Lecture Note in Integral Calculus: Techniques of Integration

Engr. Leonard D. Agana

Topic: Techniques of Integration

LESSON OBJECTIVES

At the end of this chapter, the students should be able to:

1. Apply the concept of integration by parts in evaluating the integrals of functions which cannot be
integrated readily.
2. Evaluate the integral of algebraic and transcendental functions with appropriate transformation
techniques of integration.
3. Evaluate the definite integral of powers and products of sine and cosine functions using Walli’s
formula
4. Evaluate the integral of discontinuous functions using the theorems of improper integrals.
5. Evaluate non-elementary functions using appropriate numerical integration formulas.

Introduction

We can use several techniques in evaluating integrals that cannot be evaluated using the standard formulae.
These are
A. Integration by parts
B. Integration by transformation using trigonometric identities
C. Integration by trigonometric substitution
D. Integration by algebraic substitution
E. Integration of rational functions by partial fractions
F. Rationalizing substitution
G. Integrals containing trigonometric functions
H. Walli’s Formula
I. Improper integrals
J. Numerical integration
Detailed discussion of the above techniques are given below.

F. RATIONALIZING SUBSTITUTION
Integrand containing fractional exponents, which cannot be integrated using standard formulas, can be made
integrable by replacing the integrand variable, say x, by another variable, say z, raised to the exponent n. In
equation form, we can write it as
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 1: 𝑥 = 𝑧 𝑛
Determining dx,

1|Page
 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 2: 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑛𝑧 𝑛−1 𝑑𝑧
where n is the lowest common denominator of the fractional exponents. The objective of this substitution is
to express the integrand in terms of integral powers, which can be integrated using standard formulas or
other techniques of integration. Using this concept involves the procedures given below.
1. Replace the original variables in the integrand using eqn. 1 and 2.
2. Integrate the integral using either standard formula or technique of integration.
3. Revert back the z variable to the original variable.

Example 1

3
2 √𝑥
Evaluate the integral ∫ 5 𝑑𝑥
1+ √𝑥 2

Preliminary Comment: Mastery of the previous topics is required.

Solution:
1. Replace the original variables in the integrand.
Before applying equation 1, we need to determine “n”. To do this it is essential to express the integrand
in terms of fractional powers. Doing so,
1
3
2 √𝑥 2𝑥 3
𝑒1: ∫ 5 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥
1 + √𝑥 2 1 + 𝑥5
Note that n is the lowest common denominator of the fractional exponents. The fractional exponents of
the variables are 1/3 and 2/5. From this, the lowest common denominator is 15. Thus, n = 15. Applying
now equation 1,
𝑒2: 𝑥 = 𝑧 15
It follows that,
𝑒3: 𝑑𝑥 = 15𝑧 14 𝑑𝑧
Substituting e2 and e3 to e1,
1 1
2𝑥 3 (𝑧 15)3
𝑒4: ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 = 2∫ 2
(15𝑧 14 𝑑𝑧)
1+ 𝑥5 1+ (𝑧 15 )5
Further simplification yields,
1
2𝑥 3 𝑧 19
𝑒5: ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 = 30 ∫ 𝑑𝑧
1 + 𝑧6
1 + 𝑥5
2. Integrate the integral using either standard formula or technique of integration.
Note that the degree of the numerator is greater than that of the degree of the denominator. Thus, we
can use long division to transform the integrand into an integrable form. Doing so,
𝑧 19 𝑧
𝑒6: 6
= 𝑧 13 − 𝑧 7 + 𝑧 − 6
1+𝑧 𝑧 +1
Substituting e6 to e5,
𝑧 19 𝑧
𝑒7: ∫ 6
𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑧 13 𝑑𝑧 − ∫ 𝑧 7 𝑑𝑧 + ∫ 𝑧𝑑𝑧 − ∫ 6 𝑑𝑧
1+𝑧 𝑧 +1
The first, second and third term in the right-hand side of e7 are all integrable using the standard formula,
𝑢𝑛+1
∫ 𝑢𝑛 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑛+1 + 𝐶. The fourth term, however, is not yet in integrable form. Since the degree of the
numerator is greater than the degree of the denominator and that the denominator can be factored out,
this can be made integrable using partial fraction decomposition. Applying now the concept,
𝑧 𝐴𝑧 + 𝐵 𝐶𝑧 3 + 𝐷𝑧 2 + 𝐸𝑧 + 𝐹
𝑒8: 6 = +
𝑧 + 1 𝑧2 + 1 𝑧4 − 𝑧2 + 1
Solving for the coefficients yields to,
1 1 2
𝑒9: 𝐴 = ; 𝐵 = 0; 𝐶 = − ; 𝐷 = 0; 𝐸 = ; 𝐹 = 0
3 3 3
Substituting the coefficients to e8,
𝑧 1 𝑧 1 𝑧 3 − 2𝑧
𝑒10: 6 =( ) 2 −( ) 4
𝑧 +1 3 𝑧 +1 3 𝑧 − 𝑧2 + 1
It follows then that,
𝑧 1 𝑧 1 𝑧 3 − 2𝑧
𝑒11: ∫ 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑑𝑧 − ∫ 𝑑𝑧
𝑧6 + 1 3 𝑧2 + 1 3 𝑧4 − 𝑧2 + 1
𝑑𝑢
The first term on the right-hand side of e11 is integrable using the standard formula, ∫ = ln(𝑢) + 𝐶.
𝑢
The second term can also be integrated using the said form with some manipulations. To integrate the
𝑑𝑢
second term using the form ∫ 𝑢 = ln(𝑢) + 𝐶 would require that 𝑢 = 𝑧 4 − 𝑧 2 + 1 and 𝑑𝑢 =
(4𝑧 3 − 2𝑧)𝑑𝑧. To conform to this, we can manipulate the equation as follows:
Since du requires 4z3, we can multiply the rational function by 4/4 to yield,
𝑧 3 − 2𝑧 1 4𝑧 3 − 8𝑧
𝑒12: = ( )
𝑧4 − 𝑧2 + 1 4 𝑧4 − 𝑧2 + 1
The second term of the numerator can be made equal to 2z by subtracting and adding equivalent fraction
as shown below.
 𝑧 3 − 2𝑧 1 4𝑧 3 − 8𝑧 1 6𝑧 1 6𝑧
𝑒13: 4 = ( ) + ( ) − ( )
𝑧 − 𝑧2 + 1 4 𝑧4 − 𝑧2 + 1 4 𝑧4 − 𝑧2 + 1 4 𝑧4 − 𝑧2 + 1
1 6𝑧 1 6𝑧
Note that (4) 𝑧 4 −𝑧2 +1 − (4) 𝑧 4 −𝑧 2+1 = 0 and thus, will not change the value of the original equation.
Further simplification e13 yields to,
𝑧 3 − 2𝑧 1 4𝑧 3 − 2𝑧 1 6𝑧
𝑒14: 4 = ( ) − ( )
𝑧 − 𝑧2 + 1 4 𝑧4 − 𝑧2 + 1 4 𝑧4 − 𝑧2 + 1
Substituting e14 to e11,
𝑧 1 𝑧 1 1 4𝑧 3 − 2𝑧 1 6𝑧
𝑒15: ∫ 6 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 2 𝑑𝑧 − ∫ [( ) 4 2
−( ) 4 ] 𝑑𝑧
𝑧 +1 3 𝑧 +1 3 4 𝑧 −𝑧 +1 4 𝑧 − 𝑧2 + 1

𝑧 1 𝑧 1 4𝑧 3 − 2𝑧 1 𝑧
𝑒16: ∫ 6
𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 2
𝑑𝑧 − ∫ 4 2
𝑑𝑧 + ∫ 4 𝑑𝑧
𝑧 +1 3 𝑧 +1 12 𝑧 − 𝑧 + 1 2 𝑧 − 𝑧2 + 1
The third integrand in e15 is still not in integrable form. Since the numerator contains “z”, it follows that u
must be in the form of z2 (i.e. if 𝑢 = 𝑧 2 ; 𝑑𝑢 = 2𝑧𝑑𝑧). The concept to make the denominator in the form
of z2. This can be accomplished by using “completing the squares”. Doing so,
𝑧 𝑧
𝑒17: ∫ 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑑𝑧
𝑧4 − 𝑧2 + 1 1 1
(𝑧 4 − 𝑧 2 + 4) + 1 − 4

𝑧 𝑧
𝑒18: ∫ 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑑𝑧
𝑧4 2
−𝑧 +1 2 1 3
(𝑧 − 2) + 4
𝑑𝑢 1 𝑢
Note, the right-hand side of e17 can be integrated using the standard form, ∫ 𝑢2+𝑎2 = 𝑎 tan−1 (𝑎 ) + 𝐶
1 √3
with 𝑢 = 𝑧 2 − 2 ; 𝑑𝑢 = 2𝑧𝑑𝑧 and 𝑎 = . Substituting e17 to e15,
2

𝑧 1 𝑧 1 4𝑧 3 − 2𝑧 1 𝑧
𝑒19: ∫ 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑑𝑧 − ∫ 𝑑𝑧 + ∫ 𝑑𝑧
𝑧6 + 1 3 𝑧2 + 1 12 𝑧 4 − 𝑧 2 + 1 2 (𝑧 2 − 1) + 3
2 4
Integrating now, bearing in mind that du must be conformed with,
𝑧 1 1 2𝑧 1 4𝑧 3 − 2𝑧 1 1 2𝑧
𝑒20: ∫ 6 𝑑𝑧 = ( ) ∫ 2 𝑑𝑧 − ∫ 4 𝑑𝑧 + ( ) ∫ 𝑑𝑧
𝑧 +1 3 2 𝑧 +1 12 𝑧 − 𝑧 2 + 1 2 2 1 3
(𝑧 2 − 2) + 4

1
𝑧 1 1 1 1 𝑧2 − 2
𝑒21: ∫ 6 𝑑𝑧 = ln(𝑧 2 + 1) − ln(𝑧 4 − 𝑧 2 + 1) + ( ) tan−1 ( )
𝑧 +1 6 12 4 √3 √3
2 2
Applying the properties of logarithm and further simplification yields to,
 1
𝑧 (𝑧 2 + 1)6 √3 −1 [√
3(2𝑧 2 − 1)
𝑒22: ∫ 6 𝑑𝑧 = ln [ 1 ] + tan ]
𝑧 +1 4 2
(𝑧 − 𝑧 + 1)12 6 3

Substituting now e22 to e7 and further integration of the other terms, we obtain
1
𝑧 19 𝑧 14 𝑧 8 𝑧 2 (𝑧 2 + 1)6 √3 √3(2𝑧 2 − 1)
𝑒23: ∫ 𝑑𝑧 = − + − {ln [ 1]+ tan−1 [ ]} + 𝐶
1 + 𝑧6 14 8 2 6 3
(𝑧 4 − 𝑧 2 + 1)12
1
𝑧 19 𝑧 14 𝑧 8 𝑧 2 (𝑧 2 + 1)6 √3 −1 [√
3(2𝑧 2 − 1)
𝑒24: ∫ 𝑑𝑧 = − + − ln [ ]
1 − 6 tan ]+𝐶
1 + 𝑧6 14 8 2 4 2
(𝑧 − 𝑧 + 1)12 3

Substituting now e24 to e5,

1 1
2𝑥 3 𝑧 14 𝑧 8 𝑧 2 (𝑧 2 + 1)6 √3 √3(2𝑧 2 − 1)
𝑒25: ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 = 30 { − + − ln [ 1]− tan−1 [ ]} + 𝐶
14 8 2 6 3
1+𝑥 5 (𝑧 4 − 𝑧 2 + 1)12

3. Revert the z variable to the original variable.

The right-hand side on e25 can be written back to its original variable by manipulating e2. Doing so
yields,
1
𝑒26: 𝑧 = 𝑥 15
Reverting now z variable to x variable by substituting e26 to e25,
1
2 6 2
1 14 8 2
2𝑥 3 𝑥 15 𝑥 15 𝑥 15 (𝑥 15 + 1) √3 √3 (2𝑥 15 − 1)
𝑒27: ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 = 30 − + − ln 1 − tan−1 [ ] +𝐶
14 8 2 4 2 6 3
1 + 𝑥5 12
[ (𝑥 15 − 𝑥 15 + 1) ]
{ }

Further simplification yields

1
2 6 2
1 14 8
2𝑥 3 15𝑥 15 15𝑥 15 2 (𝑥 15 + 1) √3 (2𝑥 15 − 1)
𝑒28: ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 = − + 15𝑥 15 − 30 ln 1 − 5√3 tan−1 [ ]+𝐶
7 4 4 2 3
1 + 𝑥5 12
[ (𝑥 15 − 𝑥 15 + 1) ]

1
2 6 2
1 14 8 15
2 (𝑥 +1) √3(2𝑥 15 −1)
2𝑥 3 15𝑥 15 15𝑥 15
Answer: ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 = 7
− 4
+ 15𝑥 15 − 30 ln 1 − 5√3 tan −1
[ 3
]+𝐶
1+𝑥 5 4 2 12
(𝑥 15 −𝑥 15 +1)
[ ]
 Example 2

1 1
Evaluate the integral ∫ 𝑥 4 √𝑥 2 + 9 𝑑𝑥

Preliminary Comment: Mastery of the previous topics are required.

Solution:
1. Replace the original variables in the integrand.
Before we can replace the x variables with the z variables, it is necessary to determine “n”. From the
powers, ¼ and ½ of the x variable, the lowest common denominator is 4. Thus, we can write equation 1
as
𝑒1: 𝑥 = 𝑧 4
It follows that
𝑒2: 𝑑𝑥 = 4𝑧 3 𝑑𝑧
Substituting e1 and e2 in the integrand,

1 1 1 1
𝑒3: ∫ 𝑥 4 √𝑥 2 + 9 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(𝑧 4 )4 √(𝑧 4 )2 + 9 (4𝑧 3 𝑑𝑧)

1 1
𝑒4: ∫ 𝑥 4 √𝑥 2 + 9 𝑑𝑥 = 4 ∫ 𝑧 4 √𝑧 2 + 9𝑑𝑧

2. Integrate the integral using either standard formula or technique of integration.

The right-hand side of e4 can be solved by integration by parts since there is no standard formula for the
integral. Applying now the concept of integration by parts,
2.1. Choose u and dv.
The solution to the integral on the right-hand side of e4 can be made relatively easier if we’re going to
choose 𝑢 = 𝑧 3 and 𝑑𝑣 = √𝑧 2 + 9(𝑧𝑑𝑧) . Note, dv can be integrated using the standard form
𝑢𝑛+1
∫ 𝑢𝑛 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑛+1
+ 𝐶.

2.2. Differential u to obtain du and integrate dv to yield v.

𝑒5: 𝑢 = 𝑧 3
𝑒6: 𝑑𝑢 = 3𝑧 2
 1
𝑒7: ∫ 𝑑𝑣 = ∫(𝑧 2 + 9)2 (𝑧𝑑𝑧)

1 1
𝑒8: ∫ 𝑑𝑣 = ∫(𝑧 2 + 9)2 (2𝑧𝑑𝑧)
2
3
(𝑧 2 + 9)2
𝑒9: 𝑣 =
3
2.3. Apply the formula and integrate ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑢.

𝑒10: ∫ 𝑢𝑑𝑣 − 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑢

Substituting u, du, v and dv,

3 3
4 3
(𝑧 2 + 9)2 (𝑧 2 + 9)2
√ 2 (
𝑒11: ∫ 𝑧 𝑧 + 9𝑑𝑧 = 𝑧 ) −∫ (3𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧)
3 3
3
𝑧 3 (𝑧 2 + 9)2 3
𝑒12: ∫ 𝑧 4 √𝑧 2 + 9𝑑𝑧 = − ∫(𝑧 2 + 9)2 (𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧)
3
The integral on the right-hand side of e12 is still unintegrable but can be made integrable by using again
3
integration by parts. For this case, we’re going to use 𝑑𝑣 = (𝑧 2 + 9)2 (𝑧𝑑𝑧) and 𝑢 = 𝑧. Again, dv can
𝑢𝑛+1
be integrated using the standard form ∫ 𝑢𝑛 𝑑𝑢 = + 𝐶. Determining now du and v,
𝑛+1

𝑒13: 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑧
5
(𝑧 2 + 9)2
𝑒15: 𝑣 =
5
Using the formula in e10, it follows that,
5
3 𝑧(𝑧 2 + 9)2 1 5
𝑒16: ∫(𝑧 2 + 9)2 (𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧) = − ∫(𝑧 2 + 9)2 𝑑𝑧
5 5
The integral on the right-hand side can be written as
5 4 1
𝑒17: ∫(𝑧 2 + 9)2 𝑑𝑧 = ∫(𝑧 2 + 9)2 (𝑧 2 + 9)2 𝑑𝑧

5
𝑒18: ∫(𝑧 2 + 9)2 𝑑𝑧 = ∫(𝑧 2 + 9)2 √𝑧 2 + 9𝑑𝑧

5
𝑒19: ∫(𝑧 2 + 9)2 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑧 4 √𝑧 2 + 9𝑑𝑧 + 18 ∫ 𝑧 2 √𝑧 2 + 9𝑑𝑧 + 81 ∫ √𝑧 2 + 9𝑑𝑧
The first integral on the right-hand side of e19 follows is the same in form as the left-hand side of e12.
Thus, can be transported to the other side of the equation later. The second term can be integrated using
integration by parts while the third term can be integrated using the concept of Case C2 under the topic
Integration by Trigonometric substitution. Integrating now the second and third integrals,

For ∫ 𝑧 2 √𝑧 2 + 9𝑑𝑧,
3
1 (𝑧 2 +9)2
Let 𝑢 = 𝑧 and ∫(𝑧 + 9) 𝑧𝑑𝑧. It follows that 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑧 a, and 𝑣 =
2 2 . Applying now the formula
3
of integration by parts,
3
2
𝑧(𝑧 2 + 9)2 1 3
√ 2
𝑒20: ∫ 𝑧 𝑧 + 9𝑑𝑧 = − ∫(𝑧 2 + 9)2 𝑑𝑧
3 3
The integral on the left-hand side can be written as,
3
2
𝑧(𝑧 2 + 9)2 1 2 1
𝑒21: ∫ 𝑧 √𝑧 + 9𝑑𝑧 =
2 − ∫(𝑧 2 + 9)2 (𝑧 2 + 9)2 𝑑𝑧
3 3
Expanding the integral
3
𝑧(𝑧 2 + 9)2 1
𝑒22: ∫ 𝑧 2 √𝑧 2 + 9𝑑𝑧 = − ∫ 𝑧 2 √𝑧 2 + 9𝑑𝑧 − 3 ∫ √𝑧 2 + 9𝑑𝑧
3 3
Note that the second term on the right-hand side of e21 can be transported to the left-hand side as shown
below.
3
1 2
𝑧(𝑧 2 + 9)2
√ 2
𝑒23: (1 + ) ∫ 𝑧 𝑧 + 9𝑑𝑧 = − 3 ∫ √𝑧 2 + 9𝑑𝑧
3 3
3
4 𝑧(𝑧 2 + 9)2
𝑒24: ∫ 𝑧 2 √𝑧 2 + 9𝑑𝑧 = − 3 ∫ √𝑧 2 + 9𝑑𝑧
3 3
3
𝑧(𝑧 2 + 9)2 9
𝑒25: ∫ 𝑧 2 √𝑧 2 + 9𝑑𝑧 = − ∫ √𝑧 2 + 9𝑑𝑧
4 4
Substituting e25 to e19,
3
5 𝑧(𝑧 2 + 9)2 9
𝑒26: ∫(𝑧 2 + 9)2 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑧 4 √𝑧 2 + 9𝑑𝑧 + 18 [ − ∫ √𝑧 2 + 9𝑑𝑧] + 81 ∫ √𝑧 2 + 9𝑑𝑧
4 4

3
5 9𝑧(𝑧 2 + 9)2 81
𝑒27: ∫(𝑧 2 + 9)2 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑧 4 √𝑧 2 + 9𝑑𝑧 + − ∫ √𝑧 2 + 9𝑑𝑧 + 81 ∫ √𝑧 2 + 9𝑑𝑧
2 2
Further simplification of e27,
 3
5 9𝑧 (𝑧 2 + 9)2 81
𝑒28: ∫(𝑧 2 + 9)2 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑧 4 √𝑧 2 + 9𝑑𝑧 + + ∫ √𝑧 2 + 9𝑑𝑧
2 2
The third term on the left-hand side is integrated as following the concept discussed under the topic
Integration by Trigonometric substitution:
Since the integrand falls under Case C.2, let
𝑒29: 𝑧 = 3tan(𝜃)

𝑒30: √(3)2 + 𝑧 2 = 3 sec(𝜃 )

𝑒31: 𝑑𝑧 = 3 sec2 (𝜃 ) 𝑑𝜃
It follows that

𝑒32: ∫ √𝑧 2 + 9𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 3 sec(𝜃 ) [3sec2 (𝜃 ) 𝑑𝜃 ]

𝑒33: ∫ √𝑧 2 + 9𝑑𝑧 = 9 ∫ sec3 (𝜃 ) 𝑑𝜃

The integral on the right-hand side of e33 is already solved in Example 3 of the topic Integration by
Trigonometric substitution. Adapting now the answer as given in e48 of Example 3,
1 1
𝑒34: ∫ sec3 (𝜃 )𝑑𝜃 = sec(𝜃 ) tan(𝜃 ) + ln[sec(𝜃 ) + tan(𝜃 )]
2 2
Reverting back to the z variable using the relationship given in e29 and e30,

1 √𝑧 2 + 9 𝑧 1 √𝑧 2 + 9 𝑧
𝑒35: ∫ sec3 (𝜃 )𝑑𝜃 = ( ) ( ) + ln [ + ]
2 3 3 2 3 3

𝑧√𝑧 2 + 9 1 𝑧 + √𝑧 2 + 9
𝑒36: ∫ sec3 (𝜃 )𝑑𝜃 = + ln [ ]
18 2 3

Substituting e36 to e33,

𝑧√𝑧 2 + 9 1 𝑧 + √𝑧 2 + 9
𝑒37: ∫ √𝑧 2 + 9𝑑𝑧 = 9 { + ln [ ]}
18 2 3

𝑧√𝑧 2 + 9 9 𝑧 + √𝑧 2 + 9
𝑒38: ∫ √𝑧 2 + 9𝑑𝑧 = + ln [ ]
2 2 3

Substituting now e38 to e28,

3
5 9𝑧(𝑧 2 + 9)2 81 𝑧√𝑧 2 + 9 9 𝑧 + √𝑧 2 + 9
𝑒39: ∫(𝑧 2 + 9)2 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑧 4 √𝑧 2 + 9𝑑𝑧 + + { + ln [ ]}
2 2 2 2 3
 3
5 9𝑧(𝑧 2 + 9)2 81𝑧√𝑧 2 + 9 729 𝑧 + √𝑧 2 + 9
𝑒40: ∫(𝑧 2 + 9)2 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑧 4 √𝑧 2 + 9𝑑𝑧 + + + ln [ ]
2 4 4 3

Substituting now e40 to e16,

3
𝑒41: ∫(𝑧 2 + 9)2 (𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧)

5 3
𝑧 (𝑧 2 + 9)2 1 9𝑧(𝑧2 + 9)2 81𝑧√𝑧2 + 9 729 𝑧 + √𝑧 2 + 9
− {∫ 𝑧4 √𝑧2 + 9𝑑𝑧 + + + ln [ ]}
5 5 2 4 4 3

5 3
3 𝑧 (𝑧 2 + 9 )2 1 9𝑧(𝑧2 + 9)2 81𝑧√𝑧2 + 9 729 𝑧 + √𝑧 2 + 9
𝑒42: ∫(𝑧 2 + 9)2 (𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧) = − ∫ 𝑧4 √𝑧2 + 9𝑑𝑧 − − − ln [ ]
5 5 10 20 20 3

Substituting now e42 to e12,

𝑒43: ∫ 𝑧 4 √𝑧 2 + 9𝑑𝑧
3 5 3
𝑧 3 (𝑧2 + 9)2 𝑧(𝑧 2 + 9)2 1 9𝑧(𝑧 2 + 9)2 81𝑧√𝑧 2 + 9 729 𝑧 + √𝑧 2 + 9
= −{ − ∫ 𝑧 4 √𝑧 2 + 9𝑑𝑧 − − − ln [ ]}
3 5 5 10 20 20 3

3 5 3
𝑧 3 (𝑧 2 + 9)2 𝑧(𝑧 2 + 9)2 1 9𝑧(𝑧 2 + 9)2 81𝑧√𝑧 2 + 9 729 𝑧 + √𝑧 2 + 9
𝑒44: ∫ 𝑧 4 √𝑧 2 + 9𝑑𝑧 = − + ∫ 𝑧 4 √𝑧 2 + 9𝑑𝑧 + + + ln [ ]
3 5 5 10 20 20 3

Further simplification yields,

3 5 3
1 𝑧 3 (𝑧2 + 9)2 𝑧(𝑧 2 + 9)2 9𝑧(𝑧 2 + 9)2 81𝑧√𝑧 2 + 9 729 𝑧 + √𝑧 2 + 9
𝑒45: (1 − ) ∫ 𝑧 4 √𝑧 2 + 9𝑑𝑧 = − + + + ln [ ]
5 3 5 10 20 20 3
3 5 3
4 𝑧 3 (𝑧 2 + 9)2 𝑧(𝑧 2 + 9)2 9𝑧(𝑧 2 + 9)2 81𝑧√𝑧 2 + 9 729 𝑧 + √𝑧 2 + 9
𝑒46: ∫ 𝑧 4 √𝑧 2 + 9𝑑𝑧 = − + + + ln [ ]
5 3 5 10 20 20 3
3 5 3
5𝑧 3 (𝑧 2 + 9)2 𝑧(𝑧 2 + 9)2 9𝑧(𝑧 2 + 9)2 81𝑧√𝑧 2 + 9 729 𝑧 + √𝑧 2 + 9
𝑒47: ∫ 𝑧 4 √𝑧 2 + 9𝑑𝑧 = − + + + ln [ ]
12 4 8 16 16 3

Substituting e47 to e4,

1 1
𝑒48: ∫ 𝑥 4 √𝑥 2 + 9 𝑑𝑥
3 5 3
5𝑧 3 (𝑧 2 + 9)2 𝑧(𝑧 2 + 9)2 9𝑧(𝑧 2 + 9)2 81𝑧√𝑧 2 + 9 729 𝑧 + √𝑧 2 + 9
= 4{ − + + + ln [ ]}
12 4 8 16 16 3

3 3
1 1 5𝑧 3 (𝑧 2 + 9)2 5 9𝑧(𝑧 2 + 9)2 81𝑧√𝑧 2 + 9 729 𝑧 + √𝑧 2 + 9
𝑒48: ∫ 𝑥 4 √𝑥 2 + 9 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑧 (𝑧 2 + 9 )2 + + + ln [ ]
3 2 4 4 3

3. Revert the z variable to the original variable.

From e1, it follows that
 1
𝑒49: 𝑧 = 𝑥 4
Replacing now z variable by the x variable using the relationship in e49
3 3
3 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1
5
1 1 5𝑥 4 (𝑥 2 + 9) 1 1 2
9𝑥 4 (𝑥 2 + 9) 81𝑥 4 √𝑥 2 + 9 729 𝑥 4 + √𝑥 2 + 9
𝑒50: ∫ 𝑥 4 √𝑥 2 + 9 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑥 4 (𝑥 2 + 9) + + + ln
3 2 4 4 3
[ ]

Answer:
3 3
3 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1
5
1 1 5𝑥 4 (𝑥 2 + 9) 1 1 2
9𝑥 4 (𝑥 2 + 9) 81𝑥 4 √𝑥 2 + 9 729 𝑥 4 + √𝑥 2 + 9
∫ 𝑥 4 √𝑥 2 + 9 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑥 4 (𝑥 2 + 9) + + + ln
3 2 4 4 3
[ ]

Activity

Evaluate the following integrals:

𝑑𝑥
1. ∫ 3
2 𝑥+ √ √𝑥

3𝑑𝑥
2. ∫ 4
√𝑥− √𝑥 3

3
𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
3. ∫ 4
2𝑥 5 +2

1 2
4. ∫ 𝑥 3 √𝑥 3 + 1𝑑𝑥

2
5. ∫ 𝑥 3 √𝑥 2 + 3 𝑑𝑥
 Lecture Note in Integral Calculus: Techniques of Integration
Engr. Leonard D. Agana

G. INTEGRALS CONTAINING TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Not all trigonometric functions can be integrated using standard formulas or even the integration technique
integration by transformation using trigonometric identities. These integrals can be integrated by transforming
the trigonometric integrand into an algebraic integrand. This is accomplished by the following substitution.
1
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 1: 𝑧 = tan ( 𝑥)
2
In using this concept, we need to express first all trigonometric identities, in terms of their corresponding
cosine and sine equivalence. Then, the sine and cosine can be expressed to their corresponding z variable
according to the following relationship.
2𝑧
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 2: sin(𝑥 ) =
1 + 𝑧2
1 − 𝑧2
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 3: cos(𝑥 ) =
1 + 𝑧2
2
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 4: 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑧
1 + 𝑧2
Proof:
To express 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥 ) and 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥 ) in terms of their corresponding z variable equivalent, it is imperative to
1
express these identities in terms of tan (2 𝑥). We can do this using double angle formulas as shown below.

For sin(𝑥 ),
1 1
𝑝1: sin(𝑥 ) = 2 sin ( 𝑥) cos ( 𝑥)
2 2
1
1 1 cos (2 𝑥)
𝑝2: sin(𝑥 ) = 2 sin ( 𝑥) cos ( 𝑥)
2 2 cos (1 𝑥)
2
1
sin (2 𝑥) 1
𝑝3: sin(𝑥 ) = 2 cos 2 ( 𝑥)
1 2
cos (2 𝑥)

1 1
𝑝4: sin(𝑥 ) = 2 tan ( 𝑥) [ ]
2 1
sec2 ( 𝑥)
2
Note that,

1|Page
 1 1
𝑝5: sec2 ( 𝑥) = 1 + tan2 ( 𝑥)
2 2
Substituting p5 to p4,
1
2 tan (2 𝑥)
𝑝6: sin(𝑥 ) =
1
1 + tan2 (2 𝑥)

From equation 1, it follows that

2𝑧
𝑝7: sin(𝑥 ) =
1 + 𝑧2

For cos(𝑥),
1
𝑝8: cos(𝑥 ) = 2 cos 2 ( 𝑥) − 1
2
2
𝑝9: cos(𝑥 ) = −1
1
sec2 ( 𝑥)
2
Substituting p5 to p9,
2
𝑝10: cos(𝑥 ) = −1
1
1 + tan2 (2 𝑥)

Further manipulation,
1
2 − [1 + tan2 ( 𝑥)]
𝑝11: cos(𝑥 ) = 2
1
1 + tan2 (2 𝑥)

1
1 − tan2 (2 𝑥)
𝑝12: cos(𝑥 ) =
1
1 + tan2 ( 𝑥)
2
Substituting the relationship given in equation 1,
1 − 𝑧2
𝑝13: cos(𝑥 ) =
1 + 𝑧2
For dx,
Differentiating equation 1,
 1 1
𝑝14: 𝑑𝑧 = sec2 ( 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
2 2
Substituting p5 to p14,
1 1
𝑝15: 𝑑𝑧 = [1 + tan2 ( 𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥
2 2
2𝑑𝑧
𝑝16: 𝑑𝑥 =
1
1 + tan2 (2 𝑥)

Substituting eqn. 1 to p16,

2𝑑𝑧
𝑝17: 𝑑𝑥 =
1 + 𝑧2

The use of this method involves the following steps:

1
1. Express the integrand in terms of cos(𝑥 ) , sin(𝑥 ) and tan (2 𝑥) using their corresponding
trigonometric identities.
2. Convert the trigonometric integrand to algebraic integrand by substituting equations 1, 2, 3 and 4.
3. Integrate the algebraic integral.
4. Revert to the original variable using again equations 1, 2 and 3.

Example 3
1
4 cot(𝑥) tan2( 𝑥)𝑑𝑥
Evaluate the integral ∫ sin2(𝑥)[cos(𝑥)+sin(𝑥)] .
2

Preliminary Comment: Mastery of the previous topic is needed.

Solution:
1
1. Express the integrand in terms of cos(𝑥 ) , sin(𝑥 ) and tan (2 𝑥) using their corresponding
trigonometric identities.

1 cos(𝑥 ) 1
4 cot(𝑥 ) tan2 (2 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 tan2 (2 𝑥)
4
sin(𝑥)
𝑒1: ∫ 2 =∫ 2 𝑑𝑥
sin (𝑥) [cos(𝑥 ) + sin(𝑥 )] sin (𝑥) [cos(𝑥 ) + sin(𝑥 )]
1 1
4 cot(𝑥 ) tan2 ( 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 4 cos(𝑥 ) tan2 ( 𝑥)
2 2
𝑒2: ∫ 2 =∫ 3 𝑑𝑥
sin (𝑥) [cos(𝑥 ) + sin(𝑥 )] sin (𝑥 ) [cos(𝑥 ) + sin(𝑥 )]
2. Convert the trigonometric integrand to algebraic integrand by substituting equations 1, 2, 3 and 4.
Substituting now equations 2, 3 and 4 to the right hand side of e1,

1 1 − 𝑧2
4 cos(𝑥 ) tan2 (2 𝑥) 4( ) (𝑧 2 ) 2𝑑𝑧
1 + 𝑧2
𝑒3: ∫ 3 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 3 ( )
sin (𝑥 ) [cos(𝑥 ) + sin(𝑥 )] 2𝑧 1−𝑧 2 2𝑧 1 + 𝑧2
( ) ( + )
1 + 𝑧2 1 + 𝑧2 1 + 𝑧2
Further simplification,
1
4 cos(𝑥 ) tan2 (2 𝑥) (1 − 𝑧 2 )(1 + 𝑧 2 )2
𝑒4: ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = − ∫ 𝑑𝑧
sin3 (𝑥 ) [cos(𝑥 ) + sin(𝑥 )] 𝑧(𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 − 1)
1
4 cos(𝑥 ) tan2 (2 𝑥) 𝑧6 + 𝑧4 − 𝑧2 − 1
𝑒5: ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑧
sin3 (𝑥 ) [cos(𝑥 ) + sin(𝑥 )] 𝑧 3 − 2𝑧 2 − 𝑧
3. Integrate the algebraic integral.
Since the degree of the numerator is greater than the degree of the denominator, the right-hand side of
e5 can be made integrable by performing long division. Doing so,
𝑧6 + 𝑧4 − 𝑧2 − 1 3 2
33𝑧 2 + 14𝑧 − 1
𝑒6: = 𝑧 + 2𝑧 + 6𝑧 + 14 + 3
𝑧 3 − 2𝑧 2 − 𝑧 𝑧 − 2𝑧 2 − 𝑧
The denominator of the fifth term on the right-hand side of e6 is factorable. Thus, can be broken further
into several partial fractions. Doing so,
33𝑧 2 + 14𝑧 − 1 𝐴 𝐵𝑧 + 𝐶
𝑒7: = +
𝑧 3 − 2𝑧 2 − 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 − 1
Determining the coefficients A, B and C, we obtain
33𝑧 2 + 14𝑧 − 1 1 32𝑧 + 16
𝑒8: = +
𝑧 3 − 2𝑧 2 − 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 − 1
Substituting e8 to e6,
𝑧6 + 𝑧4 − 𝑧2 − 1 3 2
1 32𝑧 + 16
𝑒9: = 𝑧 + 2𝑧 + 6𝑧 + 14 + +
𝑧 3 − 2𝑧 2 − 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 − 1
Substituting e9 to e5,
𝑧6 + 𝑧4 − 𝑧2 − 1 𝑑𝑧 32𝑧 + 16
𝑒10: ∫ 3 2
𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑧 3 𝑑𝑧 + 2 ∫ 𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧 + 6 ∫ 𝑧𝑑𝑧 + 14 ∫ 𝑑𝑧 + ∫ + ∫ 2 𝑑𝑧
𝑧 − 2𝑧 − 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 − 2𝑧 − 1

All terms in the right are integrable except for the last term. It can be made integrable, however, as
follows:
 32𝑧 + 16 2𝑧 + 1
𝑒11: ∫ 2
𝑑𝑧 = 16 ∫ 2
𝑧 − 2𝑧 − 1 𝑧 − 2𝑧 − 1
32𝑧 + 16 2𝑧 + 1 3 3
𝑒12: ∫ 2 𝑑𝑧 = 16 ∫ 2 𝑑𝑧 − 16 ∫ 2 𝑑𝑧 + 16 ∫ 2 𝑑𝑧
𝑧 − 2𝑧 − 1 𝑧 − 2𝑧 − 1 𝑧 − 2𝑧 − 1 𝑧 − 2𝑧 − 1
32𝑧 + 16 2𝑧 − 2 3
𝑒13: ∫ 2
𝑑𝑧 = 16 ∫ 2 𝑑𝑧 + 16 ∫ 2 𝑑𝑧
𝑧 − 2𝑧 − 1 𝑧 − 2𝑧 − 1 𝑧 − 2𝑧 − 1
The second term of e13 can be written in the integrable form of
32𝑧 + 16 2𝑧 − 2 3
𝑒14: ∫ 2 𝑑𝑧 = 16 ∫ 2 𝑑𝑧 + 16 ∫ 2 𝑑𝑧
𝑧 − 2𝑧 − 1 𝑧 − 2𝑧 − 1 (𝑧 − 2𝑧 + 1) − 1 − 1
32𝑧 + 16 2𝑧 − 2 𝑑𝑧
𝑒15: ∫ 2
𝑑𝑧 = 16 ∫ 2 𝑑𝑧 − 48 ∫
𝑧 − 2𝑧 − 1 𝑧 − 2𝑧 − 1 2 − (𝑧 − 1)2
Substituting e15 to e10,
𝑧6 + 𝑧4 − 𝑧2 − 1
𝑒16: ∫ 𝑑𝑧
𝑧 3 − 2𝑧 2 − 𝑧
𝑑𝑧 2𝑧 − 2
= ∫ 𝑧 3 𝑑𝑧 + 2 ∫ 𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧 + 6 ∫ 𝑧𝑑𝑧 + 14 ∫ 𝑑𝑧 + ∫ + 16 ∫ 2 𝑑𝑧
𝑧 𝑧 − 2𝑧 − 1
𝑑𝑧
− 48 ∫
2 − (𝑧 − 1)2

The last term on the right-hand side of e16 can be calculated based on eqn. 22 of the topic Integrals
yielding Inverse Trigonometric and Inverse Hyperbolic Function.
Integrating now e16,

𝑧6 + 𝑧4 − 𝑧2 − 1
𝑒17: ∫ 𝑑𝑧
𝑧 3 − 2𝑧 2 − 𝑧
𝑧 4 2𝑧 3 6𝑧 2 48 √2 + (𝑧 − 1)
= + + + 14𝑧 + ln(𝑧) + 16 ln(𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 − 1) − ln | |+𝐶
4 3 2 2√2 √2 − (𝑧 − 1)

Further simplification,
𝑧6 + 𝑧4 − 𝑧2 − 1
𝑒18: ∫ 𝑑𝑧
𝑧 3 − 2𝑧 2 − 𝑧
𝑧 4 2𝑧 3 𝑧 + √2 − 1
= + + 3𝑧 2 + 14𝑧 + ln[𝑧(𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 − 1)16 ] − 12√2 ln | |+𝐶
4 3 −𝑧 + √2 + 1
From e5 and e2, it follows that
1
4 cot(𝑥 ) tan2 (2 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 𝑧 4 2𝑧 3 𝑧 + √2 − 1
𝑒19: ∫ = + + 3𝑧 2 + 14𝑧 + ln[𝑧(𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 − 1)16 ] − 12√2 ln | |+𝐶
sin2 (𝑥) [cos(𝑥 ) + sin(𝑥 )] 4 3 −𝑧 + √2 + 1

4. Revert to the original variable using again equations 1, 2, and 3.

 Substituting now the relationship of equation 1 in e18,

4 cot(𝑥) tan2 (1 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑒19: ∫
2
2
sin (𝑥) [cos(𝑥) + sin(𝑥)]
1 1
tan4 ( 𝑥) 2 tan3 ( 𝑥)
= 2 +
2 + 3 tan2 (1 𝑥) + 14 tan (1 𝑥)
4 3 2 2
1
1 1 1 16 tan ( 𝑥) + √2 − 1
+ ln {tan ( 𝑥) [tan2 ( 𝑥) − 2 tan ( 𝑥) − 1] } − 12√2 ln |
2 |+𝐶
2 2 2 1
− tan ( 𝑥) + √2 + 1
2

Answer:
1
4 cot(𝑥) tan2 ( 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
∫ 2 2
sin (𝑥) [cos(𝑥) + sin(𝑥)]
1 1
tan4 ( 𝑥) 2 tan3 ( 𝑥)
= 2 +
2 + 3 tan2 (1 𝑥) + 14 tan (1 𝑥)
4 3 2 2
1
1 1 1 16 tan ( 𝑥) + √2 − 1
+ ln {tan ( 𝑥) [tan2 ( 𝑥) − 2 tan ( 𝑥) − 1] } − 12√2 ln | 2 |+𝐶
2 2 2 1
− tan ( 𝑥) + √2 + 1
2

Example 4

sec(𝑥)
Evaluate the integral ∫ csc(𝑥)−cot(𝑥)+1 𝑑𝑥.

Preliminary Comment: Mastery of the previous subject matter is needed.

Solution:
1
1. Express the integrand in terms of cos(𝑥 ) , sin(𝑥 ) and tan ( 𝑥) using their corresponding
2
trigonometric identities.
1
sec(𝑥 ) cos(𝑥 )
𝑒1: ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
csc(𝑥 ) − cot(𝑥 ) + 1 1 cos(𝑥 )
− + 1
sin(𝑥 ) sin(𝑥 )
1
sec(𝑥 ) cos(𝑥 )
𝑒2: ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
csc(𝑥 ) − cot(𝑥 ) + 1 1 − cos(𝑥 ) + sin(𝑥 )
[ ]
sin(𝑥 )
sec(𝑥 ) sin(𝑥)
𝑒3: ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
csc(𝑥 ) − cot(𝑥 ) + 1 cos(𝑥 ) [1 − cos(𝑥 ) + sin(𝑥 )]
2. Convert the trigonometric integrand to algebraic integrand by substituting equations 1, 2, 3 and 4.
2𝑧
sin(𝑥 ) 1 + 𝑧2 2𝑑𝑧
𝑒4: ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 2 2 ( )
cos(𝑥 ) [1 − cos(𝑥 ) + sin(𝑥 )] 1−𝑧 1−𝑧 2𝑧 1 + 𝑧2
(1 − + )
1 + 𝑧2 1 + 𝑧2 1 + 𝑧2
4𝑧
sin(𝑥 ) (1 + 𝑧 2 ) 2
𝑒5: ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑧
cos(𝑥 ) [1 − cos(𝑥 ) + sin(𝑥 )] 1 − 𝑧2 2 2
( )
(1 + 𝑧 2 )2 1 + 𝑧 − 1 + 𝑧 + 2𝑧
sin(𝑥 ) 4𝑧
𝑒6: ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑧
cos(𝑥 ) [1 − cos(𝑥 ) + sin(𝑥 )] (1 − 𝑧 )(2𝑧 2 + 2𝑧)
2

sin(𝑥 ) −2
𝑒7: ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 2 𝑑𝑧
cos(𝑥 ) [1 − cos(𝑥 ) + sin(𝑥 )] (𝑧 − 1)(𝑧 + 1)
3. Integrate the algebraic integral.
The integral on the right-hand side of e7 can be made integrable by using the concept of partial fraction
decomposition. Doing so,
−2 −2
𝑒8: =
(𝑧 2 − 1)(𝑧 + 1) (𝑧 − 1)(𝑧 + 1)2
−2 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
𝑒9: 2
= + +
(𝑧 − 1)(𝑧 + 1) 𝑧 − 1 𝑧 + 1 (𝑧 + 1)2
Solving for the coefficients A, B and C,
1 1
𝑒10: 𝐴 = − ; 𝐵 = ; 𝐶 = 1
2 2
Substituting e10 to e9,
−2 −1/2 1/2 1
𝑒11: 2
= + +
(𝑧 − 1)(𝑧 + 1) 𝑧 − 1 𝑧 + 1 (𝑧 + 1)2
From e7, it follows then that
−2 1 𝑑𝑧 1 𝑑𝑧
𝑒12: ∫ 𝑑𝑧 = − ∫ + ∫ + ∫(𝑧 + 1)−2 𝑑𝑧
(𝑧 2 − 1)(𝑧 + 1) 2 𝑧−1 2 𝑧+1
All the integrals on the right-hand side of e12 are integrable. Thus, integrating now
−2 1 1 (𝑧 + 1)−1
𝑒13: ∫ 𝑑𝑧 = − ln( 𝑧 − 1) + ln ( 𝑧 + 1) + +𝐶
(𝑧 2 − 1)(𝑧 + 1) 2 2 −1
Further simplification yields
 −2 1 𝑧+1 1
𝑒14: ∫ 𝑑𝑧 = ln ( )− +𝐶
(𝑧 2 − 1)(𝑧 + 1) 2 𝑧−1 𝑧+1
From e7 and e3, it follows that,
sec(𝑥 ) 1 𝑧+1 1
𝑒15: ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ln ( )− +𝐶
csc(𝑥 ) − cot(𝑥 ) + 1 2 𝑧−1 𝑧+1
4. Revert to the original variable using again equations 1, 2 and 3.
Expressing now the right-hand side of e15 in terms of the x variable using the relationship given in
equation 1,
1
sec(𝑥 ) 1 tan (2 𝑥) + 1 1
𝑒16: ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ln [ ]− +𝐶
csc(𝑥 ) − cot(𝑥 ) + 1 2 1 1
tan (2 𝑥) − 1 tan (2 𝑥) + 1

1
sec(𝑥) 1 tan( 𝑥)+1 1
Answer: ∫ csc(𝑥)−cot(𝑥)+1 𝑑𝑥 = 2 ln [ 2
1 ]− 1 +𝐶
tan( 𝑥)−1 tan( 𝑥)+1
2 2

Activity

Evaluate the following integrals:

3𝑑𝑥
1. ∫ 2 sin(2𝑥)+1

𝑑𝑥
2. ∫
4 sin(𝑥)−3 cos(𝑥)

cos(𝑥)+tan(𝑥)
3. ∫ sin(𝑥)−cot(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

sin(𝑥)
4. ∫ 3 sin(𝑥)−5 𝑑𝑥

cot(𝑥)−tan(𝑥)
5. ∫ 2sec(𝑥)−3csc(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥