a sequence therefore is a number that is equal to or
n
less than its lowest possible element. For instance, for the sequence an  , recall that its
2n  1
sequence form is given by 31 , 52 , 37 , 94 , …, 2nn1 , … Its lowest-valued element is 31 so we
1
consider it as a lower bound of the involved sequence. Any number less than 3
can be
considered as a lower bound of this sequence, say 0. Zero therefore is an another lower bound
of the sequence.

In the other hand, the upper bound of a sequence is a number that is equal to or greater than
n
its highest possible element. Given the same sequence an  , recall that its limit is 21 ,
2n  1
wherein considering the elements of the sequence, this answer seems to be the last element
where this limit is greater than every element of a n . Therefore, 21 is considered as an upper

SEMA 30143 (CALCULUS 3) | Prepared by: Prof Randy Cham T. Alignay (PUPSRC) 10
 1
bound of the sequence. Based on the definition, any number that is greater than 2
is an upper
bound of the sequence. For instance, 1 is also its upper bound.

n
Note that the sequence an  has both upper and lower bounds. In general, if the
2n  1
sequence has both an upper bound and a lower bound, then that sequence is defined to be
bounded. Now, given the definition of a bounded sequence, we can now state a particular rule
on how to determine the convergence of a given sequence. This rule is described as a theorem
where the proof of this is beyond the scope of our topic.

Theorem 3.1.1: A bounded monotonic sequence is convergent.

This theorem states the guarantee of convergence of a sequence can be established if these
two conditions are satisfied: (a) the sequence must have a defined upper and lower bound
(bounded); (b) the sequence is either increasing or decreasing (monotonic). Usually, we can
specify an upper and lower limit of the sequence by observation of the trend of the consecutive
elements of the sequence. So it is recommended to write the sequence to its sequence form for
analysis.

The sequence form can also help to deduce if the sequence is suspected to be increasing or
decreasing. Upon observation of the terms and the suspicion that the sequence is increasing or
decreasing, we prove our suspicion in general by either applying their corresponding inequality
conditions or using the first derivative definition of increasing and decreasing functions, just like
what is done on our previous examples.

Note that this theorem states the guarantee that the sequence will converge without stating
the value of its limit and on how would it be obtained. That is, this theorem just states the criteria
for the sequence to converge, without computing the limiting value. For that reason, we can
classify this theorem as a type of an existence theorem, wherein the concept of convergence
can exist even without knowing the actual value of the limiting last element. As an idea, there
are many ideas in mathematics that are based on the concepts of existence theorems.

Let us apply this theorem in the following examples of sequences.

2n
Example 5: Prove that the sequence an  is convergent.
1 2n

For us to prove the convergence of a sequence, we can apply two different methods.
That is either (a) computing for lim an wherein the answer must be a real number, or (b)
n  

using theorem 3.1.1. Note that we will be having difficulties in evaluating its limit, so we
try to apply theorem 3.1.1. Writing the involved sequence to its sequence form, we have:

SEMA 30143 (CALCULUS 3) | Prepared by: Prof Randy Cham T. Alignay (PUPSRC) 11
 2 4 8 16 2n
, , , , …, ,…
3 5 9 17 1  2n

From the trend of the elements, note that the value of the denominator will always be
greater than the denominator, because the given function states that the denominator is
always 1 greater than the numerator. From this, 1 is an upper bound of this sequence.
2
Then, or the first element is a lower bound, since from the trend of the sequence, this
3
serves as the lowest possible element. Therefore, the involved sequence is bounded.

Next, we prove that the sequence is monotonic. From the trend of the first four elements,
it seems that the first elements are increasing. So for all elements, we must prove that
an  an 1 . Thus:

an  an 1

2n 2 n 1

1  2 n 1  2 n 1

2 n (1  2 n 1 )  2 n 1 (1  2 n )

2n  22n 1  2n 1  22n 1

2 n  2 n 1

The resulting inequality shows that the right side having an exponent of n + 1 is greater
than 2 having an exponent of just n, which is true in general. Therefore, the sequence is
monotonic. Since the sequence is both bounded and monotonic, the sequence is
convergent.

2n
Example 6: Prove that the sequence an  is convergent.
n!

Valuating the limit of the given sequence will not be possible because of the expression
n!, so we apply Theorem 3.1.1 to prove its convergence. We must therefore prove that
the sequence is bounded and monotonic. Writing first the involved sequence to its
sequence form, we have:

21 2 2 2 3 2 4 2n
, , , , …, ,…
1! 2! 3! 4! n!

4 2 2n
2, 2, , , …, ,…
3 3 n!

SEMA 30143 (CALCULUS 3) | Prepared by: Prof Randy Cham T. Alignay (PUPSRC) 12
 Recall here that 2!  2  1  2 , 3!  3  2  1  6 and 4!  4  3  2  1 . Observing the elements,
it seems that the sequence is decreasing. Proving this in general, the sequence must
satisfy the condition an  an 1 . Thus:

an  an 1

2n 2 n 1

n! n  1 !

2 n n  1 !  2 n 1 n!

Recall: n  1 !  n  1n n  1n  2... But: n n  1n  2...  n! (definition of n!)

Therefore: n  1 !  n  1n!

Going back: 2 n n  1 !  2 n 1 n!

2 n n  1 n!  2 n 1 n! ( 2 n 1  2 n  2 )

2 n  1 n!  2
n n
 2 1n!
 2  n! n

n 1  2

Since the minimum value of n given any sequence is 1, and it consist of all positive
integers, then the obtained inequality is true for all values of n. Therefore, the sequence
is decreasing. Since it is decreasing and given the trend of the first elements, 0 can be
considered as its lower bound since the elements are always positive. One of its upper
bound is its first element, which is 2. Since we mentioned an upper and lower bound,
then the sequence is bounded. It is a bounded monotonic sequence, therefore it is
convergent.

EXERCISE 3.1:

A. Write the first four elements of the following sequences and determine if it is convergent or
divergent. If the sequence converges, determine its limit.

n 1 3  2n 2
a. an  (Ans: convergent, 1
) d. an 
2n  1 n2  1
2

n 1
b. an  (Ans: convergent, 0) e. an 
2n n2  1  n

3n 3  1 ln n
c. an  (Ans: divergent) f. an 
2n 2  n n2

SEMA 30143 (CALCULUS 3) | Prepared by: Prof Randy Cham T. Alignay (PUPSRC) 13
B. Show that the sequences

n2 n2
an  and an 
n3 n4

are both divergent, but the sequence

n2 n2
an  
n3 n4

is convergent.

C. Determine if the following sequence are increasing, decreasing or not monotonic.

3n  1 5n
a. an  (Ans: Increasing) d. an 
4n  5 1  5 2n

b. an  cos 31  n 
n!
(Ans: not monotonic) e. a n  (consider the 3rd term onwards)
3n

nn
c. a n  (Ans: Increasing)
n!

D. Prove the convergence of the following sequences using Theorem 3.1.1.

5n n2
a. an  c. an 
1  5 2n 2n

n
b. an 
2n

SEMA 30143 (CALCULUS 3) | Prepared by: Prof Randy Cham T. Alignay (PUPSRC) 14