CL 305

TRANSPORT PHENOMENA
VECTORS AND TENSORS

INSTRUCTOR
Dr. Amit Kumar
Department of Chemical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati
 UNIT DYADS: OPERATIONS

𝛅𝒊𝛅𝒋 ∶ 𝛅𝒌𝛅𝒍 = 𝛅𝒋 ∙ 𝛅𝒌 𝛅𝒊 ∙ 𝛅𝒍 = δ𝑗𝑘 δ𝑖𝑙

3

𝛅𝒊 𝛅𝒋 × 𝛅𝒌 = 𝛅𝒊 𝛅𝒋 × 𝛅𝒌 = ෍ 𝜀𝑗𝑘𝑙 𝛅𝒊 𝛅𝒍
𝛅𝒊 𝛅𝒋 ∙ 𝛅𝒌 = 𝛅𝒊 𝛅𝒋 ∙ 𝛅𝒌 = 𝛅𝒊 δ𝑗𝑘
𝑙=1

𝛅𝒊 ∙ 𝛅𝒋 𝛅𝒌 = 𝛅𝒊 ∙ 𝛅𝒋 𝛅𝒌 = δ𝑖𝑗 𝛅𝒌 3

𝛅𝒊 × 𝛅𝒋 𝛅𝒌 = 𝛅𝒊 × 𝛅𝒋 𝛅𝒌 = ෍ 𝜀𝑖𝑗𝑙 𝛅𝒍 𝛅𝒌
𝑙=1
𝛅𝒊𝛅𝒋 ∙ 𝛅𝒌𝛅𝒍 = 𝛅𝒊 𝛅𝒋 ∙ 𝛅𝒌 𝛅𝒍 = δ𝑗𝑘 𝛅𝒊𝛅𝒍

11-01-2021 CL 305 2
 TENSOR IN TERMS OF COMPONENTS
𝛕 = 𝛅𝟏 𝛅𝟏 𝜏11 + 𝛅𝟏 𝛅𝟐 𝜏12 + 𝛅𝟏 𝛅𝟑 𝜏13

+ 𝛅𝟐 𝛅𝟏 𝜏21 + 𝛅𝟐 𝛅𝟐 𝜏22 + 𝛅𝟐 𝛅𝟑 𝜏23

+ 𝛅𝟑 𝛅𝟏 𝜏31 + 𝛅𝟑 𝛅𝟐 𝜏32 + 𝛅𝟑 𝛅𝟑 𝜏33

3 3

= ෍ ෍ 𝛅𝒊 𝛅𝒋 𝜏𝑖𝑗 (𝜏𝑖𝑗 are the components of the tensor 𝛕)

𝑖=1 𝑗=1

Symmetric Tensors : 𝜏𝑖𝑗 = 𝜏𝑗𝑖

Antisymmetric Tensors : 𝜏𝑖𝑗 = −𝜏𝑗𝑖

11-01-2021 CL 305 3
 TENSOR IN TERMS OF COMPONENTS
𝛕 = ෍ ෍ 𝛅𝒊 𝛅𝒋 𝜏𝑖𝑗
𝑖 𝑗

Transpose of a Tensor: 𝛕† = ෍ ෍ 𝛅𝒊 𝛅𝒋 𝜏𝑗𝑖

𝑖 𝑗

Dyadic Product of Vectors: 𝐯𝐰 = ෍ ෍ 𝛅𝒊 𝛅𝒋 𝑣𝑖 𝑤𝑗

𝑖 𝑗

𝐯𝐰 ≠ 𝐰𝐯 𝐯𝐰 = 𝐰𝐯 †

11-01-2021 CL 305 4
 TENSOR IN TERMS OF COMPONENTS
1 0 0
Unit Tensor or Identity Tensor: 𝛅 = ෍ ෍ 𝛅𝒊 𝛅𝒋 𝛿𝑖𝑗 = ෍ 𝛅𝒊 𝛅𝒊 = 0 1 0
𝑖 𝑗 𝑖 0 0 1

𝛅∙𝐯=𝐯∙𝛅=𝐯 𝛅∙𝛕=𝛕∙𝛅=𝛕

Magnitude of a Tensor: 1 1
𝛕 =𝜏= 𝛕: 𝛕† = σ𝑖 σ𝑗 𝜏𝑖𝑗 2
2 2

11-01-2021 CL 305 5
 TENSOR IN TERMS OF COMPONENTS

Addition of Tensors:

𝛔 + 𝛕 = ෍ ෍ 𝛅𝒊 𝛅𝒋 𝜎𝑖𝑗 + ෍ ෍ 𝛅𝒊 𝛅𝒋 𝜏𝑖𝑗 = ෍ ෍ 𝛅𝒊 𝛅𝒋 𝜎𝑖𝑗 + 𝜏𝑖𝑗

𝑖 𝑗 𝑖 𝑗 𝑖 𝑗

Multiplication of a Tensor (𝛕) by a Scalar (𝑠):

𝑠𝛕 = 𝑠 ෍ ෍ 𝛅𝒊 𝛅𝒋 𝜏𝑖𝑗 = ෍ ෍ 𝛅𝒊 𝛅𝒋 𝑠𝜏𝑖𝑗
𝑖 𝑗 𝑖 𝑗

11-01-2021 CL 305 6
 TENSOR MULTIPLICATION
Scalar Product or Double Dot Product of Tensors:

𝛔: 𝛕 = ෍ ෍ 𝛅𝒊 𝛅𝒋 𝜎𝑖𝑗 : ෍ ෍ 𝛅𝒌 𝛅𝒍 𝜏𝑘𝑙
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘 𝑙

= ෍ ෍ ෍ ෍ 𝛅𝒊 𝛅𝒋 : 𝛅𝒌 𝛅𝒍 𝜎𝑖𝑗 𝜏𝑘𝑙
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘 𝑙

= ෍ ෍ ෍ ෍ 𝛿𝑖𝑙 𝛿𝑗𝑘 𝜎𝑖𝑗 𝜏𝑘𝑙 = ෍ ෍ 𝜎𝑖𝑗 𝜏𝑗𝑖

𝑖 𝑗 𝑘 𝑙 𝑖 𝑗

Double dot product is commutative: 𝛔: 𝛕 = 𝛕: 𝛔

11-01-2021 CL 305 7
 TENSOR MULTIPLICATION
Tensor Product or Single Dot Product of Tensors:

𝛔 ∙ 𝛕 = ෍ ෍ 𝛅𝒊 𝛅𝒋 𝜎𝑖𝑗 ∙ ෍ ෍ 𝛅𝒌 𝛅𝒍 𝜏𝑘𝑙
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘 𝑙

= ෍ ෍ ෍ ෍ 𝛅𝒊 𝛅𝒋 ∙ 𝛅𝒌 𝛅𝒍 𝜎𝑖𝑗 𝜏𝑘𝑙
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘 𝑙

= ෍ ෍ ෍ ෍ 𝛿𝑗𝑘 𝛅𝒊 𝛅𝒍 𝜎𝑖𝑗 𝜏𝑘𝑙 = ෍ ෍ 𝛅𝒊 𝛅𝒍 ෍ 𝜎𝑖𝑗 𝜏𝑗𝑙

𝑖 𝑗 𝑘 𝑙 𝑖 𝑙 𝑗

11-01-2021 CL 305 8
 TENSOR MULTIPLICATION
Vector Product or Dot Product of a Tensor with a Vector:

𝛕 ∙ 𝐯 = ෍ ෍ 𝛅𝒊 𝛅𝒋 𝜏𝑖𝑗 ∙ ෍ 𝛅𝒌 𝑣𝑘
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘

= ෍ ෍ ෍ 𝛅𝒊 𝛅𝒋 ∙ 𝛅𝒌 𝜏𝑖𝑗 𝑣𝑘
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘

= ෍ ෍ ෍ ෍ 𝛅𝒊 𝛿𝑗𝑘 𝜏𝑖𝑗 𝑣𝑘 = ෍ 𝛅𝒊 ෍ 𝜏𝑖𝑗 𝑣𝑗

𝑖 𝑗 𝑘 𝑙 𝑖 𝑗

11-01-2021 CL 305 9
 TENSOR MULTIPLICATION
Tensor Product or Cross Product of a Tensor with a Vector:

𝛕 × 𝐯 = ෍ ෍ 𝛅𝒊 𝛅𝒋 𝜏𝑖𝑗 × ෍ 𝛅𝒌 𝑣𝑘
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘

= ෍ ෍ ෍ 𝛅𝒊 𝛅𝒋 × 𝛅𝒌 𝜏𝑖𝑗 𝑣𝑘
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘

= ෍ ෍ ෍ ෍ 𝜀𝑗𝑘𝑙 𝛅𝒊 𝛅𝒍 𝜏𝑖𝑗 𝑣𝑘 = ෍ ෍ 𝛅𝒊 𝛅𝒍 ෍ ෍ 𝜀𝑗𝑘𝑙 𝜏𝑖𝑗 𝑣𝑘

𝑖 𝑗 𝑘 𝑙 𝑖 𝑙 𝑗 𝑘

11-01-2021 CL 305 10
 DIFFERENTIAL OPERATIONS
Vector Differential Operator, ∇: Nabla or Del
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇= 𝛅𝟏 + 𝛅𝟐 + 𝛅𝟑 = ෍ 𝛅𝒊
𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑥3 𝜕𝑥𝑖
𝑖

𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑠
Gradient of a Scalar Field, 𝑠 : ∇𝑠 = 𝛅𝟏 + 𝛅𝟐 + 𝛅𝟑 = ෍ 𝛅𝒊
𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑥3 𝜕𝑥𝑖
𝑖

𝜕𝑣𝑖
Divergence of a Vector Field: ∇∙𝐯 =෍ (𝐯 is the vector field)
𝜕𝑥𝑖
𝑖

𝜕𝑣3 𝜕𝑣2 𝜕𝑣1 𝜕𝑣3 𝜕𝑣2 𝜕𝑣1

Curl of a Vector Field, 𝐯: ∇ × 𝐯 = 𝛅𝟏 − + 𝛅𝟐 − + 𝛅𝟑 −
𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑥3 𝜕𝑥3 𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥2
11-01-2021 CL 305 11
 CL 305
TRANSPORT PHENOMENA
VECTOR DIFFERENTIAL OPERATIONS,
MOMENTUM TRANSPORT

INSTRUCTOR
Dr. Amit Kumar
Department of Chemical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati
 UNIT DYADS: OPERATIONS

𝛅𝒊𝛅𝒋 ∶ 𝛅𝒌𝛅𝒍 = 𝛅𝒋 ∙ 𝛅𝒌 𝛅𝒊 ∙ 𝛅𝒍 = δ𝑗𝑘 δ𝑖𝑙

3

𝛅𝒊 𝛅𝒋 × 𝛅𝒌 = 𝛅𝒊 𝛅𝒋 × 𝛅𝒌 = ෍ 𝜀𝑗𝑘𝑙 𝛅𝒊 𝛅𝒍
𝛅𝒊 𝛅𝒋 ∙ 𝛅𝒌 = 𝛅𝒊 𝛅𝒋 ∙ 𝛅𝒌 = 𝛅𝒊 δ𝑗𝑘
𝑙=1

𝛅𝒊 ∙ 𝛅𝒋 𝛅𝒌 = 𝛅𝒊 ∙ 𝛅𝒋 𝛅𝒌 = δ𝑖𝑗 𝛅𝒌 3

𝛅𝒊 × 𝛅𝒋 𝛅𝒌 = 𝛅𝒊 × 𝛅𝒋 𝛅𝒌 = ෍ 𝜀𝑖𝑗𝑙 𝛅𝒍 𝛅𝒌
𝑙=1
𝛅𝒊𝛅𝒋 ∙ 𝛅𝒌𝛅𝒍 = 𝛅𝒊 𝛅𝒋 ∙ 𝛅𝒌 𝛅𝒍 = δ𝑗𝑘 𝛅𝒊𝛅𝒍

12-01-2021 CL 305 2
 DIFFERENTIAL OPERATIONS
Vector Differential Operator, ∇: Nabla or Del

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇= 𝛅𝟏 + 𝛅𝟐 + 𝛅𝟑 = ෍ 𝛅𝒊
𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑥3 𝜕𝑥𝑖
𝑖

𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑠
Gradient of a Scalar Field: ∇𝑠 = 𝛅𝟏 + 𝛅𝟐 + 𝛅𝟑 = ෍ 𝛅𝒊
𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑥3 𝜕𝑥𝑖
𝑖

𝜕𝑣𝑖
Divergence of a Vector Field: ∇∙𝐯 =෍
𝜕𝑥𝑖
𝑖

𝜕𝑣3 𝜕𝑣2 𝜕𝑣1 𝜕𝑣3 𝜕𝑣2 𝜕𝑣1

Curl of a Vector Field: ∇ × 𝐯 = 𝛅𝟏 − + 𝛅𝟐 − + 𝛅𝟑 −
𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑥3 𝜕𝑥3 𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥2
12-01-2021 CL 305 3
 DIVERGENCE
DIFFERENTIAL
OF AOPERATIONS
TENSOR FIELD
Curl of a Vector Field:

𝜕𝑣3 𝜕𝑣2 𝜕𝑣1 𝜕𝑣3 𝜕𝑣2 𝜕𝑣1 𝜕𝑣𝑗

∇ × 𝐯 = 𝛅𝟏 − + 𝛅𝟐 − + 𝛅𝟑 − = ෍ ෍ ෍ 𝛅𝒌 𝜀𝑖𝑗𝑘
𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑥3 𝜕𝑥3 𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑥𝑖
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘

Divergence of a Tensor Field, ∇ ∙ 𝛕 : It is a vector.

𝜕 𝜕𝜏𝑖𝑗
∇ ∙ 𝛕 = ෍ 𝛅𝒊 ∙ ෍ ෍ 𝛅𝒊 𝛅𝒋 𝜏𝑖𝑗 = ෍ ෍ 𝛅𝒋
𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝜕𝑥𝑖
𝑖 𝑖 𝑗 𝑖 𝑗

12-01-2021 CL 305 4
 DIFFERENTIAL OPERATIONS

Gradient of a Vector Field, ∇𝐯 : It is a second order tensor.

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇𝐯 = 𝛅𝟏 + 𝛅𝟐 + 𝛅𝟑 𝛅1 𝑣1 + 𝛅2 𝑣2 + 𝛅3 𝑣3
𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑥3

𝜕𝑣1 𝜕𝑣2 𝜕𝑣3 𝜕𝑣1 𝜕𝑣2 𝜕𝑣3

= ൭𝛅𝟏 𝛅1 + 𝛅𝟏 𝛅𝟐 + 𝛅𝟏 𝛅𝟑 + 𝛅𝟐 𝛅1 + 𝛅𝟐 𝛅𝟐 + 𝛅𝟐 𝛅𝟑
𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑥2

𝜕𝑣1 𝜕𝑣2 𝜕𝑣3 𝜕𝑣𝑗

+𝛅𝟑 𝛅1 + 𝛅𝟑 𝛅𝟐 + 𝛅𝟑 𝛅𝟑 ቇ = ෍ ෍ 𝛅𝒊 𝛅𝑗
𝜕𝑥3 𝜕𝑥3 𝜕𝑥3 𝜕𝑥𝑖
𝑖 𝑗

12-01-2021 CL 305 5
 DIFFERENTIAL OPERATIONS
Laplacian,∇2 : It is the dot product of the del operator with itself, i.e., ∇ ∙ ∇= ∇2

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇ ∙ ∇= ∇2 = 𝛅𝟏 + 𝛅𝟐 + 𝛅𝟑 ∙ 𝛅𝟏 + 𝛅𝟐 + 𝛅𝟑
𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑥3 𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑥3

𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2
= 2+ 2+ 2 =෍
𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑥3 𝜕𝑥𝑖2
𝑖

Laplacian of a scalar field, 𝑠: Laplacian of a vector field,𝐯:

2𝑠 2𝐯 2
𝜕 2
𝜕 𝜕 𝑣𝑗
∇2 𝑠 = ෍ 2 ∇ 𝐯 = ෍ 2 = ෍ ෍ 2 𝛅𝑗
𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝜕𝑥𝑖
𝑖 𝑖 𝑖 𝑗
12-01-2021 CL 305 6
 MATERIAL DERIVATIVE
Also called substantial derivative or particle derivative

𝐷
If 𝑡 is time and 𝐯 is the local fluid velocity, the material derivative is
𝐷𝑡

𝐷 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
= + 𝐯 ∙ ∇= + ෍ 𝑣𝑖
𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥𝑖
𝑖

Material derivative gives the rate of change of a field variable as perceived by an observer
moving with the fluid.

12-01-2021 CL 305 7
 INTEGRAL TRANSFORMATIONS

න ∇𝑓 𝑑𝑉 = න 𝐧𝑓 𝑑𝑠 𝑆 is a surface that completely encloses the volume 𝑉

𝑉 𝑆
The functions 𝑓 , 𝐯 and 𝛕 are continuous and have
continuous partial derivatives in 𝑉 and on 𝑆.
න ∇ ∙ 𝐯 𝑑𝑉 = න 𝐧 ∙ 𝐯 𝑑𝑠 At every point on the surface 𝑆, there are definite inward
𝑉 𝑆 and outward directions depending on whether a vector on
the surface points towards or away from 𝑉 respectively.

𝐧 is a unit outward normal on 𝑆.

න ∇ ∙ 𝛕 𝑑𝑉 = න 𝐧 ∙ 𝛕 𝑑𝑠
𝑉 𝑆

12-01-2021 CL 305 8
 DIFFUSIVE FLUXES
• Momentum, energy and matter tend to move from regions of higher to lower
concentration.

• Fluxes of momentum, energy or mass have two components:

• Convective Transport: Due to bulk motion
• Diffusive or Molecular Transport: Due to intermolecular interactions and relative
molecular motion.

• Constitutive equations relate the diffusive fluxes to gradients (in velocity, temperature or
concentration) and material properties. These relations in many cases are empirical.
Examples:
• Fourier’s law of heat conduction: 𝐪 = −𝑘∇𝑇
(𝑀)
• Fick’s law of diffusion (in binary mixture): 𝐉𝐴 = −𝐶𝐷𝐴𝐵 ∇𝑥𝐴
12-01-2021 CL 305 9
 MOLECULAR MOMENTUM TRANSPORT
Fluid initially
Fluid between two Parallel Plates
𝑡<0 at rest

Newton’s Law of Viscosity

Lower plate
𝑡=0 set in motion 𝑑𝑣𝑥 (Shearing force per unit
in +ve 𝑥 direction 𝜏𝑦𝑥 = −𝜇 area is proportional to
𝑉 𝑑𝑦 the velocity gradient)

Velocity buildup 𝜇: Viscosity of the fluid

𝑣𝑥 (𝑦, 𝑡)
Small 𝑡 in unsteady flow
𝑉 𝜏𝑦𝑥 : Force in the 𝑥 direction on a unit area
perpendicular to the 𝑦 direction exerted by
Final velocity the fluid at lesser 𝑦 on the fluid at greater 𝑦.
𝑣𝑥 (𝑦)
distribution in
Large 𝑡 steady flow Not applicable for polymeric liquids,
𝑉 suspensions, pastes, slurries etc.
Steady, Laminar Profile
12-01-2021 CL 305 10
 CL 305
TRANSPORT PHENOMENA
STRESS TENSOR, NEWTON’S LAW OF VISCOSITY

INSTRUCTOR
Dr. Amit Kumar
Department of Chemical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati
 MOLECULAR MOMENTUM TRANSPORT
Fluid initially
Fluid between two Parallel Plates
𝑡<0 at rest

Newton’s Law of Viscosity

Lower plate
𝑡=0 set in motion 𝑑𝑣𝑥 (Shearing force per unit
in +ve 𝑥 direction 𝜏𝑦𝑥 = −𝜇 area is proportional to
𝑉 𝑑𝑦 the velocity gradient)

Velocity buildup 𝜇: Viscosity of the fluid

𝑣𝑥 (𝑦, 𝑡)
Small 𝑡 in unsteady flow
𝑉 𝜏𝑦𝑥 : Force in the 𝑥 direction on a unit area
perpendicular to the 𝑦 direction exerted by
Final velocity the fluid at lesser 𝑦 on the fluid at greater 𝑦.
𝑣𝑥 (𝑦)
distribution in
Large 𝑡 steady flow Not applicable for polymeric liquids,
𝑉 suspensions, pastes, slurries etc.
Steady, Laminar Profile
12-01-2021 CL 305 2
 MOLECULAR MOMENTUM TRANSPORT
• Next to the solid surface at 𝑦 = 0, the fluid layer acquires some 𝑥-momentum.

• This fluid layer imparts 𝑥-momentum to the adjacent fluid layer.

• 𝑥 momentum is being transmitted through the fluid in the positive 𝑦 direction.

• 𝜏𝑦𝑥 can be interpreted as the flux of 𝑥-momentum in the positive y direction.

• Velocity gradient can be thought of as the driving force for momentum transport.
𝜇 𝑑𝑣𝑥 𝑑 𝜌𝑣𝑥
• Kinematic viscosity: 𝜈= 𝜏𝑦𝑥 = −𝜇 = −𝜈
𝜌 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
(𝜈 ∶Momentum Diffusivity)
13-01-2021 CL 305 3
 STRESS TENSOR
In the general case, velocity can be a function of all special coordinates and time.

𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣𝑥 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡) 𝑣𝑦 = 𝑣𝑦 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡) 𝑣𝑧 = 𝑣𝑧 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡)

In general, there will be nine stress components, 𝜏𝑖𝑗

𝜏𝑥𝑥 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜏𝑥𝑧

Viscous stress tensor: 𝛕 = 𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝜏𝑦𝑦 𝜏𝑦𝑧 𝛕 is symmetric. So, 𝜏𝑖𝑗 = 𝜏𝑗𝑖
𝜏𝑧𝑥 𝜏𝑧𝑦 𝜏𝑧𝑧

(𝛅 is the unit tensor or identity tensor)

Molecular stress tensor: 𝛑 = 𝑝𝛅 + 𝛕
𝑝 is the pressure.
13-01-2021 CL 305 4
 MOLECULAR STRESS TENSOR
Molecular stress tensor: 𝛑 = 𝑝𝛅 + 𝛕 (𝛅 is the unit tensor or identity tensor)

𝑝 + 𝜏𝑥𝑥 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜏𝑥𝑧

𝛑= 𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝑝 + 𝜏𝑦𝑦 𝜏𝑦𝑧 𝜋𝑖𝑗 = 𝑝𝛿𝑖𝑗 + 𝜏𝑖𝑗
𝜏𝑧𝑥 𝜏𝑧𝑦 𝑝 + 𝜏𝑧𝑧

𝜋𝑖𝑗 : Force in the 𝑗 direction on a unit area perpendicular to the 𝑖 direction exerted by
the fluid at lesser 𝑖 on the fluid at greater 𝑖.

𝜋𝑖𝑗 : Flux of 𝑗 momentum in the positive 𝑖 direction (from lesser 𝑖 to greater 𝑖)

Normal Stresses: 𝜋𝑥𝑥 = 𝑝 + 𝜏𝑥𝑥 𝜋𝑦𝑦 = 𝑝 + 𝜏𝑦𝑦 𝜋𝑧𝑧 = 𝑝 + 𝜏𝑧𝑧

Shear Stresses : 𝜋𝑥𝑦 = 𝜏𝑥𝑦 , 𝜋𝑦𝑧 = 𝜏𝑦𝑧 , 𝜋𝑧𝑥 = 𝜏𝑧𝑥 etc.
13-01-2021 CL 305 5
GENERALIZATION OF NEWTON’S LAW OF VISCOSITY

†
2
𝛕 = −𝜇 ∇𝐯 + ∇𝐯 + 𝜇−𝜅 ∇∙𝐯 𝛅 (𝛅 is the unit tensor or identity tensor)
3

∇𝐯: Velocity gradient tensor

𝜅 : Dilatational viscosity (zero for ideal monoatomic gases)

𝜕𝑣𝑗 𝜕𝑣𝑖 2 𝜕𝑣𝑥 𝜕𝑣𝑦 𝜕𝑣𝑧

𝜏𝑖𝑗 = −𝜇 + + 𝜇−𝜅 + + 𝛿𝑖𝑗
𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝜕𝑥𝑗 3 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

13-01-2021 CL 305 6
GENERALIZATION OF NEWTON’S LAW OF VISCOSITY
Newtonian Fluids: The expressions for viscous shear stresses in Cartesian coordinates are

𝜕𝑣𝑦 𝜕𝑣𝑥 𝜕𝑣𝑧 𝜕𝑣𝑦 𝜕𝑣𝑥 𝜕𝑣𝑧

𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 𝜏𝑦𝑥 = −𝜇 + 𝜏𝑦𝑧 = 𝜏𝑧𝑦 = −𝜇 + 𝜏𝑧𝑥 = 𝜏𝑥𝑧 = −𝜇 +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥

The expressions for normal viscous stresses are:

𝜕𝑣𝑥 2
𝜏𝑥𝑥 = −2𝜇 + 𝜇−𝜅 ∇∙𝐯
𝜕𝑥 3
𝜕𝑣𝑦 2
𝜏𝑦𝑦 = −2𝜇 + 𝜇−𝜅 ∇∙𝐯 𝜅 is called the dilatational viscosity or bulk viscosity
𝜕𝑦 3
or volume viscosity or second coefficient of viscosity
𝜕𝑣𝑧 2
𝜏𝑧𝑧 = −2𝜇 + 𝜇−𝜅 ∇∙𝐯
𝜕𝑧 3
13-01-2021 CL 305 7
 CL 305
TRANSPORT PHENOMENA
INTRODUCTION

INSTRUCTOR
Dr. Amit Kumar
Department of Chemical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati
 CONTENT

• GENERAL INFORMATION

• SYLLABUS

• BOOKS

• ASSESSMENT AND GRADING

• INTRODUCTION TO TRANSPORT PHENOMENA

05-01-2021 CL 305 2
 GENERAL INFORMATION

Timing:
Monday : 2:00-2:55 PM
Tuesday : 2:00-2:55 PM
Wednesday : 2:00-2:55 PM

Platforms:
MS Teams: Grp_CL305_Transport-Phenomena_2021
Link:
https://teams.microsoft.com/l/team/19%3adffd92aef66b49b7b404f7a09
5378d97%40thread.tacv2/conversations?groupId=ac6e5e3b-0843-435f-
8d7d-40b3ee77471b&tenantId=850aa78d-94e1-4bc6-9cf3-8c11b530701c

Moodle (only for tutorials, quizzes)

05-01-2021 CL 305 3
 SYLLABUS
Introduction to transport phenomena, Vector and tensor calculus, Mechanisms of momentum
transport, Shell momentum balances, solution of problems on velocity distribution in laminar
flow using shell momentum balance, Mass and momentum conservation equations for
isothermal systems, Applications of differential equations of mass and momentum
conservation for laminar flow, Potential flow, Boundary Layer theory, Transport phenomena of
non-Newtonian fluids, Mechanisms of energy transport, Shell energy balances solution of
problems on temperature distribution in solids and in laminar flow, Equations of change for
non-isothermal systems, Applications of equations of change, Mechanisms of mass transport,
Shell mass balances Applications of shell mass balances, Equations of change for multi-
component systems, solution of problems on concentration distributions in solids and in
laminar flow, Methods of solution of momentum, heat and mass transfer problems with more
than one independent variable.

05-01-2021 CL 305 4
 BOOKS
Text Book:
• B. R. Bird, E. W. Stewart, N. E. Lightfoot, Transport Phenomena, 2nd Ed., John Wiley & Sons, 2003.

Reference Books:
• W. M. Deen, Analysis of Transport Phenomena, 2nd Ed., Oxford University Press, 2013.

• L. Gary Leal, Advanced Transport Phenomena, Cambridge University Press, 2007.

• R. E. Treybal, Mass Transfer Operations, 3rd Ed., McGraw -Hill International Edition, 1981

• K. S. Gandhi, Heat and Mass Transfer: A Transport Phenomena Approach, New Age International
Publishers, 2011.

05-01-2021 CL 305 5
 ASSESSMENT AND GRADING

COMPONENT WEIGHT (tentative)

ASSIGNMENTS 20%
TUTORIALS 35%
QUIZZES 45%

• There will be no separate mid-semester or end-semester examination.

• The final grade will be based on the total score obtained in all the components listed above.
Relative grading will be used to assign the final grade.
• For each student, the seven tutorials in which the student scores the most points will be considered
• For each student, the three quizzes in which the student scores the most points will be considered
• Tutorials and quizzes will be conducted through Moodle unless announced otherwise.

05-01-2021 CL 305 6
 INTRODUCTION

Transport phenomena is the integrated study of momentum, energy and mass transport.

Unifies fluid dynamics, heat transfer and mass transfer.

• Transport of momentum, heat and mass often occur simultaneously

• The basic equations describing the transport of momentum, energy and mass are similar

• The molecular mechanisms underlying the transport of momentum, energy and mass are similar

05-01-2021 CL 305 7
 INTRODUCTION

Transport of momentum, heat and mass can be studied at different levels:

• Macroscopic Level: Macroscopic balances

• Microscopic Level: Equations of change

• Molecular Level: Mechanisms in terms of molecular structure, motion and interactions.

05-01-2021 CL 305 8
 CL 305
TRANSPORT PHENOMENA
VECTORS AND TENSORS

INSTRUCTOR
Dr. Amit Kumar
Department of Chemical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati
 VECTOR MULTIPLICATION
Vector: Quantity with a definite magnitude and direction

Magnitude of a vector, 𝐯: Represented by either 𝐯 or 𝑣

Scalar Product or Dot Product:

Consider two vectors 𝐯 and 𝐰. Their scalar product (or dot product) is defined as

𝐯 ∙ 𝐰 = 𝐯 𝐰 cos 𝜙𝐯𝐰

𝜙𝐯𝐰 is the angle between the vectors 𝐯 and 𝐰.

Scalar product of a vector with itself is the square of its magnitude:

𝐯∙𝐯 = 𝐯 𝐯 = 𝐯 2 = 𝑣2

06-01-2021 CL 305 2
 VECTOR MULTIPLICATION

Scalar Product or Dot Product: Governing rules are

Commutative: 𝐯∙𝐰 = 𝐰∙𝐯

Distributive: 𝐮∙ 𝐯+𝐰 = 𝐮∙𝐯 + 𝐮∙𝐰

NOT Associative: (𝐮 ∙ 𝐯)𝐰 ≠ 𝐮 𝐯 ∙ 𝐰

06-01-2021 CL 305 3
 VECTOR MULTIPLICATION
Vector Product or Cross Product:

Consider two vectors 𝐯 and 𝐰. Their vector product (or cross product) is defined as

𝐯×𝐰 = 𝐯 𝐰 sin 𝜙𝐯𝐰 𝐧𝐯𝐰

𝜙𝐯𝐰 is the angle between the vectors 𝐯 and 𝐰, and 𝐧𝐯𝐰 is a unit vector perpendicular to both 𝐯 and
𝐰 and pointing in a direction given by the right hand rule.

Vector product of a vector with itself is zero: 𝐯 × 𝐯 = 0

NOT Commutative: 𝐯×𝐰 =− 𝐰×𝐯 (anti-commutative)

Distributive: 𝐮× 𝐯+𝐰 = 𝐮×𝐯 + 𝐮×𝐰

NOT Associative: 𝐮× 𝐯×𝐰 ≠ 𝐮×𝐯 ×𝐰

06-01-2021 CL 305 4
VECTOR OPERATIONS IN TERMS OF COMPONENTS
Kronecker Delta, 𝛿𝑖𝑗 :

𝛿𝑖𝑗 = +1 if 𝑖=𝑗

𝛿𝑖𝑗 = 0 if 𝑖≠𝑗

1
Permutation Symbol, 𝜀𝑖𝑗𝑘 : 𝜀𝑖𝑗𝑘 = 𝑖−𝑗 𝑗−𝑘 𝑘−𝑖
2

𝜀𝑖𝑗𝑘 = +1 if 𝑖𝑗𝑘 = 123, 231 or 312

𝜀𝑖𝑗𝑘 = −1 if 𝑖𝑗𝑘 = 321, 132 or 213

𝜀𝑖𝑗𝑘 = 0 if any two indices are alike

06-01-2021 CL 305 5
 UNIT VECTORS
Let 𝛅1 , 𝛅2 , and 𝛅3 be the unit vectors along the 1, 2 and 3 axis respectively.

Taken from Transport Phenomena by Bird, Stewart, Lightfoot.

𝛅𝑖 ∙ 𝛅𝑗 = 𝛿𝑖𝑗 𝛅𝑖 × 𝛅𝑗 = ෍ 𝜀𝑖𝑗𝑘 𝛅𝑘
𝑘=1

06-01-2021 CL 305 6
 VECTOR IN TERMS OF COMPONENTS
3

𝐯 = 𝛅1 𝑣1 + 𝛅2 𝑣2 + 𝛅3 𝑣3 = ෍ 𝛅𝑖 𝑣𝑖
𝑖=1

𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3 are the projections of the vector 𝐯 on the 1, 2 and 3 axis respectively. These are called the
components of the vector 𝐯.

Magnitude of a vector is given by

𝐯 =𝑣= 𝑣12 + 𝑣22 + 𝑣32 = ෍ 𝑣𝑖2

𝑖

Scalar Product or Dot Product:

𝐯∙𝐰 = ෍ 𝛅𝑖 𝑣𝑖 ∙ ෍ 𝛅𝑗 𝑤𝑗 = ෍ ෍ 𝛅𝑖 ∙ 𝛅𝑗 𝑣𝑖 𝑤𝑗 = ෍ 𝑣𝑖 𝑤𝑖
𝑖 𝑗 𝑖 𝑗 𝑖

06-01-2021 CL 305 7
 VECTOR IN TERMS OF COMPONENTS

Vector Product or Cross Product:

𝛅1 𝛅2 𝛅3
𝐯×𝐰 = ෍ 𝛅𝑗 𝑣𝑗 × ෍ 𝛅𝑘 𝑤𝑘 = ෍ ෍ ෍ 𝜀𝑖𝑗𝑘 𝛅𝑖 𝑣𝑗 𝑤𝑘 = 𝑣1 𝑣2 𝑣3
𝑗 𝑘 𝑖 𝑗 𝑘 𝑤1 𝑤2 𝑤3

Dyadic Product of Vectors: 𝐯𝐰 = ෍ ෍ 𝛅𝑖 𝛅𝑗 𝑣𝑖 𝑤𝑗

𝑖 𝑗
These are tensors of the second order

𝛅𝑖 𝛅𝑗 are called unit dyads

06-01-2021 CL 305 8
 UNIT DYADS

Dyadic Product : 𝐯𝐰 = ෍ ෍ 𝛅𝑖 𝛅𝑗 𝑣𝑖 𝑤𝑗
𝑖 𝑗

These are tensors of the second order

𝛅𝑖 𝛅𝑗 are called unit dyads

Taken from Transport Phenomena

06-01-2021 CL 305 9
by Bird, Stewart, Lightfoot.
 UNIT DYADS: OPERATIONS

𝛅𝒊𝛅𝒋 ∶ 𝛅𝒌𝛅𝒍 = 𝛅𝒋 ∙ 𝛅𝒌 𝛅𝒊 ∙ 𝛅𝒍 = δ𝑗𝑘 δ𝑖𝑙

3

𝛅𝒊 𝛅𝒋 × 𝛅𝒌 = 𝛅𝒊 𝛅𝒋 × 𝛅𝒌 = ෍ 𝜀𝑗𝑘𝑙 𝛅𝒊 𝛅𝒍
𝛅𝒊 𝛅𝒋 ∙ 𝛅𝒌 = 𝛅𝒊 𝛅𝒋 ∙ 𝛅𝒌 = 𝛅𝒊 δ𝑗𝑘
𝑙=1

𝛅𝒊 ∙ 𝛅𝒋 𝛅𝒌 = 𝛅𝒊 ∙ 𝛅𝒋 𝛅𝒌 = δ𝑖𝑗 𝛅𝒌 3

𝛅𝒊 × 𝛅𝒋 𝛅𝒌 = 𝛅𝒊 × 𝛅𝒋 𝛅𝒌 = ෍ 𝜀𝑖𝑗𝑙 𝛅𝒍 𝛅𝒌
𝑙=1
𝛅𝒊𝛅𝒋 ∙ 𝛅𝒌𝛅𝒍 = 𝛅𝒊 𝛅𝒋 ∙ 𝛅𝒌 𝛅𝒍 = δ𝑗𝑘 𝛅𝒊𝛅𝒍

06-01-2021 CL 305 10
Appendix A

Vector and Tensor ~otation'

Vector operations from a geometrical viewpoint
Vector operations in terms of components
Tensor operations in terms of components
Vector and tensor differential operations
Vector and tensor integral theorems
Vector and tensor algebra in curvilinear coordinates
Differential operations in curvilinear coordinates
Integral operations in curvilinear coordinates
Further comments on vector-tensor notation

The physical quantities encountered in transport phenomena fall into three categories:
scalars, such as temperature, pressure, volume, and time; vectors, such as velocity, mo-
mentum, and force; and (second-order) tensors, such as the stress, momentum flux, and
velocity gradient tensors. We distinguish among these quantities by the following
notation:
s = scalar (lightface Italic)
v = vector
(boldface Roman)
T = second-order tensor (boldface Greek)

In addition, boldface Greek symbols with one subscript (such as i3J are vectors.
For vectors and tensors, several different kinds of multiplication are possible. Some
of these require the use of special multiplication signs to be defined later: the single dot
(m),the double dot (:), and the cross (X). We enclose these special multiplications, or sums
thereof, in different kinds of parentheses to indicate the type of result produced:
( ) = scalar
[ 1 = vector
( } = second-order tensor

No special significance is attached to the kind of parentheses if the only operations en-
closed are addition and subtraction, or a multiplication in which ., :, and x do not ap-
pear. Hence (v w) and (.r:Vv)are scalars, [V x v] and [I v] are vectors, and {v.V T }and

'
This appendix is very similar to Appendix A of R. B. Bird, R. C. Armstrong, and 0. Hassager,
Dynamics of Polymeric Liquids, Vol. I , Fluid Mechanics, 2nd edition, Wiley-Interscience, New York (1987).
There, in 98, a discussion of nonorthogonal coordinates is given. Also in Table A.7-4, there is a summary
of the del operations for bipolar coordinates.
808 Appendix A Vector and Tensor Notation

{a T .
+ 7 a}are second-order tensors. On the other hand, v - w may be written as
(V - w), [V- w], or {V - w}, since no dot or cross operations appear. Similarly vw, (vw),
[vwl, and {vw)are all equivalent.
Actually, scalars can be regarded as zero-order tensors and vectors as first-order ten-
sors. The multiplication signs may be interpreted thus:

Multiplication Sign Order of Result

None
X

in which C represents the sum of the orders of the quantities being multiplied. For exam-
ple, ST is of the order 0 + 2 = 2, vw is of the order 1 + 1 = 2,6,6, is of the order 1 + 1 =
2 , [ v x w l i s o f t h e o r d e r 1 + 1 - 1 = l,(a:.r)isoftheorder2+2 - 4 = O , a n d ( o . ~ } i s o f
the order 2 + 2 - 2 = 2.
The basic operations that can be performed on scalar quantities need not be elabo-
rated on here. However, the laws for the algebra of scalars may be used to illustrate
three terms that arise in the subsequent discussion of vector operations:
a. For the multiplication of two scalars, r and s, the order of multiplication is imma-
terial so that the commutative law is valid: rs = sr.
b. For the successive multiplication of three scalars, q, r, and s, the order in which
the multiplications are performed is immaterial, so that the associative law is
valid: (qr)s = q(rs).
c. For the multiplication of a scalar s by the sum of scalars p, q, and r, it is immater-
ial whether the addition or multiplication is performed first, so that the distribu-
tive law is valid: s(p + q + r) = sp + sq + sr.
These laws are not generally valid for the analogous vector and tensor operations de-
scribed in the following paragraphs.

A VECTOR OPERATIONS FROM

A GEOMETRICAL VIEWPOINT
In elementary physics courses, one is introduced to vectors from a geometrical stand-
point. In this section we extend this approach to include the operations of vector multi-
plication. In 9A.2 we give a parallel analytic treatment.

Definition of a Vector and Its Magnitude

A vector v is defined as a quantity of a given magnitude and direction. The magnitude of
the vector is designated by Ivl or simply by the corresponding lightface symbol v. Two
vectors v and w are equal when their magnitudes are equal and when they point in the
same direction; they do not have to be collinear or have the same point of origin. If v and
w have the same magnitude but point in opposite directions, then v = -w.

Addition and Subtraction of Vectors

The addition of two vectors can be accomplished by the familiar parallelogram construc-
tion, as indicated by Fig. A.l-la. Vector addition obeys the following laws:
 A Vector Operations from a Geometrical Viewpoint 809

Fig. A.1-1. (a) Addition of vectors;

(b) subtraction of vectors.

Commutative:
Associative:
Vector subtraction is performed by reversing the sign of one vector and adding; thus
v - w = v + (-w). The geometrical construction for this is shown in Fig. A.1-lb.

Multiplication of a Vector by a Scalar

When a vector is multiplied by a scalar, the magnitude of the vector is altered but its di-
rection is not. The following laws are applicable
Commutative: sv = vs (A.1-3)
Associative: r(sv) = (rs)v (A.1-4)
Distributive (q + r + S)V = qv + rv + sv (A.1-5)

Scalar Product (or Dot Product) of Two Vectors

The scalar product of two vectors v and w is a scalar quantity defined by
(v w) = vw cos +, (A.1-6)
in which ,+ is the angle between the vectors v and w. The scalar product is then the
magnitude of w multiplied by the projection of v on w, or vice versa (Fig. A.1-2a). Note
that the scalar product of a vector with itself is just the square of the magnitude of the
vector
(A.1-7)
The rules governing scalar products are as follows:
Commutative: (A.1-8)
Not Associative: (A.1-9)
Distributive: (A.1-10)

The length of this vector equals

w ,4,
.
Area (v w)

Fig. A.1-2. Products of two vectors: (a) the scalar product; (b) the vec-
tor product.
810 Appendix A Vector and Tensor Notation

Vector Product (or Cross Product) of Two Vectors

The vector product of two vectors v and w is a vector defined by
[VX WI = IVW sin +,,In,, (A.1-11)
in which n,, is a vector of unit length (a "unit vector") perpendicular to both v and w
and pointing in the direction that a right-handed screw will move if turned from v to-
ward w through the angle +., The vector product is illustrated in Fig. A.l-2b. The mag-
nitude of the vector product is just the area of the parallelogram defined by the vectors v
and w. It follows from the definition of the vector product that

Note the following summary of laws governing the vector product operation:
Not Commutative: [v X w] = -[w X v]
Not Associative: [UX [VX w]] # [[u X V] X W]
Distributive: [{u + v} X wl = [u X w] + [v X w]

Multiple Products of Vectors

Somewhat more complicated are multiple products formed by combinations of the mul-
tiplication processes just described:

The geometrical interpretations of the first three of these are straightforward. The magni-
tude of (u . [v X w]) can easily be shown to represent the volume of a parallelepiped
with edges defined by the vectors u, v, and w.

EXERCISES I. What are the "orders" of the following quantities: (v - w), (v - u)w, (ab:cd), [v .pwu], [[a X f ]
x [b x gll?
2. Draw a sketch to illustrate the inequality in Eq. A.l-9. Are there any special cases for which it
becomes an equality?
3. A mathematical plane surface of area S has an orientation given by a unit normal vector n,
pointing downstream of the surface. A fluid of density p flows through this surface with a ve-
locity v. Show that the mass rate of flow through the surface is w = p(n - v)S.
4. The angular velocity W of a rotating solid body is a vector whose magnitude is the rate of an-
gular displacement (radians per second) and whose direction is that in which a right-handed
screw would advance if turned in the same direction. The position vector r of a point is the
vector from the origin of coordinates to the point. Show that the velocity of any point in a ro-
tating solid body is v = [W X rl, relative to an origin located on the axis of rotation.
5. A constant force F acts on a body moving with a velocity v, which is not necessarily collinear
with F. Show that the rate at which F does work on the body is W = (F .v).

5A.2 VECTOR OPERATIONS IN TERMS OF COMPONENTS

In this section a parallel analytical treatment is given to each of the topics presented geo-
metrically in sA.1. In the discussion here we restrict ourselves to rectangular coordinates
and label the axes as 1, 2, 3 corresponding to the usual notation of x, y, z; only right-
handed coordinates are used.
 sA.2 Vector Operations in Terms of Components 811

Many formulas can be expressed compactly in terms of the Kronecker delta Sii and the
These quantities are defined thus:
permutation symbol sljk
6, = +I, ifi = j
ifiZj

cijk= +I, if ijk = 123,231, or 312 (A.2-3)

= -1 , if ijk = 321,132, or 213 (A.2-4)
sijk= 0, if any two indices are alike (A.2-5)
= (1/2)(i - j)(j - k)(k - i).
Note also that qjk.
Several relations involving these quantities are useful in proving some vector and
tensor identities
? ?

Note that a three-by-three determinant may be written in terms of the qjk

The quantity s,jkthus selects the necessary terms that appear in the determinant and af-
fixes the proper sign to each term.

The Unit Vectors

Let 6,, 62, 63 be the "unit vectors" (i.e., vectors of unit magnitude) in the direction of the
1,2,3 axes1 (Fig. A.2-1). We can use the definitions of the scalar and vector products to
tabulate all possible products of each type

Fig. A.2-1. The unit

2 vectors 6,; each vector
is of unit magnitude
and points in the ith
1 1 1 direction.

' In most elementary texts the unit vectors are called i, j, k. We prefer to use 6,, 6,, 6, because the
components of these vectors are given by the Kronecker delta. That is, the component of 6, in the 1-
direction is S,, or unity; the component of 6, in the 2-direction is SI2or zero.
812 Appendix A Vector and Tensor Notation

All of these relations may be summarized by the following two relations:

(A.2-14)

in which aii is the Kronecker delta, and eijkis the permutation symbol defined in the in-
troduction to this section. These two relations enable us to develop analytic expressions
for all the common dot and cross operations. In the remainder of this section and in the
next section, in developing expressions for vector and tensor operations all we do is to
break all vectors up into components and then apply Eqs. A.2-14 and 15.

Expansion of a Vector in Terms of its Components

Any vector v can be completely specified by giving the values of its projections v,, v,, v,,
on the coordinate axes 1,2,3 (Fig. A.2-2). The vector can be constructed by adding vecto-
rially the components multiplied by their corresponding unit vectors:

Note that a vector associates a scalar with each coordinate dire~tion.~

The vi are called the
"components of the vector v" and they are scalars, whereas the 6,vi are vectors, which
when added together vectorially give v.
The magnitude of a vector is given by

[v[=v=dv~+v~+v$= fi (A.2-17)

Two vectors v and w are equal if their components are equal: v, = w,, v2 = w,, and v3 =
w3. Also v = -w, if vl = -wl, and so on.

Addition and Subtraction of Vectors

The sum or difference of vectors v and w may be written in terms of components as

Geometrically, this corresponds to adding up the projections of v and w on each individ-

ual axis and then constructing a vector with these new components. Three or more vec-
tors may be added in exactly the same fashion.

Fig. A.2-2. The components v iof the vector v are the pro-
1 jections of the vector on the coordinate axes 1,2, and 3.

For a discussion of the relation of this definition of a vector to the definition in terms of the rules
for transformation of coordinates, see W. Prager, Mechanics of Continua, Ginn, Boston (1961).
 5A.2 Vector Operations in Terms of Components 813

Multiplication of a Vector by a Scalar

Multiplication of a vector by a scalar corresponds to multiplying each component of the
vector by the scalar:

Scalar Product (or Dot Product) of Two Vectors

The scalar product of two vectors v and w is obtained by writing each vector in terms of
components according to Eq. A.2-16 and then performing the scalar-product operations
on the unit vectors, using Eq. A.2-14

Hence the scalar product of two vectors is obtained by summing the products of the cor-
responding components of the two vectors. Note that (v . v) (sometimes written as v2 or
as v2) is a scalar representing the square of the magnitude of v.

Vector Product (or Cross Product) of Two Vectors

The vector product of two vectors v and w may be worked out by using Eqs. A.2-16 and 15:

Here we have made use of Eq. A.2-8. Note that the ith-component of [v X w] is given by
xi 2, ~ ~ ~ kthis
v ~result
w ~ ;is often used in proving vector identities.

Multiple Vector Products

Expressions for the multiple products mentioned in sA.1 can be obtained by using the
preceding analytical expressions for the scalar and vector products. For example, the
product (u . [v X wl) may be written

Then, from Eq. A.2-8, we obtain

u1 u2 u3
(U [VX wI) = ~1 v2 v3 (A.2-23)
w1 w2 w3
.
The magnitude of (u [v X wl) is the volume of a parellelepiped defined by the vectors
u, v, w drawn from a common origin. Furthermore, the vanishing of the determinant is a
necessary and sufficient condition that the vectors u, v, and w be coplanar.
814 Appendix A Vector and Tensor Notation

The Position Vector

The usual symbol for the position vector-that is, the vector specifying the location of a
point in s p a c e i s r. The components of r are then x,, x,, and x3, so that

from that for the vector. The magnitude of r is usually called r =

is the radial coordinate in spherical coordinates (see Fig. A.6-1).
+
This is an irregularity in the notation, since the components have a s mbol different
+ xz +x$ and this r
4

The analytical expressions for dot and cross products may be used to prove vector identities;
for example, verify the relation
Proof of a Vector
Identity [U x [v x w]] = V(U - W) - W(U - v) (A.2-25)

SOLUTION The i-component of the expression on the left side can be expanded as

We may now use Eq. A.2-7 to complete the proof

which is just the i-component of the right side of Eq. A.2-25. In a similar way one may verify
such identities as
(U [v X w]) = (v [w X u]) (A.2-28)
([uX v] , [WX z]) = (U w)(v . z) - (u z)(v - w) (A.2-29)
[[u X V] X [W X z]] = ([u X vl Z)W - ([u X v] w)z (A.2-30)

EXERCISES 1. Write out the following summations:

A vector v has components v, = 1, vy= 2, v, = -5. A vector w has components w,= 3, w, = -1,
w,= 1. Evaluate:
(a) (V W)
(b) [v x wl
(c)The length of v
(d) (61.V)
(4 [61 x wl
(f 4"W
(g) [r X v], where r is the position vector.
 3A.3 Tensor Operations in Terms of Components 815

4. Show that Eq. A.2-6 is valid for the particular case i = 1, h = 2.

Show that Eq. A.2-7 is valid for the particular case i = j = m = 1, n = 2.

5. Verify that zy==,

xi_,qjkcyk = 0 if ajk= akv

6. Explain carefully the statement after Eq. A.2-21 that the ith component of [v X wl is

EjEk &llkv1wk.
-
7. Verify that ([v X w] [v X w]) + (v w)' = v2w2(the "identity of Lagrange").

sA.3 TENSOR OPERATIONS IN TERMS OF COMPONENTS

In the last section we saw that expressions could be developed for all common dot and
cross operations for vectors by knowing how to write a vector v as a sum ziijivi, and by
knowing how to manipulate the unit vectors tji. In this section we follow a parallel pro-
cedure. We write a tensor T as a sum
of the unit dyads
zixj
tiiZijrij,and give formulas for the manipulation
in this way, expressions are developed for the commonly occur-
ring dot and cross operations for tensors.

The Unit Dyads

The unit vectors 6i were defined in the preceding discussion and then the scalar p~oducts
(tii tij) and vector products [ai X Sj] were given. There is a third kind of product that can
be formed with the unit vectors-namely, the dyadic products 6i6j(written without multi-
plication symbols). According to the rules of notation given in the introduction to Ap-
pendix A, the products are tensors of the second order. Since tii and tij are of unit
magnitude, we will refer to the products tji6, as unit dyads. Whereas each unit vector in
Fig. A.2-1 represents a single coordinate direction, the unit dyads in Fig. A.3-1 represent
ordered pairs of coordinate directions.
(In physical problems we often work with quantities that require the simultaneous
specification of two directions. For example, the flux of x-momentum across a unit area
of surface perpendicular to the y direction is a quantity of this type. Since this quantity is
sometimes not the same as the flux of y-momentum perpendicular to the x direction, it is
evident that specifying the two directions is not sufficient; we must also agree on the
order in which the directions are given.)
The dot and cross products of unit vectors were introduced by means of the geomet-
rical definitions of these operations. The analogous operations for the unit dyads are in-
troduced formally by relating them to the operations for unit vectors

(6i61:6k61)
= (6, ' 6k)(6i ' 61) = 6jksil (A.3-1)

These results are easy to remember: one simply takes the dot (or cross) product of the
nearest unit vectors on either side of the dot (or cross); in Eq. A.3-1 two such operations
are performed.
816 Appendix A Vector and Tensor Notation

jP2)-
Fig. A.3-1. The unit dyads
&ti,. The solid arrows repre-
sent the first unit vector in
the dyadic product, and the
hollow vectors the second.
)L2
Note that 6,6, is not the
6161 6162 6163 same as €i26,.
1 1 1
3 3 3

Expansion of a Tensor in Terms of Its Components

In Eq. A.2-16 we expanded a vector in terms of its components, each component being
multiplied by the appropriate unit vector. Here we extend this idea and define' a (sec-
ond-order) tensor as a quantity that associates a scalar with each ordered pair of coordinate di-
rections in the following sense:

The scalars rij are referred to as the "components of the tensor 7."
There are several special kinds of second-order tensors worth noting:
1. If rii = rj,,the tensor is said to be symmetric.
2. If rii = the tensor is said to be antisymmetric.
-T~~,

3. If the components of a tensor are taken to be the components of T,but with the in-
dices transposed, the resulting tensor is called the transpose of T and given the
symbol I+:

' Tensors are often defined in terms of the transformation rules; the connections between such a
definition and that given above is discussed by W. Prager, Mechanics of Continua, Ginn, Boston (1961).
 5A.3 Tensor Operations in Terms of Components 817

4. If the components of the tensor are formed by ordered pairs of the components of
two vectors v and w, the resulting tensor is called the dyadic product of v and w
and given the symbol vw:

~ wv.
Note that vw # wv, but that ( v w ) =
5. If the components of the tensor are given by the Kronecker delta S,., the resulting
tensor is called the unit tensor and given the symbol 6:

The magnitude of a tensor is defined by

1 71 = 7 = v $ ( T : T t )
I

Addition of Tensors and Dyadic Products

Two tensors are added thus:

a + T = 21 2 6i9u, + 2i x i
= 2 2 6,S,(u, + rij)
i j
(A.3-12)

That is, the sum of two tensors is that tensor whose components are the sums of the cor-
responding components of the two tensors. The same is true for dyadic products.

Multiplication of a Tensor by a Scalar

Multiplication of a tensor by a scalar corresponds to multiplying each component of the
tensor by the scalar:

ST = s

The same is true for dyadic products.

The Scalar Product (or Double Dot Product) of Two Tensors

Two tensors may be multiplied according to the double dot operation

in which Eq. A.3-1 has been used. Similarly, we may show that
818 Appendix A Vector and Tensor Notation

The Tensor Product (the Single Dot Product) of Two Tensors

Two tensors may also be multiplied according to the single dot operation

= z2 C
t j k l
Sjk&%I17kl = z
2i I rib( 2j uijrjl ) (A.3-17)
Xi uijrj1.Similar operations may be performed with
That is, the il-component of {u T} is
dyadic products. It is common practice to write { u .a}as u2,{u u21as u3, and so on.

The Vector Product (or Dot Product) of a Tensor with a Vector

When a tensor is dotted into a vector, we get a vector

That is, the ith component of [I . v] is 2,rVvi' Similarly, the ith component of [v TI is
zjvj9. Clearly, [T.v] Z [v .TI unless T is symmetric.
Recall that when a vector v is multiplied by a scalar s, the resultant vector sv points
in the same direction as v but has a different length. However, when T is dotted into v,
the resultant vector [T V] differs from v in both length and direction; that is, the tensor I
"deflects" or "twists" the vector v to form a new vector pointing in a different direction.

The Tensor Product (or Cross Product) of a Tensor with a Vector

When a tensor is crossed with a vector, we get a tensor:

Hence, the il-component of {T x v) is Xi 2, Similarly the lk-component of {v x T)

is Ztxjqjpirjk
Other Operations
From the preceding results, it is not difficult to prove the following identities:
.
[S v] = [v -61= v
[uv ' w ] = u(v ' w)
[W ' uv] = ( w ' u)v
(uv:wz)= (uw:vz)= (u . z)(v .w )
(7:uv)= ([T ' ul ' v)
(uv:7)= (u ' [v ' TI)
 gA.4 Vector and Tensor Differential Operations 819

EXERCISES 1. The components of a symmetric tensor T are

The components of a vector v are

3. If a is symmetrical and P is antisymmetrical, show that (a$) = 0.

4. Explain carefully the statement after Eq. A.3-17 that the il-component of {cr T) is 2,(JjjT,p
5. Consider a rigid structure composed of point particles joined by massless rods. The particles
are numbered 1,2,3,. . . ,N,and the particle masses are m, (v = 1,2, . . . ,N).The locations of
the particles with respect to the center of mass are R,. The entire structure rotates on an axis
passing through the center of mass with an angular velocity W. Show that the angular mo-
mentum with respect to the center of mass is

Then show that the latter expression may be rewritten as

where

is the moment-of-inertia tensor.

6. The kinetic energy of rotation of the rigid structure in Exercise 5 is

where R, = [W x R,] is the velocity of the vth particle. Show that

5A.4 VECTOR AND TENSOR DIFFERENTIAL OPERATIONS

The vector differential operator V, known as "nabla" or 'Idel," is defined in rectangular
coordinates as

in which the 6, are the unit vectors and the xiare the variables associated with the 1,2,3
axes (i.e., the x,, x,, x, are the Cartesian coordinates normally referred to as x, y, z). The
symbol V is a vector-operator-it has components like a vector but it cannot stand alone;
820 Appendix A Vector and Tensor Notation

it must operate on a scalar, vector, or tensor function. In this section we summarize the
various operations of V on scalars, vectors, and tensors. As in 5sA.2 and A.3, we decom-
pose vectors and tensors into their components and then use Eqs. A.2-14 and 15, and
Eqs. A.3-1 to 6. Keep in mind that in this section equations written out in component
form are valid only for rectangular coordinates, for which the unit vectors are con-
stants; curvilinear coordinates are discussed in 9SA.6 and 7.

The Gradient of a Scalar Field

If s is a scalar function of the variables x,, x,, x,, then the operation of V on s is

The vector thus constructed from the derivatives of s is designated by Vs (or grad s) and
is called the gradient of the scalar field s. The following properties of the gradient opera-
tion should be noted.
Not Commutative:
Not Associative:
Distributive:

The Divergence of a Vector Field

If the vector v is a function of the space variables x,, x,, x,, then a scalar product may be
formed with the operator V; in obtaining the final form, we use Eq. A.2-14:

This collection of derivatives of the components of the vector v is called the divergence of v
(sometimes abbreviated div v). Some properties of the divergence operator should be noted
Not Commutative: .
(V v) # (v . V)
Not Associative: (V .sv) # (Vs V)
Distributive: (V .{v + w}) = (V v) + (V W)

The Curl of a Vector Field

A cross product may also be formed between the V operator and the vector v, which is a
function of the three space variables. This cross product may be simplified by using Eq.
A.2-15 and written in a variety of forms
 9A.4 Vector and Tensor Differential Operations 821

The vector thus constructed is called the curl of v. Other notations for [V x v] are curl v
and rot v, the latter being common in the German literature. The curl operation, like the
divergence, is distributive but not commutative or associative. Note that the ith compo-
nent of [V X vl is ZjZk.sijk(d/dxj)vk.

The Gradient of a Vector Field

.
In addition to the scalar product (V v) and the vector product [V X v] one may also
form the dyadic product Vv:

This is called the gradient of the vector v and is sometimes written grad v. It is a second-
order tensor whose ij-component1is (d/dxi)vj.Its transpose is

whose ij-component is (d/dxj)v,.Note that Vv # vV and (Vv)+Z vV.

The Divergence of a Tensor Field

If the tensor 7 is a function of the space variables x,, x,, x,, then a vector product may be
formed with operator V; in obtaining the final form we use Eq. A.3-3:

This is called the divergence of the tensor T, and is sometimes written div 7 . The kth com-
ponent of [V .T ]is X i(d/dxi)rik).If T is the product svw, then

The Laplacian of a Scalar Field

If we take the divergence of a gradient of the scalar function s, we obtain

The collection of differential operators operating on s in the last line is given the symbol
V2; hence in rectangular coordinates

This is called the Laplacian operator. (Some authors use the symbol A for the Laplacian
operator, particularly in the older German literature; hence (V . Vs), (V V)s, V2s,and As

Caution: Some authors define the ij-component of Vv to be (d/dx,)v,.

822 Appendix A Vector and Tensor Notation

are all equivalent quantities.) The Laplacian operator has only the distributive property,
as do the gradient, divergence, and curl.

The Laplacian of a Vector Field

If we take the divergence of the gradient of the vector function v, we obtain

.
That is, the kth component of [V Vvl is, in Cartesian coordinates, just V2vk.Alternative
.
notations for [V .Vvl are (V V)v and V2v.

Other Differential Relations

Numerous identities can be proved using the definitions just given:
Vrs + sVr
= rVs
(V - SV) = (VS V) + s(V ' V)
'

(V [v X w]) = (w . [V X v]) - (v ' [V X w])

[V x sv] = [Vs X vl + s[V X vl
.
[V Vv] = V(V v) - [V X [V X v]]
[v ' Vv] = iV(v ' v) - [v X [V X v]]
[V . vw] = [v ' Vw] + w(V ' v)
(s6:Vv) = s(V . v)
.
[V s61 = Vs
[V 'ST] = [VS '71 f s[V '71
.
V(v W) = [(Vv) ' w] + [(Vw) ' vl

Prove that for symmetric T:

Proof of a Tensor
Identity
SOLUTION
First we write out the right side in terms of components:

The left side may be written as

the second form resulting from the symmetry of T. Subtraction of Eq. A.4-31 from Eq. A.4-30
will give Eq. A.4-32.