Saint Ferdinand College

Sta. Ana Street, City of Ilagan,Isabela

Senior High School Department
Lesson 3
The Nature of Solids

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

1. Compare the structure of crystalline solids and amorphous solids
2. Relate the properties of solids to their structure and bonding
3. Calculate the amount of heat absorbed or released when a given mass of water undergoes a change in state

Solids can be classified into two types. They can either be an amorphous or crystalline solid. Its important to learn what type
of solid you are dealing with. The properties of solid has something to do with the structure and bonding of the atoms,ions or
molecules of a solid. This lesson will allow us to learn about the different types of solids, the nature of solids,phase changes and
the quantitative aspects in phase changes.

Before we proceed, these are the terms that you will most likely to encounter on this lesson.

 Crystalline solids
 Amorphous solids
 Covalent network solid
 Unit cell
 Crystalline lattice
 Simple cubic
 Body-centered cubic
 Melting
 Specific heat
 Heat of fusion
 Heat of vaporization
 Heat of condensation
 Phase diagram
 Critical point

Essential questions:
1. How are the structures and properties of solids related?
2. What determines the shape of a crystal?

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Saint Ferdinand College
Sta. Ana Street, City of Ilagan,Isabela
Senior High School Department
Lesson 1.6 : The Nature of Solids

Most of the substances you see around are solids. A solid is formed when the temperature of a liquid is low and the pressure
is sufficiently high causing the particles to come very close to each other. Solids are rigid because their molecules have fixed
positions. Their particles hardly diffuse. This is why rock layers that have been in contact for thousand of years still retain their
boundaries whee very few of the particles of a rock layer diffuse into another layer.

Solids are either crystalline or amorphous(non-crystalline). So what’s the difference between the two? Crystalline solids are
those whose atoms,molecules and ions are ordered in well defined arrangements. They usually have flat surfaces or faces and
sharp angles. These solid have regular shapes. Ice,sugar,salt and gems are example of crystalline solids.

On the other hand, amorphous solids which came from the greek word without form are solids whose particles do not have
orderly structure therefore they have poorly defined shapes.

Crystalline solids can be classified based on the arrangement of their particle due to attractive forces between them. They
can be ionic,molecular,covalent network or metallic.
Types of Crystalline solids Types of particles Forces between particles Properties Examples
Ionic Positive and negative Electrostatic attractions Hard,brittle and Typical salts like
ions poor electrical NaCl,MgCl2 and
and thermal Ca(NO3)
conduction
Molecular Atoms or molecules Hydrogen bonds, Soft,low to Most organic
dipole-dipole forces and moderately high compounds like
London Dispersion melting point,and CH4,C12H22O11 and
forces poor thermal and many inorganic
electrical compounds like CO2,
conduction H2O and Br2
Covalent network Atoms connected in a Covalent bonds Very hard, very Diamond, Carbon,
network of covalent high melting point Silicon carbide, SiC
molecules and often poor and quartz,SiO2
thermal and
electrical
conduction
Metallic Atoms or molecules Metallic bonds Soft to hard, low All metallic elements
to high melting like
point,malleable,du copper,Sodium,zinc,iro
ctile, and good n and Aluminum.
thermal and
electrical
conduction
Table 1: A summary of the properties of the crystalline solids

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Saint Ferdinand College
Sta. Ana Street, City of Ilagan,Isabela
Senior High School Department

Lesson 1.7 the Crystal Lattice and the unit cell

The shape of a crystal depends on the arrangement of the particles within it. The smallest portion of a crystal which shows
the complete pattern of its particles is called a unit cell. When unit cells are repeated in all directions,a crystal lattice is formed.
Imagine a wall made of bricks stacked together. The bricks are the unit cells and the wall is the crystal lattice.

There are 14 different unit-cell geometries that occur in crystalline solids. All unit cells are parallelepipedes(six-sided figures
whose face are parallelograms) and differ only in the lengths of the edges. There are seven basic types of unit cells

Figure 1.16: Basic type of unit cells Figure 1.17: unit cells of a cubic crystal
Image credits(Galena,topaz Amazonite)
Rob Lavinsky,iRocks.com

In the space filling model and line drawing(Figure 1.17) the spheres represent atoms or ions. A simple cubic unit cell has an atom at
each of the eight corners of the cube. These are shared with seven other neighboring cubes that come together at the same point. A
body-centered cubic unit cell has an additional atom in the center of its cube. A face-centered cube cell has additional atoms on each of the six
faces where each is shared with another neighboring cube.

Lesson 1.8 : Phase Changes

You are familiar with the changes in the physical states of matter which are melting,freezing,evaporation,condensation,sublimation and
deposition.

The Kinetic molecular theory can be used to explain phase changes. In the heating curve as shown in Figure 1.18, it can be noted that as
the temperature of a crystalline solid is increased(Stage 1 of the graph),the particles vibrate back and fourth about its lattice point. Although no
physical change in physical appearance is visible, the crystal increasingly becomes less ordered. The heat added increases the the kinetic
motion of the particles. Since temperature is a measure of average kinetic energy,the temperature rises along Stage 1. this will continue until
temperature enough to destroy the crystalline structure that occurs as vibration. This is called melting where a solid becomes a liquid.

Figure 1.18. A heating curve for the conversion of ice to gaseous water. This process occurs in five stages. Stage 1: solid water absorbs heat.
Stage 2 : solid water melts. Stage 3: liquid water absorbs heat. Stage 4: liquid water vaporizes. Stage 5: gaseous water absorbs heat. Thee
slopes in stage 1,3 and 5 reflect the magnitude of the heat capacities of the phases heat of vaporization is greater than heat of fusion.

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Saint Ferdinand College
Sta. Ana Street, City of Ilagan,Isabela
Senior High School Department
If the heating continues, the solid completely melts although the temperature stays the same. This is the stage 2 of the graph. However,if
the heating stops and no heat is allowed to escape,both solid and liquid phases are present in equilibrium. The changes continue but the rate of
melting is just equal to the rate of freezing and the amounts of solid and liquid remain constant. Take note that the melting point of the solid is
also the freezing point of the liquid.

The melting point indicates the strength of the intermolecular forces in the solid. A low melting point indicates that the forces holding the
particles are weak and a high melting point requires more energy to break apart the particles of sold. For example, the intermolecular firces in
common table salt are much stronger than that of ice because salt melts at 800 degrees celcius while ice melts at 0 degree celscius. The
amount of energy required to overcome the intermolecular forces to convert a solid into a liquid is called heat of fusion.

When all the solids is converted into liquid(part C of the graph) and heating continues,the temperature of the liquid rises steadily until it
reaches its boiling point at point D of Stage 3. another phase change occurs as the liquid turns o vapor(stage 4). While vaporization takes
place,the temperature again remains constant. The heat added at the boiling point does not change the temperature of the liquid,but it is used
to break the intermolecular forces of attraction of thee liquid particles and change them into gas. The amount of energy required to change a
liquid into gas Is called heat of vaporization. When all the molecules are in gaseous state, the heat added to the molecules is used to increase
their kinetic energy and the temperature rises again(Stage 5)

Recall that the change from gas to liquid is condensation. The boiling point and condensation point occur exactly at the same
temperature.

There are cases where liquids are cooled below their normal freezing point before freezing occurs. This phenomenon is called
supercooling. This happens when there are few nuclei( such as suspended impurities) on which liquid particles can crystallize. When a
supercooledd liquid begins to freeze,its temperature rises back to the normal freezing point where freezing is completed.

Lesson 1.9 : Quantitative Aspects in Phase Changes

The energy involved in phase changes as shown in the curve in Figure 1.18, includes specific heat,heat of fusion and heat of vaporization.
The kinetic Molecular Theory will be used to quantitatively determine the amount of heat added or absorbed(endothermic processes) orr
removed or released(exothermic processes) in the changes.

Specific heat

Different substances absorb heat in varying amounts because their intermolecular forces are different. This can be explained by
determining the specific heat of a substance. The specific heat is defined as the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of one gram
of substance by one degree Celcius. Specific heat can be calculated using:

Specific heat = joules/gram degree Celcius or by transforming the equation of heat: Q = mcΔT where:

Q = heat m= mass c=specific heat ΔT= change in temperature

When a material with small specific heat value absorbs energy, its temperature rises rapidly. This is why cooking pans are made of
aluminum or copper. Aluminum and copper heat quickly and transfer the heat to the food being cooked. In contrast, materials with high specific
heat values absorb a large amount of heat without much increase in temperature.

The specific heat capacity of water is 4.18 joules. This means that 4.16 joules/ gram degree celcius heat rises the temperature of 1
gram of water by 1 degree celcius. Thus, 4.16 joules of heat is needed to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water from 0 degree celcius to 1
degree celcius. Ice has a specific heat of 2.04 joules/gram degree celcius.

Heat of fusion

At the melting point of ice, temperature remains constant. The energy absorbed is used to break the bonds that hold the water molecules
in the solid structure of ice. The heat absorbed to melt one gram of ice to one gram of water is the heat of fusion of ice,ΔHfus. When water turns
Into ice,heat is released. The amount use of heat given up or released when one gram of water changes to one gram of ice is the heat of
solidification of water ΔHsol. Since melting and freezing are reverse processes, the heat of fusion and heat of solidification are equal but
opposite in signs.
+333.6 J/g The positive sign indicates that heat is absorbed while
Ice Water the negative sign indicates that heat is released. For ice, The formula for the heat of
333.6 joules of energy is required to melt 1 g of ice(solid) to fusion is Q=mΔHfus where:
-333.6 J/g liquid(water) or 6.01 kilojoules(kJ) per mole 0℃.
Q=heat
m=mass
Heat of fusion( 0℃.) = 333.6 J / g(ice)
ΔHfus= change in enthalpy of
fusion
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Saint Ferdinand College
Sta. Ana Street, City of Ilagan,Isabela
Senior High School Department
Heat of vaporization

The energy absorbed to change 1 g of liquid to gas at its boiling point is called the heat of vaporization,ΔHvap. When a vapor condenses
to liquid, the opposite transfer of heat occurs. The heat is released when 1 gram of a gas condenses to a liquid at its boiling point is the heat of
condensation. Since vaporization and condensation are reverse processes,the heat of vaporization and the heat of condensation of a
substance are equal but opposite in signs.
The following may be used in calculations of
+2258 J/g The formula for the heat of heat transfer for water:
Water steam(water vapor) vaporization is Q=mΔHvap where: Specific heat of ice 2.04 J/g℃
Specific heat of water 4.18 J/g℃
Q=heat
-2258 J/g m=mass Specific heat of steam 2.00 J/g℃
ΔHvap= change in enthalpy of Heat of fusion of water (0℃.) 333.6 J/g
fusion Heat of vaporization of water(100℃) 2258 J/g

Example 1 Example 2
Calculate the heat needed to melt 100 g of ice. Hot water at 100 ℃ can burn and damage the skin but the effect of steam on the skin
can be even more severe. Calculate the amount of heat absorbed by the skin from
150 g steam burned at 100℃.
Given: Solution: When hot water touches a person’s skin, the temperature of water drops to body
temperature or 37℃.heat is lost as the water cools. His heat burns the skin. The
m= 100 g of ice burn caused by the water at 100℃ can be determined by using specific heat of water.
ΔHfus = 333.6 J Q=mcΔT
Q =150 g(4.18 J/g℃) x (100℃ - 37℃)
Unknown: Q=? = 39 501 J or 39.5 kJ
Step 2: You can now calculate the amount of heat released when 150 g of steam
Formula: Q=mΔHfus burns the skin using the heat of vaporization of water which is also the heat of
condensation
Solution: Heat absorbed = 150 g of steam x 2258 J/g
= 338 700 J 0r 338. 7 kJ
Q= 100 g of ice(333.6 J) Step 3: The amount of heat released from steam burn would be the sum of the
Q= 33360 J/g condensation of steam and the cooling to 37℃.
Total Q = 39.5 kJ + 338. 7 kJ
= 378. 2 kJ
Thus, it shows that steam burn is about ten times (378.2/39.5) more severe than skin
burn from hot water.

For additional readings, you can open the book on page 35-36 for the phase diagram. To develop your problem solving skills, you
can try to answer exercise 1.3 on page 35 of your book.