ABSTRACT

A Level Environmental
Chemistry notes presents
chemical analyses of our most
pressing waste, pollution and
resources problems for the A
Level Students

Sir Layan
9189

ENVIRONMENTAL
CHEMISTRY NOTES
A LEVEL

COMPILED AND EDITED BY SIR LAYAN 0774 372 589

ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY
Environment
• Environment is the aggregate/ensemble of physical, chemical, biological and social
components capable of causing direct or indirect effects, in the short or long term, on living
beings and human activities

Air Pollution
• Air pollution occurs when harmful or excessive quantities of substances including gases,
particulate or biological molecules are introduced into the earth’s atmosphere.
• When gaseous pollutants are present in the atmosphere, they can be classified into two
classes and these are Primary pollutants and Secondary pollutants

Primary Pollutants
• These are harmful gases or particulate substances which are directly introduced into the
atmosphere due to the different processes e.g. combustion of fossil fuels

Examples of primary pollutants

• CO, CO2, NO, SO2, lead, soot CXHY (unburnt hydrocarbons), Particulate matter (PM) and VOCs

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Secondary Pollutants
• These are harmful substances which are introduced into the atmosphere indirectly being
formed by from reactions of primary pollutants
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
C + O2 CO2
Nitrogen Dioxide NO2
𝟏
NO + 𝟐 O2 NO2

Sulphur Trioxide SO3

SO2 + O2 SO3
SO2 + NO2 SO3 + NO
PAN (Peroxyl acetyl nitrate)

• Smog – formed when O3, PAN (Peroxyacetyl nitrate) and NO2 exists together
• The pollutants mentioned above can also be grouped as
Nitrogen containing pollutants
Carbon containing pollutants
Sulphur Containing pollutants

Nitrogen Containing Pollutants

• The oxides of nitrogen can be formed in the upper atmosphere i.e. stratosphere due to
lightning.
• They can also be formed in the lower atmosphere (troposphere) mainly due to motorcar
engines
• In the above scenarios motor car engines and lightning provide energy required to break
the N≡N the triple bond. At high temperatures involved in fossil fuel combustion, motor car
engines and lightning, the endothermic oxidation of nitrogen in the air occurs.
N2 + O2 heat NO2

• In the atmosphere, further oxidation readily occurs at low temperatures.

2NO + O2 on cooling 2NO2

• Nitrogen dioxide dissolves in water to form nitric acid and nitrous acid which is further
oxidised to nitric acid.
NO2 + H2O HNO2+ HNO3

HNO2 +𝟏⁄𝟐O2 HNO3

Alternatively:

NO2+ H2O + O2 HNO3

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Effects of NOX

• They catalyse the formation of sulphuric acid

• They result in the formation of nitric acid rain
• They result in the formation of photochemical smog
• They can cause respiratory problems in humans and interfere with nitrogen metabolism in
plants.
• Reduce blood carrying capacity and causes lung problems.

Carbon containing pollutants

• These are introduced into the atmosphere mainly due to combustion of petrol, diesel and
natural gas
𝒚 𝒚
CXHY + (x + 𝟒 O2) x CO2 + 𝟐 H2O

C2H6 + O2 (limited) CO + C + H2O

Effects of CXHY

• It is carcinogenic
Carbon dioxide CO2

• Causes formation of carbonic acid rain

CO2 + H2O H2CO3

• CO2 is a greenhouse gas hence it causes global warming

Soot

• Irritation of the respiratory system

Sulphur Containing Pollutants

• SO2 is mainly produced from the combustion of the fossil fuel coal
• SO2 can also be introduced into the atmosphere from volcanic eruptions and extraction of
metal e.g. nickel
Effects of SOX pollutants

• Causes sulphuric acid rain formation

S + O2 SO2
NO2 + O2 NO2
SO2 + NO2 SO3 + NO (catalyst regenerated)
SO3 + H2O H2SO4 (Sulphuric Acid)

• SO2 is also a greenhouse gas

• Marbles, clothes, paper, leather also affected.
• Plants also heavily affected.

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Reducing the amount of pollutants in the atmosphere
• Due to their harmful effects, pollutants must be removed from the atmosphere
• There are different ways in which can be employed to achieve the removal of pollutants
from the atmosphere.
These ways include
a) The use of fluidised bed
b) The use of wet lime
c) The use of catalytic converters
d) The use of Lean Burn Engines

The use of fluidised beds

• The methods involve the use of finely divided /powdered CaCO3 being placed in special
beds.
• Fluidization occurs when small solid particles are suspended in an upward flowing stream
of fluid by the fluidising gas/liquid to increase the surface area so as to increase the rate of
reaction.
• The solid particles swirl around the bed rapidly creating vigorous and excellent mixing
which provides temperature uniformity across the bed.
• During the process the heat produced from the combustion of fossil fuels e.g. coal in a
thermal power station decomposes CaCO3.
CaCO3 heat CaO + CO2

• The basic CaO then reacts with the acidic SO2 in the flue gases (Fluidising gas)
CaO + SO2 CaSO3

• CaSO3 is then oxidised to a more useful CaSO4

• CaSO4 is used in the manufacture of plaster and fertilisers
• The above processes can be referred to as the flue gas desulphurisation

The use of wet lime

• CaO is used as wet lime and this results in the removal of SO2 from different reactions
• The basic CaO reacts with the acidic SO2
CaO + SO2 CaSO3

• CaSO3 is then oxidised to a more useful CaSO4

CaSO3 + O2 CaSO4

• The above process can be referred to as Alkaline ‘lime’ scrubbing or flue gas
desulphurisation.

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The use of catalytic convertors
• A catalytic convertor is a component fixed on a car exhaust which uses basic redox reactions
to reduce pollutants a car makes and contains a mixture of transition elements e.g.
Platinum, Rhodium and Palladium.
• These elements acts as catalysts in the removal of harmful pollutants and they provide a
large surface area for the heterogeneous catalysis reaction to take place.
• Car exhaust fumes contain C and N containing pollutants
• The three catalyst are selective in the reactions they promote.
• The removal of carbon containing pollutants is done by platinum and palladium.
• Palladium is used as an oxidation catalyst and platinum is used for both oxidation and
reduction.
• Platinum and palladium catalyse the oxidation of CO and C to CO2 and oxidation of
hydrocarbons to CO2 and water.
• Therefore, platinum and palladium catalyse the following chemical reactions
𝒚 𝒚
CxHy + (x + 𝟐) O2 xCO2 + 𝟐 O2

C + O2 CO2
CO + O2 CO2

• The removal of Nitrogen containing pollutants is catalysed by rhodium and platinum i.e. the
reduction of nitrogen oxides into elemental nitrogen and oxygen.
• Rhodium is used as a reduction catalyst.
CO + NO CO2 + N2
C + NO2 CO2 + N2

• A car fixed with a catalytic converter must not use petrol with lead, because the lead will
catalytically poison the catalytic convertor by forming irreversible reactions with the
metals in the catalytic convertor. As a result, the transition element won’t be able to catalyse
the other reactions as lead occupy all the active sites.

The use of burn lean engines

• Modern cars with modern technology can now be fixed with a lean burn engine
• A lean burn engine is an engine which uses high air fuel ration of 18:1 for air and fuel engine
ratio respectively
• This is done to reduce carbon containing pollutants by promoting complete combustion
• A car with a lean burn engine must also be fixed with a catalytic convertor so as to promote
the removal of Nitrogen containing pollutants.
𝒚 𝒚
CxHy + (x + ) O2 xCO2 + O2
𝟐 𝟐

C + O2 CO2
CO + O2 CO2

• However, a car with a lean burn engine is less efficient compared to cars with ordinary
convectional engine with an air-fuel ratio of 15:1

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Environmental impact of power generation
Nuclear Power Plant
• Loss of land for uranium mining
• Pollution of water due to liquid effluents from uranium mines
• Water heating by waste heat
• Global warming due to CO2 released.
Fossil Fuel Power Plant

• Loss of land for mining

• Pollution of water due to liquid effluents from mines
• Loss of forests, crops and animals due to absorption of pollutants from coal combustion
released during power plant operation.
• Global warming due to CO2 released.

Water Pollution
• Water pollution occurs when pollutants are deposited in water bodies like dame and lakes
These pollutants include
a) Raw sewage
b) Oil
c) Heavy metal ions
Advantages of dumping waste at sea or near rivers

• It is convenient
• It is inexpensive
• Provides source of nutrients, shelter and breeding
Problems associated with dumping of waste and sewage in seas, dams and rivers
• Eutrophication
• Death of aquatic life
• Spread of water borne diseases
• Waste from industries may contain heavy metal ions which are poisonous to aquatic life
• Increased biological demand leading to anaerobic reaction causing foul smelling substances
• Clogging of water ways
• Results in unavailability of fresh water source for household use

Eutrophication
• It is an enrichment of water bodies by nutrient salts (mainly phosphates and nitrates) that
causes structural changes to the ecosystem such as increased production of algae and
aquatic plants, depletion of fish species and general deterioration of water quality.
• When the algae and aquatic plants die, they use up dissolved oxygen creating an anoxic
environment resulting in reduction of biodiversity the death of aquatic life. (High biological
oxygen demand)

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Causes of Eutrophication
Use of fertilisers

• Agricultural practices and the use of fertilisers in the soil contribute to the accumulation of
nutrients.
• When the nutrients reach high concentration levels in the soil they are carried by rain into
rivers and ground water that flow into lakes and or seas
Discharge of waste water into water bodies

• It results in the release of a high quantity of nutrients which stimulates the disproportionate
growth of algae.
Effects of Eutrophication

• Death of aquatic life

• Decomposed remains give a foul smell
• Destruction of water sources
• General deterioration of water quality

Waste Management
• There are different ways in which waste can be managed either at household level or at
industrial level and these methods include
The use of landfills
Incineration
Ion exchange
Recycling
Waste Sorting

Landfills
• This is a method mainly used to dispose household solid waste in the ground that causes no
nuisance or danger to public health or safety and no harm to the environment during its
operation or after its closure.
• In a landfill the rubbish pit must be about 2m of thick impact rubbish before it can be
covered with soil or ash.
Biological Reactions in Landfills
Aerobic Phase

• The process of decomposition starts with the presence of oxygen.

• Once the waste is covered, the oxygen starts to be consumed by biological activity.
• During this phase the principal product is carbon dioxide. Once the oxygen is consumed,
decomposition takes place without it (anaerobic phase)

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Anaerobic Phase

• It is the one that predominates in the sanitary landfill because the air does not pass through the
landfill and there is no circulation of oxygen.
• Therefore, appreciable quantities of methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2) are produced, as
well as traces of foul-smelling gases such as hydrogen sulfide (H2S), ammonia (NH3), and
mercaptans.
• Methane gas deserves the greatest attention because, although it is odourless and colourless, it is
inflammable and explosive if it is concentrated in the air. It is therefore recommended that there
should be adequate venting of this gas
Leached or percolated liquid

• The natural decomposition or putrefaction of garbage produces a foul-smelling black liquid,

known as leached or percolated liquid that looks like domestic water waste, but much more
concentrated.
• Rainwater filtering through the layers of waste increases its volume in a far greater
proportion than does the moisture of the MSW.
• It is therefore important to intercept the water and divert it to prevent an increase in
leaching; otherwise there could be problems in the operation of the landfill and
contamination in the water courses, sources of water, and neighboring wells.

Advantages of Landfills

• It reduces the amount of waste present in the environment.

• It has lower operating and maintenance expenses than other treatment methods.
• Filled land can be reused for other community purposes
Disadvantages of Landfills

• Results in leached (which is a black liquid that contains partly dissolved organic matter rich
in a range of metal ions and some which are hazardous
• Production of landfill gases i.e. toxic H2S and a greenhouse gas methane which is explosive.
SO42- + 8H+ + 8e- S2- + 4H2O
S2- + 2H+ H2S

• Respiring bacteria which will be decomposing result in increase in soil acidity

• Decomposing matter produces humic acid which result in soil acidity
• Non-biodegradable waste using up space
• Requires proper planning, design and operation.

Incineration
• It is a method used to treat household and industrial waste by burning waste into ash, flue
gas and heat.
• The process of incineration must be done in a well-built incinerator were temperature can
be controlled
• It is vital for the denaturation of contaminant medical waste or other hazardous wastes is
necessary.

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Advantages of Incineration

• Reduces the amount of waste in the environment

• Requires minimum land
• Well controlled incinerators can be used to generate electricity from heat and energy
produced from the waste.
• Provides better control over odour and noise
• Eliminates harmful germs and chemicals
• Ash produced from combustion of waste can be used in construction and landfills
Disadvantages of incineration

• The installation of an incineration plant is expensive.

• Combustion of household waste and industrial waste can result in the production of dioxins
e.g. when burning PVC.
• Dioxins are chlorine containing compounds at temperatures between 5000C and
8000C.Dioxines are a health hazard because they are carcinogenic and they are toxic.
• To prevent the production of dioxins combustion must be done in temperature-controlled
incinerators where temperatures of 5000C – 8000C are avoided when burning chlorine
containing compounds.
• Destruction of vegetation and small animals around the cite of incineration
• Production of primary pollutants e.g. CO, CO2 and NOx which have negative impact on the
environment

Ion Exchange Method

• This is the method used to treat liquid waste containing dissolved harmful ions either
cations or anions
• The method involves use of resins which are insoluble solids containing different harmless
groups which allows ions to be exchanged on its surface.
• There are two methods of ion exchange which are cation and anion exchange

Waste Sorting
• It is the process by which waste is separated into different elements before disposal.
Advantages of waste sorting before disposal

• Some waste can be easily identified properly and recycled back into secondary valuable raw
materials.
• It reduces environmental pollution e.g. waste batteries contain metallic mercury, cadmium
and other toxic substances that causes harm to human beings.
• It reduces cost as sorted waste is collected and recycled for free.
• It saves natural resources, oil, timber and other resources for future generations.
• It saves space on waste sites because useful waste can be recycled back.

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Recycling
• This is the process whereby already used materials is processed and converted into useful
ones again.
Advantages of recycling

• Reduces air and land pollution

• Leads to reduced environmental damage e.g. less tree cutting for paper
• Reduction in the demand for more landfill sites
• Reduction in the cost of waste disposal
• Savings on energy and raw materials
Disadvantages

• Recycled material may have unsatisfactory properties i.e. they may be substandard
• Recycling can be labour intensive
• Recycling is not worthwhile when there is high cost collecting and separating materials
• The above are general disadvantages and advantages associated with recycling, but during
the process of recycling, each substance has its own advantages and disadvantages.
Consider Recycling of paper, glass, plastic and metals

Material Advantages Disadvantages

Paper • Reduces deforestation • De inking required
• Energy savings • Low quality paper

Glass • Cutdown the demand • Sorting of glass and

for limestone, sand removal of stickers
(raw materials) may be time
consuming
Plastic (PVC) • Reduces problems • Low quality product
associated with produced
disposal methods like • High cost of separating
landfills, incineration plastics
which leads to dioxins
• Reduces
environmental
pollution
Metals • Energy savings on • Separating and sorting
melting ores metals is time, energy
• Saves the mineral and money consuming
• Loss of quality in
continuous recycling

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Oil Pollution
• This occurs as a result of oil spills during transportation and exploration
Problems with oil spillage

• Damage of marine life

• Poverty on communities which rely on fish for their diet and source of income
• Destruction of recreational facilities e.g. beaches
Action to be taken after oil spillage

• The method to be used depend on the amount of spillage, characteristic of the oil and nature
conditions such as the weather, water temperature, water salinity, water depth and bottom
material.
• Mechanical methods can be used to contain the oil in a specific area. The oil can then be
siphoned out.
• Mechanical methods such as high-pressure water washing and wiping of rocks and surfaces
can be employed.
• Sorbent materials(booms) can be used to absorb the oil.
• The use of biological methods. Investigations are under way on the feasibility of the large-
scale use of certain bacteria that can digest oil or convert it to more reactive compounds.

Clean up technology for oil spills

The use of sorbents in cleaning up oil spills

• Sorbents are porous materials which can absorb particles of another substance.
• A porous fibre glass sorbent has been developed which allows oil to pass through it, but
repels water.
• The sorbent materials can take up to 200 times their weight of oil, and they do not sink. The
major advantage of using sorbents is that the precious oil is recovered.
Bioremediation of contaminated water

• Certain bacteria can convert the relatively inert hydrocarbons in oil spills into compounds
that are more reactive.
• Bacteria and fungi could also be employed to feed directly on the oil spills.
• The advantages of bioremediation include low cost since no sophisticated machinery are
required and no noise pollution is generated.
The method of detergents

• This method is used to treat large spillages by spraying detergents

The straw methods

• The oil spillage can be treated by containing spilt oil using floating bloom
• The contained oil can be pumped out using different methods e.g siphoning

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Radioactive waste
• Radioactive waste typically comprises a number of radionuclides i.e. unstable
configurations of elements that decay, emitting ionising radiation which is harmful to
humans and the environment
• Radioactive waste cannot be destroyed with chemical reactions since radioactive is a
nuclear property.
• Radioactive waste is neither particularly hazardous nor hard to manage relative to other
toxic industrial waste.
• As a result, radioactive waste must be stored in a safe place where it will not be disturbed
for thousands of years.

Sources of radioactive waste

a) Nuclear power station
b) Hospitals where cancer treatment is done
c) Mine (Uranium bearing rocks emits radioactive substances)
Problems associated with radioactive waste

• Requires costly special disposal materials made of lead

• When nuclear accidents occur, radioactive waste have long half-lives, therefore long periods
of mutation and cancers
• If disposed in landfills they can be exposed during earthquakes and in periods of flooding
• Radioactive waste cannot be destroyed by chemical methods e.g. incineration

Heavy metals
• These are metals with large mass number and these include lead (Pb), Cadmium (Cd),
Mercury (Hg) and Silver (Ag).
• Heavy metals are metallic elements that are present in both natural and contaminated
environments.
• In natural environments, they occur at low concentrations.
• However, at high concentrations as in contaminated environments, they result in public
health impacts.
Food Chain

• Organic pollutants are long-lasting non-biodegradable organic compounds that accumulate

in the food chain, especially fish and livestock, and pose serious health risks to humans
• Lead finds its way from the plants and animals into the human body e.g. lead deposited on
road sides can be absorbed by plants which are then taken in for food by humans.
• Humans usually absorb mercury from seafoods and fish
• Cadmium is absorbed through sea foods

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Heavy Metal Source of Environmental
Exposure
Lead • Industrial emissions
• Vehicular emissions,
• Lead containing paints
• Burning of plastics and
paper.
Mercury • Electronics
• Gold panning
• Plastic waste
• Pesticides (Fungicides)
• Pharmaceutical and dental
waste
Cadmium • Nickel - Cadmium ores
• Metal painting pigments
• Electronics
• Plastics
• Batteries
• Contaminated water
Chromium • Leather textile industries
• Steel manufacturing
• Electroplating
• Chromate mines
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Health Effects
• Impairment of neurological
development,
• suppression of haematological
system
• kidney failure
• Mental retardation in infants
• Causes fish madness
• Gastro-intestinal disorders
• Respiratory tract irritation
• Renal failure and neuro toxicity
• Irritation of the lungs
• Cause brittleness of bones
• Gastro internal tract
• Kidney damage
• Lung and Prostate cancer
• Carcinogenic
• Allergic reactions
• Nose bleeding
• Weakened immune system
• Kidney and liver damage