Consulting Engineers-Electrical

Electrical
& Power
WINTER EDITION
Contents
3  Integrating building systems through controls

18  Taking a zero-tolerance approach to data center downtime
19  What is a zero energy building?
22  Basics of engine installation and operation
33  Pay Now or Pay Later?
39  Back to basics: Switchgear, transformers and UPSs
50  Cummins Digital Engineering
51  Successful Power System Upgrades That Meet Every
Demand
58  Best practices for zero energy buildings and smart grid
integration
73  Beyond ECO Mode: Delivering Efficiency Without
Compromise Using Dynamic Online Mode
83  Why is ground fault protection needed?
2
Integrating building systems
through controls  Integrating building
systems through
controls
By considering updated controls architecture, integrating building systems Taking a zero-tolerance

approach to data center
together becomes much more attainable and streamlined downtime
What is a zero energy
C ommercial buildings consume nearly 36% of electricity in the United States. Me-
chanical systems, lighting and plug loads consume a majority of commercial build-
ing electricity. Information technology, audiovisual, security and fire systems also con-
building?
Basics of engine installation

and operation
sume electricity to meet building demands and codes. Building energy use is managed Pay Now or Pay Later?
and can be curtailed through the various control systems implemented. Back to basics: Switchgear,
transformers and UPSs
Major electricity consumption through heating, ventilation and air conditioning systems Cummins Digital
Engineering
are managed by the building automation system. Historically, the BAS controls mechan-
ical systems, while lighting and plug loads are managed by separate systems, typically Successful Power System
Upgrades That Meet Every
provided by a lighting controls manufacturer. IT, AV, security and fire systems are typically Demand
controlled by separate manufacturers. Best practices for zero
energy buildings and smart
grid integration
Control requirements vary to support the project goals, comply with the codes enforced
Beyond ECO Mode:
and to control building operation costs and energy consumption. Within the United Delivering Efficiency
States, most states adopt energy codes for commercial buildings. Without Compromise
Using Dynamic Online
Mode
The International Energy Conservation Code is recognized as code, with compliance
Why is ground fault
paths through ASHRAE Standard 90.1: Energy Standard for Buildings Except Low-Rise protection needed?
Residential Building, currently the 2019 edition, though this edition is not accepted by
many jurisdictions.
3
Integrating building systems through controls
Beyond the state level, lo-  Integrating building

systems through
cal jurisdictions and federal
controls
requirements may deviate or
Taking a zero-tolerance
exceed the state adopted en- approach to data center
ergy requirements. Multiple downtime
codes, versions and compli- What is a zero energy

building?
ance paths governing energy
use through control systems Basics of engine installation
and operation
— combined with client
Pay Now or Pay Later?
project goals — necessitate
coordination through trades Back to basics: Switchgear,
to provide value to the client.
Cummins Digital
Engineering
Currently, codes and require-
Successful Power System
ments for mechanical controls Figure 1: “Internet of things” relates to the building through the cloud Upgrades That Meet Every
Demand
only describe how the control and building automation system. The cloud and BAS take information
from the building controllers and sensors/actuators to compute and Best practices for zero
system should operate and
send commands for effective building operation. Courtesy: SmithGroup energy buildings and smart
does not provide the associ- grid integration
ated sequences of operation. Beyond ECO Mode:
For instance, in the 2018 edition of the International Mechanical Code Section C403.6.5, Delivering Efficiency
Without Compromise
multiple-zone HVAC systems are mandated to have automatic supply temperature reset Using Dynamic Online
in response to building loads or outdoor air temperature. The code then describes the Mode
requirements for the temperature reset and provides exceptions but it does not list any Why is ground fault
protection needed?
sequences of operation for designers to use.
Recently, ASHRAE published Guideline 36: High-Performance Sequences of Operation for

4
HVAC Systems, which standardizes  Integrating building

systems through
advanced sequences of operation
controls
for the use of mechanical designers
and controls contractors. In future approach to data center
code editions, this will be refer- downtime
enced to provide a verified and What is a zero energy

building?
streamlined way to write and imple-
ment new sequences of operation Basics of engine installation
and operation
into different BAS architecture.
Defining the controls Figure 2: Typical building automation system architecture uses
Back to basics: Switchgear,
architecture master-slave token-passing connections at lower level controllers
and BACnet over internet protocol for higher level controllers. Cummins Digital
Typical BAS architecture is de- MS/TP connections cause inherent delays in communication Engineering
signed through building automa- between controllers and the BAS. Courtesy: SmithGroup
tion and controls network (BACnet) Upgrades That Meet Every
Demand
over internet protocol, referred to as BACnet/IP, at higher level BACnet building con-
trollers with master-slave token-passing at room-level BACnet application specific con- Best practices for zero
trollers (see Figure 2). B-BCs generally have higher computational power than B-ASCs grid integration
to run complex sequences of operation for the overall building system, which is why IP Beyond ECO Mode:
connections are used because data can be communicated much faster than with MS/TP Delivering Efficiency
Without Compromise
connections. Using Dynamic Online
Mode
The B-BCs then send or request data to the B-ASCs, which then, in turn, enact simpler Why is ground fault
protection needed?
sequences of operation on a specific device. In addition to these two levels of control-
lers, BACnet advanced application controllers can be used as a steppingstone between
the B-ASCs and a B-BC. B-AACs are usually connected using MS/TP and provide addi-
5
tional computational power to the BC to run overall system sequences of operation.  Integrating building
systems through
controls
B-ASCs and B-AACs that are connected on the same MS/TP trunk are daisy-chained
together and can only communicate with another device by passing a “token” down approach to data center
the line. After a controller requests and receives a token, the controller is then allowed downtime
to open an application layer message using an application protocol data unit. This then What is a zero energy
building?
allows the device to pass/communicate the token on to other controllers or back to the
master controller. The only exception to this process is the master device, which can Basics of engine installation
and operation
have the token and request or send the token without being specifically asked to.
MS/TP connections inherently add Back to basics: Switchgear,

delays in communication to and from
Cummins Digital
the BAS because each individual Engineering
token must be passed through the
chain of controllers until it finds the Upgrades That Meet Every
Demand
correct device. To prevent excessive
network backup, it is best practice to Best practices for zero
place application specific con- grid integration
Figure 3: The building automation system network communicates
trollers that receive greater traf- to the central lighting control panel for distribution to the individual Beyond ECO Mode:
fic closer to the master control- space control points. Keypads, occupancy sensors and photocells Delivering Efficiency
Without Compromise
ler and keep high traffic devices separately communicate to the control points for programmed
response. Courtesy: SmithGroup
on separate MS/TP trunks. Mode
Why is ground fault

protection needed?
Meanwhile, upstream of the B-ASCs and B-AACs, the B-BCs are connected with BACnet/
IP to the main BAS. In this network, each device is assigned its own unique IP address,
which allows the BAS to know exactly where each device is in the network. The IP ad-
6
dresses let the BAS send commands and information directly to the device in question  Integrating building
systems through
through ethernet cables, rather than going to each device along the way like with MS/TP.
controls
BACnet/IP is not often used throughout the system architecture because of the complex-
ity and cost of installation from programming/assigning each device with its own unique approach to data center
IP address. downtime

building?
Controlling equipment
In a typical commercial building, devices such as variable air volume boxes and fan coil Basics of engine installation
and operation
units are controlled by B-ASCs (room-level controllers). These devices can handle sim-
ple sequences of operation such as maintaining temperature requirements and relaying
commands from the B-AACs and B-BCs. Because B-AACs and B-BCs have the most Back to basics: Switchgear,
computational power in the BAS, they perform intensive sequences like supply tem-
Cummins Digital
perature reset, hot water reset and other overall system commands. Typically, chilled/ Engineering
hot water plants and larger pieces of equipment, like air handling units, have their own
dedicated building controllers to handle the amount of sequences required to effectively Upgrades That Meet Every
Demand
execute commands to the system.
Best practices for zero
The building controllers also report sensing data and other computed results to an op- grid integration
erator workstation and/or to a cloud network depending on the client’s needs. Because Beyond ECO Mode:
all sensing data must go from room-level controllers all the way up to building-level Delivering Efficiency
Without Compromise
controllers and then back for some commands, the amount of traffic on a network can be Using Dynamic Online
extremely high. At times when multiple computationally intensive sequences are trying Mode
to be executed, delays in the network can be minutes long. Why is ground fault
protection needed?
In addition to mechanical control architecture, lighting and plug load control architec-
tures also are implemented to reduce energy consumption and the associated costs,
7
while supporting space functions. Because illumination levels and plug load energization  Integrating building
systems through
are critical in supporting effective space use, it is important for the control system to pri-
controls
oritize supporting the functions within each space and to reduce energy without impact-
ing functionality of the space. approach to data center
downtime
Codes and standards What is a zero energy

building?
Client-specific space use requirements are typically evaluated in conjunction with code
analysis for control requirements to achieve code compliance. Lighting, control and en- Basics of engine installation
and operation
ergy codes/standards analyzed include but are not limited to:
• ASHRAE Standard 90.1. Back to basics: Switchgear,

• International Building Code.
Cummins Digital
• Illuminating Engineering Society: The Lighting Handbook, 10th Edition. Engineering
• NFPA 70: National Electrical Code.
• NFPA 101: Life Safety Code. Upgrades That Meet Every
Demand
Each code and standard is intended to provide minimum requirements for the electrical de- Best practices for zero
sign. The IBC and NFPA 101 provide minimum emergency egress illumination requirements. grid integration
NFPA 70 contains requirements for most electrical systems and specifically addresses emer- Beyond ECO Mode:
gency systems within Article 700. IECC and ASHRAE 90.1 provide minimum energy-related Delivering Efficiency
Without Compromise
requirements for electrical systems. IES is a reference for average and uniformity illumina- Using Dynamic Online
tion targets, while also providing recommendations for various lighting applications. Mode
Why is ground fault

protection needed?
The most recent energy codes are designed to consider typical space type require-
ments and to provide options for achieving compliance. The options provided by
code allow design professionals to tailor control systems to space use goals, while
8
ensuring energy reduction.  Integrating building

systems through
controls
Where the ASHRAE 90.1-2010 edition (or more recent) are adopted, designers are re-
quired to analyze each space type and provide a variety of control methods within. In approach to data center
general, ASHRAE 90.1 requires user controllability through local lighting bilevel controls. downtime
While local control and bilevel control requirements vary by space, the intent is to pro- What is a zero energy
building?
vide user controllability within each space. Local bilevel controllability provides users
opportunities to reduce electricity consumption and to customize the visual environment Basics of engine installation
and operation
to support the user task. Beyond user control, most spaces are required to adjust the
lighting and plug loads based on occupancy and vacancy.
Lighting and lighting controls
Cummins Digital
ASHRAE 90.1 allows for occupancy to fully energize lighting fixtures in select spaces. Engineering
Many spaces are permitted to partially energize the lighting load in each space when oc-
cupancy is detected and others energize lighting loads only when initiated by a user. The Upgrades That Meet Every
Demand
code intent is to adjust light output when a space is vacated, either by fully or partially
de-energizing the lighting fixtures depending on the space. Best practices for zero
grid integration
Certain spaces are permitted to allow system schedules to override vacancy and main- Beyond ECO Mode:
tain illumination in vacated spaces. Nearly all spaces are required to reduce light output Delivering Efficiency
Without Compromise
in determined daylight zones when daylight contributions are sufficient to support the Using Dynamic Online
task in the daylight zone. Plug load control requirements are generally tied to occupan- Mode
cy/vacancy and time schedules, with scheduled overrides to occupancy control permit- Why is ground fault
protection needed?
ted in select spaces.
To support the user, occupancy/vacancy, daylight harvesting and scheduling require-

9
ments within each space, multiple control points are required. The control points for  Integrating building
systems through
lighting controls are often referred to as zones; it is common economical practice to
controls
share line voltage power circuit wiring across multiple spaces and zones without impact-
ing controllability. approach to data center
downtime
Within a space, multiple sensors are installed to react to user input, occupancy/vacancy What is a zero energy
building?
status and daylight contribution. User keypads respond to user action, to energize or
de-energize lighting fixtures, signal programmed scenes or adjust light output via an Basics of engine installation
and operation
electrical signal. Occupancy/vacancy sensor technologies can detect ultrasonic (sound)
waves within a space, passive infrared (heat) energy or both and transmit an electrical
signal to the system. Back to basics: Switchgear,
Cummins Digital
A photosensor comprises a light-responding circuit element that converts incident light Engineering
into an electrical signal. The signal transmission through the system can be achieved
through a variety of methods, but 24-volt analog and digital systems are most common Upgrades That Meet Every
Demand
to control the zones described. The signals are received by controllers of various com-
plexities. The quantity of zones and programming requirements can determine whether Best practices for zero
a digital or analog control system is best suited for a space. grid integration
Beyond ECO Mode:

Most analog control signals are 24 volts direct current and universally compatible with Delivering Efficiency
Without Compromise
varying frequencies and power voltages. Typically, analog systems control components Using Dynamic Online
are more cost-effective as compared to digital components. The analog system typically Mode
requires three-wire circuiting by the contractor between all control devices, which can Why is ground fault
protection needed?
increase installation costs and programming issues in complicated spaces across a large
building. Many building maintenance personnel can troubleshoot malfunctioning analog
wiring configurations over time or adjust as needed for new space uses.
10
Digital systems  Integrating building

systems through
Many digital load managers are proprietary technologies using manufacturer-developed controls
software to manage the digital signals through proprietary cabling. The digital systems
provide programming advantages aiming to take implement schedules and added logic approach to data center
downtime
into the control system.
building?
Digital Addressable Lighting Interface can be effective for spaces designed for flexibility
to support frequent space alterations or where several control zones are required. The and operation
DALI systems provide separate controllability to each fixture driver within the system.
DALI cost savings can be seen within the lighting control package; however, the cost is
typically transferred to the addressable lighting fixture drivers provided to each control- transformers and UPSs
lable fixture segment.
Cummins Digital
Engineering
The digital system simplifies installation, standardizing a single control cable between Successful Power System
daisy-chained devices. The system can be delivered preprogrammed or be programmed Upgrades That Meet Every
Demand
by the manufacturer in the field. With digital systems, it is common for the owner and
maintainer to place service calls to the manufacturer for modifications to the system. energy buildings and smart
Warranties and maintenance contracts between owners and manufacturers become valu- grid integration
able for digital systems. Beyond ECO Mode:

Delivering Efficiency
Without Compromise
Many new lighting control systems incorporate load management from centralized lo- Using Dynamic Online
Mode
cations (see Figure 3). The control network typically is established through proprietary
digital software and cabling. The network interconnects spaces benefiting from central- Why is ground fault
protection needed?
ized software control.
Centralized controllers manage limited quantities of addresses (devices) and larger build-
ings typically require multiple controllers to support the quantity of devices. The lighting
11
control network architecture is expanded by adding interconnected centralized controllers,  Integrating building
systems through
which are typically networked to a master control server or processor. The interconnected
controls
controllers can be referred to as a distributed digital lighting control network.
Typically, master controllers can connect to the fire alarm control unit, BAS, security sys- downtime
tem and IT network through shared protocols. FACU, BAS, security and IT signals can be What is a zero energy
building?
converted to digital signals through the network cabling to the distributed lighting control
network to initiate a lighting response in programmed spaces. Emergency, schedules and Basics of engine installation
and operation
demand response signals are common applications for tying spaces to centralized control.
Understanding the limits Back to basics: Switchgear,

The current proprietary nature of lighting, plug load and mechanical control systems
Cummins Digital
limit control integration between the systems. Where a central BAS and central lighting Engineering
control system is implemented, one-way communication from the lighting control system
to that BAS is preferred by the manufacturers, which limits the BAS role to monitoring Upgrades That Meet Every
Demand
of the lighting and plug load system. Most centralized lighting control systems provide
scheduling capabilities for the lighting control system. In some cases, the central lighting Best practices for zero
control system can be configured to receive scheduled signals from the BAS and trans- grid integration
late the signal to proprietary protocol through the lighting control system. Beyond ECO Mode:
Without Compromise
While some room-based digital lighting control systems allow for direct connection Using Dynamic Online
into the BAS, the application is mostly used for scheduling and monitoring of spaces. Mode
Where room-based controllers lighting controllers are implemented, the BAS control- Why is ground fault
protection needed?
lability of each space is limited. The room-based lighting control appears as a B-ASC
within the BAS hierarchy.
12
Proprietary lighting control protocols limit controllability by the BAS and MS/TP wiring to  Integrating building
systems through
building controllers limit communication speed between the building controllers and the
controls
space. The delay for communication between the B-ASC to control a damper or motor
in a space may not approach to data center
be noticeable to the downtime
user, however delays What is a zero energy

building?
in lighting systems
can be considered Basics of engine installation
and operation
unsatisfactory to the
user.
Most control systems
Cummins Digital
share the same basic Engineering
components. Com-
munication typically Upgrades That Meet Every
Demand
occurs between sen-
Figure 4: Updating building automation system architecture to be
sors, transmitters and receiv- Best practices for zero
completely connected by BACnet/internet protocol will allow for further
ers. The communication is integration between mechanical and lighting systems because of the grid integration
effective communication speeds. Courtesy: SmithGroup
supported by power sup- Beyond ECO Mode:
plies and pathways (conductors for wired solutions and air for wireless solutions). There Delivering Efficiency
Without Compromise
are opportunities to share the sensors, transmitters, receivers, pathways and power sup- Using Dynamic Online
plies between building systems to react to occupant behavior, environmental conditions Mode
and emergencies. Digital communication between transmitters and receivers allows for Why is ground fault
protection needed?
logic to be integrated into room-based control and separately control mechanical, light-
ing, IT, AV, security, power and fire systems.
13
Shared control protocols  Integrating building

systems through
If the protocol between the systems within each space were shared, there is an opportu- controls
nity for a space to be provided a single room controller to support all the space controls.
A single, integrated room control allows for fewer user interface locations within a space, approach to data center
downtime
sharing of occupancy and daylight control, pathways and connected control modules
within a space (see Figure 4). What is a zero energy
building?

As control systems become more sophisticated and energy requirements and peak and operation
demand load shedding become more attractive for cost savings, a single, fully integrat-
ed control system capable of bidirectional communication is required. Communication
speed is critical in a system striving to react to room-based occupant behavior and en- transformers and UPSs
vironmental conditions. To implement a fully integrated central control system for all
Cummins Digital
building systems, effective communication speed and a shared communication protocol Engineering
between systems is required. Successful Power System
Demand
Achieving these effective communication speeds is attainable if the entire BAS is con-
nected using BACnet/IP instead of MS/TP at lower level controllers (see Figure 4). BAC- energy buildings and smart
net/IP is currently becoming more cost-effective as manufacturers incorporate the tech- grid integration
nology into their controls systems. By using IP connections, the number of B-BCs can Beyond ECO Mode:
drop (and therefore overall cost) as more B-ASCs and B-AACs can be connected onto
Without Compromise
one controller due to the increase in communication speeds. Using Dynamic Online
Mode
Another benefit to converting to the faster BACnet/IP system is more cloud network Why is ground fault
protection needed?
capability; a cloud can host computationally intensive analytics that can further help
control, react and predict the building systems’ needs. The increase in computational
analytics will allow room level lighting controls to perform daylight analysis and dimming.
14
However, B-ASCs currently  Integrating building

systems through
have limited memory and
controls
processing power, so con-
necting the room level light- approach to data center
ing controls might be chal- downtime
lenging with the current ASCs What is a zero energy

building?
available on the market.
and operation
Beyond integrated room-level
control, BAS monitoring of
mechanical systems, energy Back to basics: Switchgear,
metering, motor status and Figure 5: The future of building automation system and cloud
Cummins Digital
performance, backup gen- monitoring enables a multidirectional, interconnected communication
Engineering
framework between many building systems to make informed decisions
erator status, battery system during building operation. Courtesy: SmithGroup Successful Power System
health, critical electrical sys- Upgrades That Meet Every
Demand
tem component status and occupancy-based information through the lighting control sys-
tems are typical IP addresses that can be tied to a central monitoring system. The central- Best practices for zero
ized monitoring system allows building maintenance to manage the building from a single grid integration
interface. The centralized system requires building engineers to be proficient in a single Beyond ECO Mode:
software while effectively responding to interruptions or issues within the building. Delivering Efficiency
Without Compromise
For building owners implementing demand-response controls, the single monitoring Mode
point can provide data to respond to peak signals from the grid and shed load within the Why is ground fault
protection needed?
capabilities of the system design. Tying several building systems together as IP address-
es creates opportunities for system intelligence.
15
The current state of mechanical and lighting control integration is limited by propriety  Integrating building
systems through
technology and current BAS communication speeds. However, by updating BAS archi-
controls
tecture with complete BACnet/IP, creating one unified controls system becomes much
more attainable. A central control system gathering buildingwide data capable of inte- approach to data center
gration has yet to be seen in commercial buildings. Building systems, historically func- downtime
tioning within separate silos, could have opportunities to react to one another through a What is a zero energy
building?
powerful cloud-based IP network because of IoT (see Figure 5).
and operation
A building control system, functioning as cloud-based, can make intelligent building
management decisions to optimize energy performance and operational cost beyond
capabilities seen in traditional building control systems. Back to basics: Switchgear,
Cummins Digital
Furthermore, the cloud-based control system that knows the equipment in its building, Engineering
can make decisions or recommendations that consider the effect of usage on replace-
ment costs and estimated equipment life expectancy. Once a cloud-based, bidirectional, Upgrades That Meet Every
Demand
multipathway flow of communication is established in building control systems, the intel-
ligent building will be capable of sharing data via a smart grid that can support sustain- Best practices for zero
ability initiatives across cities, states and countries. grid integration
Beyond ECO Mode:

Cloud-based building networks Delivering Efficiency
Without Compromise
The phrase “internet of things” is often thrown around as a buzzword, but it has revo- Using Dynamic Online
lutionized how technology functions on a day-to-day basis. One basic concept of IoT is Mode
cloud-based computation and analysis. In a cloud-based building network, information Why is ground fault
protection needed?
is sent from sensors/actuators through building controllers and the building automation
system to the cloud to be analyzed (Figure 1).
16
A BAS is a centralized control network that connects many controllers, sensors and actu-  Integrating building
systems through
ators throughout a building. The term “cloud” refers to shifting computation from a local
controls
server to a remote server. A remote server will have more computational power than a
typical local network/computer, which will allow for faster and more effective analysis of approach to data center
building data. downtime

building?
Elena Gowdy and Matt Fogarty Basics of engine installation

and operation
Elena Gowdy is a mechanical engineer at SmithGroup. She graduated with a master’s
and bachelor’s in architectural engineering. Matt Fogarty is an electrical engineer at
SmithGroup. He designs electrical systems for workplace, science and technology, high- Back to basics: Switchgear,
er education and government buildings.
Cummins Digital
Engineering

Demand

grid integration
Beyond ECO Mode:

Without Compromise
Mode
Why is ground fault

protection needed?
17
Taking a zero-tolerance approach to data center downtime
Integrating building
systems through controls
 Taking a zero-
tolerance approach to
data center downtime
building?

and operation

Cummins Digital
Engineering

Demand

grid integration
Taking a zero-tolerance approach to data Beyond ECO Mode:

center downtime Delivering Efficiency
Without Compromise
By 2020 the number of Internet-connected devices will reach Mode
or even exceed 50 billion. And the price of network downtime
Why is ground fault
continues to climb ($9,000 per minute). protection needed?
18
What is a zero energy building?
What does it really mean for an engineer to design a zero energy building? systems through controls
T he current use of the term “zero energy building” does not mean that the building approach to data center
downtime
literally has zero energy consumption. In addition to on-site renewable sources, a
zero energy building by definition can use energy sources originating from outside the  What is a zero energy
building?
boundary of the building site.
and operation
The energy provider in the area will most likely have nonrenewable fuel sources. The Pay Now or Pay Later?
times that the on-site renewables cannot match the demand of the ZEB, electricity must
be used from the grid. In addition to keeping the electricity load of the building as low transformers and UPSs
as possible, understanding the mix of renewables in the local energy provider’s portfolio Cummins Digital
is an important piece of the puzzle to keeping CO2 emissions attributable to the ZEB as Engineering
low as possible. Successful Power System

Demand
According to the U.S. Department of Energy, the specific definition of a zero energy build-
ing is: “An energy-efficient building where, on a source energy basis, the actual annual energy buildings and smart
delivered energy is less than or equal to the on-site renewable exported energy.” grid integration
Beyond ECO Mode:

If we look at the on-site renewable energy production used for the ZEBs in their entirety, a Without Compromise
distributed generation network model emerges. The magnitude of electricity produced by Using Dynamic Online
Mode
the individual renewable energy technologies located on the zero energy building site will
Why is ground fault
all vary individually based on building demand, solar intensity, wind speed/direction, etc. protection needed?
When all of these individual sources of electricity production are fed back into the grid,
portions of the demand on the large generation and peaker plants are reduced. By de-
19
creasing a small portion of the electrical de- Integrating building

“An energy-efficient build- mand on the fossil fuel driven power plants,
ing where, on a source ener- the zero energy building owner benefits in Taking a zero-tolerance
gy basis, the actual annual two ways: lower electricity bills and reduced
downtime
delivered energy is less than CO2 emissions.
or equal to the on-site re-  What is a zero energy
building?
newable exported energy.” Without the ability to conduct two-way, co- Basics of engine installation
and operation
ordinated communication between the customer and the utility, exporting electricity to
the grid poses some challenges. If looked at in aggregate, when the renewable energy Pay Now or Pay Later?
systems that support zero energy buildings generate electricity, there are times when the Back to basics: Switchgear,
grid doesn’t need electricity and, conversely, there are times when the electrical demand
of the building exceeds the capacity of the renewable energy source, requiring electricity Cummins Digital
Engineering
generated by fossil fuel sources.
There are times where it is not productive for the on-site equipment to export electricity Demand
to the grid, especially during off-peak times. For example, if the demand on the overall Best practices for zero
grid is low, exporting electricity can cause reliability problems with the grid.
grid integration
Beyond ECO Mode:

Conversely, there are operational challenges when on-site production resources can Delivering Efficiency
no longer meet the demand of the ZEB. This is most common when photovoltaics are Without Compromise
used for electricity production. For example, as the sun begins to disappear below the Mode
horizon, the utility experiences a spike in electricity demand. Similarly, wind speed and Why is ground fault
direction are not 100% predictable, resulting in uneven electricity output. As an example, protection needed?
if excess electricity from wind turbines is exported to the grid during the morning hours,
the demand at that time is very low and excessive electricity will be exported to the grid,
which can stress the grid.
20
Clearly there are utility-scale PV and wind generation facilities around the world that are
producing electricity and have been for decades. The operational difficulties mentioned Taking a zero-tolerance
above are basic examples of scenarios that might become more pronounced as renew- downtime
able energy technology becomes more widespread.
 What is a zero energy
building?
Also, these points demonstrate the importance of the smart grid to the continued suc- Basics of engine installation
and operation
cess and proliferation of renewable energy. In any event, it is clear that the design for
a zero energy building does not end at the property line. To have continued success in Pay Now or Pay Later?
ZEB development, there needs to be a broader dialog with the utilities, municipalities Back to basics: Switchgear,
and building owners.
Cummins Digital
Engineering
Bill Kosik, PE, CEM, Oak Park, Illinois
Bill Kosik is a senior energy engineer and an industry-recognized leader in energy Successful Power System
efficiency for the built environment with an expertise in data centers. He is a member of Demand
the Consulting-Specifying Engineer editorial advisory board.
grid integration
Beyond ECO Mode:

Without Compromise
Mode
Why is ground fault

protection needed?
21
and operation Integrating building
NFPA 37 establishes the minimum fire safety requirements for stationary approach to data center
downtime
combustion engine installation and use
building?
C ombustion engines and gas turbines are widespread, essential components in

buildings for supporting applications such as on-site power generation. Yet they
are, by their nature, a fire hazard. Combustion itself means the process of burning. These
 Basics of engine
installation and
operation
devices often operate using liquid or gaseous fuels. A fire caused by one of these en- Pay Now or Pay Later?
gines and turbines could have dire results. Back to basics: Switchgear,
That’s why NFPA 37: Standard for the Installation and Use of Stationary Combustion Cummins Digital
Engineering
Engines and Gas Turbines is so important. It establishes the minimum fire safety require-
ments pertaining to the installation and operation of stationary engines and turbines.
The standard is also applicable to semi-permanent installations such as portable engines Demand
and roll-up generators that are in service for a duration of one week or more. Best practices for zero
grid integration
The standard broadly focuses on the following facets:
Beyond ECO Mode:
• Engine locations. Without Compromise
• Fuel supply and storage. Mode
• Lubrication systems. Why is ground fault
• Engine flue exhaust systems. protection needed?
• Controls and Instrumentation.

• Operations and maintenance
22
Basics of engine installation and operation
• Fire protection. Integrating building

The origin of NFPA 37 dates to 1904 when the National Board of Fire Underwriters initi- Taking a zero-tolerance
ated the ”Rules and Requirements for the Construction and Installation of Gas and Gas- downtime
olene Engines.” Editions of NBFU No. 37 were subsequently published in 1905 and 1910. What is a zero energy
The responsibility for the project was turned over to NFPA Committee on Explosives and building?
Combustibles and in 1915 they published NFPA 37-37A: Installation and Use of Internal  Basics of engine
installation and
Combustion Engines (gas, gasolene, kerosene, fuel oil) and Coal Gas Producers (pres-
operation
sure and suction systems).

The responsibility for the standard was internally transferred to Committee of Gases and transformers and UPSs
later to Committee on Internal Combustion Engines, which eliminated the provisions of
Cummins Digital
coal gas. NFPA 37 has since been revised multiple times, and the latest edition is 2018. Engineering

The standard applies to new installations and modified portions of existing infrastruc- Upgrades That Meet Every
Demand
ture. There are notable requirements of NFPA 37 as they apply to reciprocating engines
that are frequently overlooked during design, construction, operation and maintenance.
It is important to remember that the authority having jurisdiction and building insurance grid integration
underwriters such as FM Global could enforce additional or stringent requirement so Beyond ECO Mode:
due diligence is critical to ensure compliance. Delivering Efficiency
Without Compromise
Engine location Mode
A key requirement of the standard is to ensure that engines are readily accessible for Why is ground fault
protection needed?
maintenance, repair and firefighting to help mitigate the inherent fire hazard. This is
especially important if generators are located on the upper levels of a building. While it
is difficult to quantify “readily accessible,” industry-accepted best practices should be
23
incorporated at a minimum. Integrating building

Project-specific application will influence the engine location. NFPA 37 does not dictate Taking a zero-tolerance
when engines need to be enclosed in rooms and other applicable codes and standards downtime
need to be referenced to make that determination. What is a zero energy
building?
If the engine is enclosed in a room, then NFPA 37 outlines the requirements for the in-  Basics of engine
installation and
stallation. The common locations and key requirements are:
operation

Engines located within structures: The fire resistance rating of interior walls, floors and
ceilings of engines rooms needs to be minimum one hour. In the event the room is locat- transformers and UPSs
ed on top floor of a structure, then it is permissible for the ceiling to be noncombustible
Cummins Digital
or protected with an automatic fire suppression system. Engineering

Engines using Class I liquid fuels need to be located in rooms with exterior exposure Upgrades That Meet Every
Demand
with accessibility for firefighting operations (see Figure 1).
grid integration
Beyond ECO Mode:

Without Compromise
Mode
Why is ground fault

Figure 1: Classification of liquid fuels is per NFPA 30: Flammable and Combustible Liquid Code. Courtesy: ESD protection needed?
Engines located within dedicated detached structures: Detached structures need to be

of noncombustible or fire-resistive construction and located a minimum of 5 feet from
24
wall openings and a minimum of 5 feet from structures with combustible walls. Integrating building
The minimum separation is not required if exposing wall of the detached structure or ex- Taking a zero-tolerance
posed wall of adjacent structure has a fire resistance rating of minimum one hour or the downtime
detached structure is protected by an automatic fire protection system. What is a zero energy
building?
Engines located on roofs or outdoors: Engines and weatherproof housing located on the  Basics of engine
installation and
roof of a structure or outdoors needs to be a minimum of 5 feet from wall openings and a
operation
minimum of 5 feet from structures with combustible walls. Reduced clearances are accept-
able if all portions of the structure that are closer than 5 feet from engine enclosure have
a fire resistance rating of minimum one hour. Reduced clearances are also acceptable if it transformers and UPSs
can be demonstrated that fire within the housing will not ignite combustible structures and
Cummins Digital
the underlying reasoning and methodology is reviewed and accepted by the AHJ. Engineering

If the engine is installed on a roof, then the surface beneath the engine and beyond Upgrades That Meet Every
Demand
the engine and containment dike needs to be noncombustible to a minimum distance
of 12 inches.
grid integration
Gaseous fuels for engines Beyond ECO Mode:
Frequently used gaseous fuels for generators includes natural gas, propane and biogas. Delivering Efficiency
Without Compromise
Liquified forms of gas such as liquified petroleum gas and liquified natural gas are also Using Dynamic Online
Mode
considered gaseous fuels. The service pressure of gaseous fuel dictates the standard
that needs to be used for design: For pressure not exceeding 125 pounds per square Why is ground fault
protection needed?
inch gauge, the piping system needs to be installed in accordance with NFPA 54: Na-
tional Fuel Gas Code.
25
For pressure exceeding 125 psig, the piping system needs to be installed in accordance Integrating building
with ANSI/ASME B31.3, Process Piping. LPG systems need to be installed in accordance
with NFPA 58: Liquified Petroleum Gas Code. Taking a zero-tolerance
downtime

building?
 Basics of engine
installation and
operation

Cummins Digital
Engineering
Figure 2: A diagrammatic representation of a gas train serving a generator is shown. Courtesy: ESD
Demand
NFPA 37 outlines the components that need to be incorporated in gas trains serving
generators. At a minimum, the following components are required per engine (see Fig-
ure 2): grid integration
Beyond ECO Mode:

• Isolation valve. Delivering Efficiency
Without Compromise
• Pressure regulator if gas pressure needs to be reduced to meet the engine require- Using Dynamic Online
Mode
ments.
• Two automatic safety shut-off valves. Why is ground fault
protection needed?
• Leak test valve for each ASSV or alternate means of proving full closure.
• Low pressure limit control for engines with a 2.5 million Btu/hour full-load input or
higher.
26
• High pressure limit control with manual reset capability for engines with a 2.5 mil- Integrating building
lion Btu/hour full-load input or higher.
• Vent valve or valve proving system if inlet gas pressure exceeds 2 psig. Taking a zero-tolerance
• Flame arrestor if biogas is used as a fuel and there is possibility of oxygen in biogas. downtime
• Gas filter or strainer. What is a zero energy
• Any other components required by the engine manufacturer such as pressure building?
relief valves.  Basics of engine

installation and
operation
For engines operating at gas pressures greater than 2 psig at the equipment isolation
valve, one of the following components also needs to be incorporated:
• Vent valve between the two ASSVs that fails open without externally applied power
Cummins Digital
and discharges outdoors. Engineering
• A minimum of one safety valve equipped with a switch to prove valve closing. Successful Power System
• Listed valve proving system to prove ASSVs at each startup or shutdown of the Upgrades That Meet Every
Demand
engine.
Some of the gas train components identified above are typically supplied by the en- grid integration
gine manufacturer; coordination during design is essential to ensure compliance with Beyond ECO Mode:
the standard. Delivering Efficiency
Without Compromise
Mode
If the valve train incorporates gas pressure regulators, they need to vent outside the
structure and minimum 5 feet away from openings. However, venting outside is not re- Why is ground fault
protection needed?
quired for the following regulator technologies:
• Regulators that operate with gas pressure on both sides of the diaphragm.
27
• Full lock-up regulators. Integrating building

• Listed regulators that incorporate vent-limiting devices.
• Regulators incorporating vent limiting system with orifice sized for 2.5 cubic feet Taking a zero-tolerance
per hour or less (natural gas). downtime

In addition, relief valves need to be installed downstream of non full lock-up regulator building?
when the gas pressure upstream of a regulator exceeds 0.5 psig.  Basics of engine
installation and
operation
If additional shut-off valves are provided in the gas train for maintenance purposes and
they are locked open, the key needs to be secured in a well-marked accessible location
near the valve. In addition, at least one manual shut-off valve needs to be provided in transformers and UPSs
an accessible location outside the fire hazard area of the engine for safely disabling fuel
Cummins Digital
supply in the event of an emergency. Engineering

For installations involving multiple engines, equipment isolation valves need to be locat- Upgrades That Meet Every
Demand
ed within the first takeoff or branch pipe serving the individual engine.
ASSVs for combustion engines need to capable of shutting off and disabling the fuel grid integration
supply to the engine within two seconds of the engine stopping. They also need to be Beyond ECO Mode:
capable of failing close without externally applied power. Delivering Efficiency
Without Compromise
Mode
As identified before, a gas train needs to incorporate two ASSVs. However, if the gas
pressure does not exceed 2 psig, one of the ASSVs can be replaced with one of the fol- Why is ground fault
protection needed?
lowing devices that is capable of shutting off within two seconds of engine stopping:
• Carburation valve.
28
• Zero governor-type regulating valve. Integrating building

• Auxiliary valve.
Overpressure protection needs to be provided if the gas train is subject to one of the downtime
following conditions: What is a zero energy
building?
• Inlet gas pressure exceeds both 2 psig and the pressure rating of downstream com-  Basics of engine
installation and
ponents.
operation
• Failure of a single gas pressure regulator will result in inlet gas pressure exceeding
the pressure rating of any downstream component.
Liquid fuels for engines
Cummins Digital
Frequently used liquid fuels for Engineering
generators includes diesel and Successful Power System
gasoline. Considering the in- Upgrades That Meet Every
Demand
herent hazard associated with
flammable liquids due to their
low flash point temperature, fuel grid integration
tanks containing Class I fuels such Beyond ECO Mode:
as gasoline need to be located Delivering Efficiency
Without Compromise
underground or aboveground Using Dynamic Online
Mode
outside of structures. Table 1: Classification of liquid fuels. Courtesy: ESD
Why is ground fault
protection needed?
For fuels other than Class I fuels, aggregate capacity of fuel tanks not installed within
dedicated room cannot exceed 660 gallons. Tanks with aggregate capacity between 660
and 1,320 gallons need to be installed within dedicated room of minimum one-hour fire
29
rating. Tanks with aggregate capacity exceeding 1,320 gallons need to be installed with- Integrating building
in dedicated rooms of minimum three-hour fire rating.
It is important to note that these requirements are also applicable to tanks constructed downtime
in accordance with UL 2080: Standard for Fire Resistant Tanks for Flammable and Com- What is a zero energy
bustible Liquids or UL 2085: Standard for Protected Aboveground Tanks for Flammable building?
and Combustible Liquids.  Basics of engine

installation and
operation
Fuel tanks of any size are permitted within engine rooms or mechanical rooms if the
rooms are designed in accordance with recognized practices and incorporate means
such as fire detection, fire suppression and fire containment to limit the spread of fire. transformers and UPSs
Ventilation of rooms needs to be provided to maintain concentration of vapors below
Cummins Digital
25% of lower flammability limit of fuel. Engineering

To allow periodic inspection and maintenance of fuel tanks, a minimum clearance of Upgrades That Meet Every
Demand
15 inches needs to be maintained around each tank. To minimize risks associated with
the fuel filling and transfer process, tanks served by pumps need to be equipped with
overflow line, high-level alarm and high-level auto shut-off. The overflow piping needs grid integration
to be routed to source tank or collection system and capacity of overflow piping needs Beyond ECO Mode:
to exceed the fuel supply capacity at the tank. Valves or traps are not permitted in the Delivering Efficiency
Without Compromise
overflow piping. Using Dynamic Online
Mode
Engine exhaust and safety Why is ground fault

protection needed?
Engine flue exhaust systems needs to be designed and constructed to accommodate
heat, corrosive environment (internal or external), internal pressure including poten-
tial for backfire and external forces such as snow, wind and seismic activity. In addition,
30
drains need to be incorporated at Integrating building

low points of exhaust systems to
allow for draining of condensates or Taking a zero-tolerance
water ingress. downtime

Engines with an output of 10 hp or building?
more need to be capable of being  Basics of engine

installation and
shut down at the engine and from a
operation
remote location in the event of an
emergency.
Operating instructions
Figure 3: This lineup of generators is equipped with sub- Cummins Digital
O&M instructions need to be located base tanks. Courtesy: ESD Engineering
at readily accessible locations for use Successful Power System
by the operators. The instructions need to include the following at a minimum: Upgrades That Meet Every
Demand

• Detailed explanation of engine operation.
• Routine maintenance instructions. grid integration
• Detailed instructions for repairs. Beyond ECO Mode:
• Pictorial parts list and numbers. Delivering Efficiency
Without Compromise
• Electrical drawings for wiring systems. Using Dynamic Online
Mode
• Instructions on fire safety features of the engine.
Why is ground fault
protection needed?
In addition, emergency shutdown procedures need to be developed and provided for
each engine. The emergency operating procedures need to be located at readily acces-
sible locations. Fuel shut-off valves need to be clearly identified or locations need to be
31
indicated diagrammatically and posted near the engines Integrating building

Engine fire protection Taking a zero-tolerance

Upon activation of the fire suppression system serving the engine installation, automatic downtime
fuel stop valves need to close and mechanical ventilation systems need to shut down What is a zero energy
unless the engines are for emergency use or constantly attended and O&M procedures building?
are in place to direct operator action.  Basics of engine

installation and
operation
NFPA 37 has been with us for more than a century. Its requirements have undoubtedly
helped buildings operate more safely. And that means businesses have a better chance
to survive and thrive. transformers and UPSs
Cummins Digital
Engineering
Saahil Tumber, PE, HBDP, LEED AP, ESD, Chicago Successful Power System
Saahil Tumber is a technical authority at ESD. He is a member of the Consulting-Speci- Upgrades That Meet Every
Demand
fying Engineer editorial advisory board. Tumber was a 2016 Consulting-Specifying Engi-
neer 40 Under 40 award winner.
grid integration
Beyond ECO Mode:

Without Compromise
Mode
Why is ground fault

protection needed?
32
Analyze Life Cycle Costs of Switchgear, Not the Sticker Price systems through controls
F
or decades, the 15-25kV pad mounted air insulated distribution switchgear has approach to data center
been the prominentnswitchgear technology used by utilities. The design is widely downtime
accepted because of its initial low cost and small environmental impact as compared What is a zero energy
building?
to oil and gas insulated switchgear. However, the industry is evolving, and power distri-
bution planning strategies are looking beyond “low-cost” solutions and focusing more Basics of engine installation
and operation
attention on reliability, safety, operation and maintenance costs, and automation capa-
bilities.  Pay Now or Pay
Later?
Up Front Analysis Pays Dividends transformers and UPSs
Life cycle cost (LCC) analyses are becoming a more common tool for utility stakehold- Cummins Digital
ers and procurement managers when acquiring a new asset or retrofitting/refurbishing Engineering
existing assets. LCC assumes that multiple solutions can meet project requirements Successful Power System
and achieve acceptable performance, and that these solutions have differing costs,
Demand
maintenance and operation requirements, and useful life cycles. Using an LCC analysis
not only considers initial cost of an asset (acquisition and installation cost), but also energy buildings and smart
factors in long-term costs tied to maintenance, renewal cost, re-tooling, repair, and grid integration
failure. Beyond ECO Mode:

Without Compromise
Evaluating LCC of distribution switchgear will allow a deeper analysis that may discard Using Dynamic Online
Mode
solutions with low upfront costs, but high operation and renewal costs related to main-
Why is ground fault
tenance, repairs, and a higher failure rate due to adverse conditions.
protection needed?
Cost of Acquisition – Read the Fine Print

When considering the cost of acquisition, remember the total cost will include the pur-
33
chase price as well as installation, training and re-tooling costs. In the case of solid di- systems through controls
electric switchgear as a replacement for existing air insulated switchgear, it’s critical to Taking a zero-tolerance
ensure design flexibility that minimizes any re-work or added installation costs that may approach to data center
downtime
cause the switchgear solution under consideration to be discarded. Certain switchgear
configurations available are designed with this in mind. Multi-way configurations pro- What is a zero energy
building?
vide a high degree of design flexibility and they are ideal for drop-in replacement of
legacy air, SF6, and oil insulated switchgear designs. and operation
Do Your Homework on the Cost of Operation

 Pay Now or Pay
Later?
The cost of operation input requires the gathering of data from in-service operation Back to basics: Switchgear,
and maintenance practices, sensitivity to service interruptions, and the penalties and/ transformers and UPSs
or losses incurred for service interruptions. Well-thought-out maintenance plans can Cummins Digital
Engineering
be compromised due to economic factors, natural disasters, and attrition of the work-
force. Successful Power System
Demand
For example, a “run-to-fail” maintenance strategy can be a viable option, only if direct Best practices for zero
replacement units are on-hand and/or redundancy is present in the system, limiting the energy buildings and smart
grid integration
number of customers affected by equipment failure. But, when required and suggest-
Beyond ECO Mode:
ed maintenance practices are not adhered to, the probability of failure increases over Delivering Efficiency
the life of the switchgear asset. Without Compromise
Mode
From a scheduled maintenance perspective, dead-front solid dielectric switchgear of-
Why is ground fault
fers many advantages over traditional air insulated switchgear such as the use of envi- protection needed?
ronmentally-friendly epoxy encapsulation that is maintenance free over its lifetime. In
addition, live-front air insulated switchgear is susceptible to failures by flooding, animal
ingress, moisture build-up, and debris. 34
Automation packages are commercially available for air insulated switchgear. However, Taking a zero-tolerance
options such as auto-transfer, voltage/current monitoring, bus fault detection, and fault approach to data center
downtime
targeting are not available. It is hardly ideal to automate switchgear when you can-
not monitor the condition of your dielectric. Without confirmation that the switchgear What is a zero energy
building?
enclosure is free of debris or moisture, an air insulated switchgear automating remote
operation can lead to catastrophic failure. In fact, there is no solution available that and operation
can automate the outdated power fuses used for overcurrent protection.
 Pay Now or Pay
Later?
For reduced maintenance and operation cost, it’s best to install equipment that of-
fers automation and remote monitoring solutions. Doing so helps to reduce penalties
 Back to basics: Switchgear,
incurred for extended outages. There are certain solid dielectric switchgear products Cummins Digital
Engineering
designed with automated solutions in mind. Options such as motors, magnetic actua-
tors, auxiliary contacts, and flexibility with many different automation relays allow the Successful Power System
end user to deploy switchgear on a network for manual switching and control with the Demand
option to easily retrofit automation capabilities in the future. These automation capa- Best practices for zero
bilities will help to lower costs by limiting the need to deploy crews for manual switch- energy buildings and smart
grid integration
ing and reconfiguration.
Beyond ECO Mode:
Investigate Renewal Costs Without Compromise
In the event of a fault, a fuse may only interrupt current on a single-phase and the en- Mode
tire switchgear assembly will typically need to be taken out of service to safely replace
Why is ground fault
an opened or blown fuse. The costs associated with locating and replacing fuses, tak- protection needed?
ing equipment out of service, and keeping fuses in stock will drive up the renewal cost.
Some solid dielectric switchgear available on the market utilizes resettable vacuum 35
interrupters to protect switchgear cables and other system components in the event of systems through controls
a fault. Once a fault has been cleared, resetting of the fault interrupter is easily accom- Taking a zero-tolerance
plished manually with standard tools, or electronically through use of motors, or mag- approach to data center
downtime
netic actuators. This design eliminates the burden and safety hazard of changing fuses
while switchgear is energized. To eliminate renewal costs and further improve overall What is a zero energy
building?
operator safety, look for switchgear that can allow operators to reset a fault interrupter
or reconfigure a circuit without ever leaving their SCADA terminal. and operation
Price Compare, Leverage Public Resources and Employ

 Pay Now or Pay
Later?
and LCC Back to basics: Switchgear,
The information in the below table was found by reviewing public utility and municipal- transformers and UPSs
ity budgeting and construction plans that publish costs related to purchase, installa- Cummins Digital
Engineering
tion, and repair of distribution switchgear. The remaining information is the result of a
sampling of large and small Investor Owned Utilities. Successful Power System
Demand

grid integration
Beyond ECO Mode:

Without Compromise
Mode
Why is ground fault

protection needed?
36
Ultimately, utilities are leaning toward installing emerging technology such as dead- systems through controls
front, automation ready solid dielectric switchgear, which is environmentally friendly Taking a zero-tolerance
and well suited to meet the future needs of their customers. approach to data center
downtime
By using an LCC analysis, utilities can evaluate total cost of ownership of air and solid What is a zero energy
building?
dielectric switchgear. Many different algorithms and data aggregation methods are
utilized to aid in creating a reliable LCC analysis that will identify the most cost-ef- and operation
fective solution available. Once the LCC model is developed, informed decisions can
be made regarding deploying new assets, exploring new switchgear technologies, or
 Pay Now or Pay
Later?
refurbishing existing equipment. Back to basics: Switchgear,
Cummins Digital
Engineering

Demand

grid integration
Beyond ECO Mode:

Without Compromise
Mode
Why is ground fault

protection needed?
37
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transformers and UPSs Integrating building
Switchgear, transformers and uninterruptible power supplies are among the approach to data center
downtime
largest, costliest and most critical devices in a facility
building?
A n understanding of the operation, construction and application of operation of

switchgear, transformers and uninterruptible power supplies is important for de-
signers, specifiers, facility owners and construction managers who may be called on to
and operation

render decisions about design, project budgets and available space.
 Back to basics:
Switchgear,
Switchgear transformers and
UPSs
Switchgear is electrical distribution equipment: it accepts power from a source, routes
Cummins Digital
it to a number of outputs and provides overcurrent protection and control functions. Of Engineering
the types of distribution equipment described in the NFPA 70: National Electrical Code
Article 408: Switchboards, Switchgear and Panelboards, switchgear is generally the most Upgrades That Meet Every
Demand
robustly constructed, the largest and the most expensive. It’s typically applied in high-re-
liability facilities, like hospitals or data centers, where continuity of power is critical to Best practices for zero
effective operation. grid integration
Beyond ECO Mode:

Switchgear is available in a wide range of voltage ratings, from below 1,000 volts to more Delivering Efficiency
Without Compromise
than 200 kilovolts. Medium-voltage switchgear, rated above 1,000 volts, is manufactured in Using Dynamic Online
a variety of configurations. Assemblies are available for exterior padmount installation, vault Mode
installation or installed in dedicated freestanding metal buildings, with air, gas, vacuum or Why is ground fault
protection needed?
oil as insulating media. This discussion will focus on interior low-voltage switchgear.
39
Back to basics: Switchgear, transformers and UPSs
The alternative to switchgear is switchboard construction. Switchboards generally require Integrating building
less space and are less expensive. Both are typically constructed of a number of vertical
sections. Each section is enclosed in sheet metal, with openings in front for overcurrent pro- Taking a zero-tolerance
tection devices, monitoring equipment and control devices. A section may contain a main downtime
overcurrent protection device, metering devices, automatic control and monitoring systems, What is a zero energy
overcurrent protection devices for distribution feeders or a combination of these or other building?
equipment specific to the installation. Overcurrent protection is typically accomplished with Basics of engine installation
and operation
circuit breakers, with fused switches are less frequently.
LV switchgear is constructed to UL 1558:  Back to basics:

Switchgear,
Standard for Metal-Enclosed Low-Volt- transformers and
age Power Circuit Breaker Switchgear. UPSs
Switchboards are constructed under Cummins Digital
UL 891: Switchboards. UL 1558 incor- Engineering
porates a number of requirements that Successful Power System

enhance the reliability, durability and Demand
maintainability over UL 891.
grid integration
Switchgear breakers are typically in-
stalled four high in a vertical section, Beyond ECO Mode:
individually mounted. Each circuit Without Compromise
breaker is separated by solid barriers Figure 1: A simplified diagram shows a single-phase Mode
from other breakers and from the rest transformer coil. Courtesy: Johnston, LLC
Why is ground fault
of the assembly. In a typical switchgear protection needed?
assembly, the horizontal and vertical buses are enclosed in a bus compartment to the
rear of the breaker compartments and this bus compartment is isolated from the rest of
40
the assembly using insulating barriers. Integrating building

Finally, the cable connections are in the rear compartment, which is isolated from the bus Taking a zero-tolerance
compartment with an insulating barrier. These separations and barriers, prescribed by UL downtime
1558, are intended to increase the reliability and maintainability of switchgear by limit- What is a zero energy
ing the possibility of contact between conductors attached to adjacent breakers during building?
installations or maintenance and to minimize any damage to adjacent components in the Basics of engine installation
and operation
event that an arcing fault should develop. Switchboards, under UL 891, are not required
to provide the same level of isolation between components. Pay Now or Pay Later?
 Back to basics:
Switchgear,
Circuit breakers installed in LV switchgear are required to meet UL 1066: Standard for transformers and
Low-Voltage AC and DC Power Circuit Breakers Used in Enclosures. This standard re- UPSs
quires that circuit breakers have a 30-cycle withstand rating, describing the level of fault Cummins Digital
current that they can tolerate for 0.5 seconds without damage. The instantaneous trip Engineering
function can thus be delayed, to allow downstream breakers to clear a fault without trip- Successful Power System
ping the switchgear breaker, facilitating selective coordination. Demand

The switchboard standard allows breakers built to UL 489: Molded-Case Circuit Breakers, energy buildings and smart
grid integration
Molded-Case Switches and Circuit-Breaker Enclosures. Breakers built to this standard are
required only to have a 3-cycle withstand, 0.05 seconds. For these breakers, the instan- Beyond ECO Mode:
taneous trip function cannot be delayed to facilitate selective coordination. Use of fused Without Compromise
switches is also allowed. The applicable standard for enclosed switches is NEMA KS1:
Mode
Heavy Duty Enclosed and Dead-Front Switches.
Why is ground fault
protection needed?
Switchgear ratings include:
• Insulation level.
41
• Maximum continuous current. Integrating building

• Maximum voltage.
• Power frequency. Taking a zero-tolerance
• Short-circuit withstand current. downtime
• Short time withstand current. What is a zero energy
building?
In a typical installation, LV switchgear is Basics of engine installation

and operation
connected to the secondary of a power
transformer — either the utility’s service Pay Now or Pay Later?
transformer or a facility transformer. Where  Back to basics:

Switchgear,
service is at medium voltage, a power transformers and
transformer may be close-coupled to the UPSs
switchgear, with the two assemblies bolted Cummins Digital
together to form a single unit. The result- Engineering
ing assembly is called a “unit substation.” Successful Power System

The distribution breakers of the switchgear Demand
will typically serve feeders to large facility
loads, such as chillers, large transformers or energy buildings and smart
Figure 2: An isolated power panel is installed in an grid integration
large UPSs — or other distribution equip- operating room. The transformer is visible at the
ment, such as switchboards, motor control bottom of the enclosure. Courtesy: Johnston, LLC Beyond ECO Mode:
centers, panelboards or, rarely, other switch- Without Compromise
gear assemblies.
Mode
Why is ground fault

Switchgear has definite advantages over switchboard construction in terms of reliability protection needed?
and maintainability. The decision of which system to use on a particular project will de-
pend on a variety of factors. Switchboard construction requires a considerably smaller
42
footprint to provide the same distribution and protection functions, so available space Integrating building
will have an impact on the selection. Switchgear is considerably more expensive, with a
cost penalty on the order of 60% to 100%, so a tight project budget will bias the deci- Taking a zero-tolerance
sion toward switchboard constructions. And, in projects where selective coordination is downtime
challenging, particularly on an emergency system where strict coordination is required by What is a zero energy
NEC Article 700.28, switchgear may be the necessary solution. building?

Transformers and operation
A transformer is an alternating-current electromagnetic device that magnetically moves Pay Now or Pay Later?
power from one or more primary circuits to one or more secondary circuits. The primary  Back to basics:
Switchgear,
and secondary circuits secondary circuits typically operate different voltages and cur- transformers and
rents, with the ratio between them determined by the transformer’s characteristics. Re- UPSs
quirements for transformers are described in NEC Article 450. Cummins Digital
Engineering
Transformers are ubiquitous in modern life, with a variety of characteristics, ratings and Successful Power System
uses. On the high-power end of the scale, electric utilities use large power transformers Demand
to connect transmission systems operating at different voltages. On the small end, tiny
signal transformers are used to connect communication equipment to Ethernet systems energy buildings and smart
grid integration
and microscopic transformers have even been printed in integrated circuits. Transform-
ers used in facility distribution systems fall between those extremes. Beyond ECO Mode:
Without Compromise
A transformer operates on the principle of magnetic induction, an electromagnetic
Mode
principle that states that a voltage will develop across a conductor in the presence of
Why is ground fault
a changing magnetic field. Magnetic induction was discovered and quantified in the protection needed?
19th century by scientists whose contributions were so significant that their names have
been attached to electrical units of measure and laws of physics. A thorough treatment
43
of magnetic induction would require many times the space available here, so it will be Integrating building
treated qualitatively in this discussion of transformer operation.
In an elementary implementa- downtime
tion, a simple transformer might What is a zero energy
consist of an iron ring, called the building?
“core,” with one primary and one Basics of engine installation

and operation
secondary each making multiple
loops around the ring, called Pay Now or Pay Later?
“coils,” as shown in Figure 1.  Back to basics:

Switchgear,
When the primary is energized transformers and
with alternating current, the pri- UPSs
mary coil generates a magnetic Cummins Digital
field that varies in magnitude and Engineering
direction with the input power. Successful Power System

Figure 3: A large switchgear lineup is used for paralleling
Demand
generators. Courtesy: Johnston, LLC
In theory, that magnetic field exists
throughout all space, but the mag- energy buildings and smart
grid integration
netic characteristics of the iron core concentrate nearly all of the magnetic field within
the body of the ring, where it passes through both the primary and secondary coils. The Beyond ECO Mode:
time-varying magnetic field running through the secondary coil induces a voltage across Without Compromise
those coils by magnetic induction. The quotient of the number of primary loops and the
Mode
number of secondary loops is called the “turns ratio,” where turns refers to turns of wire
Why is ground fault
around the core. In the end, the secondary voltage is equal to the primary voltage divid- protection needed?
ed by the turns ratio.
44
Real-world transformers are much more complex than the naïve implementation de- Integrating building
scribed here. For example, most transformers installed in facilities are three-phase units,
whose core geometry must accommodate three primary and three secondary coils. Taking a zero-tolerance
Transformers are often provided with taps on the secondary coil — additional connec- downtime
tion points whose output voltage is slightly higher or lower than the nominal voltage, for What is a zero energy
use in applications where voltages lower or higher than normal chronically occur due to building?
system loading, utility voltage levels or for other reasons. Transformer cores are typically Basics of engine installation
and operation
made from sheets of specialty steel, bonded together with an insulating adhesive, rather
than solid iron or steel, to reduced magnetically induced currents that circulate in the Pay Now or Pay Later?
core during operation. A typical facility transformer is mounted inside a metal enclosure,  Back to basics:
Switchgear,
usually with openings for ventilation. transformers and
UPSs
No conductive connection exists between the primary and secondary coils of a trans- Cummins Digital
former. The magnetic interaction between the coils forces the voltage between the sec- Engineering
ondary conductors to a specific value, but the voltage between either conductor and its Successful Power System
surroundings is, in theory, undefined. For most systems, one of the secondary conductors Demand
must be intentionally connected to ground, to ensure that the voltage on the secondary
doesn’t stray too far from earth potential. Exceptions to that rule are systems that must energy buildings and smart
grid integration
be tolerant of a single ground fault, such as isolated power systems in medical facilities.
Beyond ECO Mode:
Transformer ratings include: Without Compromise
Mode
• Capacity, typically expressed in kilovolt amperes, the maximum apparent power
Why is ground fault
that the transformer can supply to its loads. protection needed?
• Primary voltage or line voltage — the operating voltage of the primary coil.
• Secondary voltage or load voltage — the operating voltage of the secondary coil.
45
• Temperature rise, typically expressed in degrees Celsius — the difference between Integrating building
the temperature of the transformer coils and ambient temperature when the trans-
former operates at full load. Taking a zero-tolerance
downtime
Other features of transformers that normally appear in specifications are number of What is a zero energy
phases, number and spacing of transformer taps, enclosure characteristics, insulation building?
medium, impedance and efficiency. Basics of engine installation

and operation
Transformers are not 100% efficient. While most of the input power is delivered to the Pay Now or Pay Later?
secondary terminals, some is lost as heat. These losses can be characterized as load loss-  Back to basics:
Switchgear,
es, primarily due to resistance of the coil conductors and no-load losses, primarily due to transformers and
magnetic effects inside and outside of the core. These two types of losses are interde- UPSs
pendent, in that designing to reduce one type of losses can raise the other. Cummins Digital
Engineering
For example, load losses can be reduced by constructing the coils from larger wire, Successful Power System
reducing their series resistance. However, larger conductors will place outside layers Demand
further from the core, reducing the effectiveness of magnetic coupling between the coil
and core and raising no-load losses. For most transformers, Department of Energy rules energy buildings and smart
grid integration
describe required efficiency levels and specify that transformer efficiency will be opti-
mized at a load level at or near 35%. Those regulations generally dictate what trade-offs Beyond ECO Mode:
are between load losses and no-load losses are permissible. Without Compromise
Mode
Uninterruptible power supplies
Why is ground fault
A UPS is an electrical assembly that is designed to provide nearly perfect alternating protection needed?
current power continuously, with nearly 100% reliability. A UPS is typically deployed to
support electrical loads that are critical to the business conducted in a facility. UPSs are
46
available in very small desktop units to power loads in hundreds of volt-amperes, to very Integrating building
large enterprise systems rated in thousands of kilowatts.
The function of a UPS is to provide high-quality power to its load when the primary pow- downtime
er source, usually an electric utility, fails or becomes unacceptable. A UPS maintains pow- What is a zero energy
er to its load during blackouts, brownouts, voltage sags and swells, loss of a single phase building?
and other system disturbances, protecting from both loss of power and from damage. Basics of engine installation
and operation
All UPSs contain an energy storage sys- Pay Now or Pay Later?
tem, most often in the form of chemical  Back to basics:

Switchgear,
batteries (lead-acid, nickel-cadmium, transformers and
lithium-ion). When the input power fails, UPSs
a UPS draws energy from its batteries, Cummins Digital
converts it to AC and delivers it to the Engineering
load. A number of schemes for providing Successful Power System

replacement power, called “topologies,” Demand
are in common use.
Figure 4: This simplified section view of an installed grid integration
A “double-conversion” UPS, also
switchgear breaker shows the breaker compartment, vertical
called an online UPS, continuously Beyond ECO Mode:
bus and cable connections. Courtesy: Johnston, LLC
converts incoming AC to direct cur- Without Compromise
rent using an internal rectifier. The resulting DC power is used to generate AC power for
Mode
the load, using an internal inverter and to maintain the charge on the system batteries.
Why is ground fault
Should the AC input be disrupted, the batteries provide power to the DC bus and the protection needed?
conversion to AC and delivery to the load continue without interruption.
47
The term “double-conversion” refers to the fact that the UPS continuously converts AC Integrating building
to DC and then converts that DC back to AC. With this scheme, the quality of the output
AC does not depend on the quality of the input power, since the output is independent- Taking a zero-tolerance
ly generated from the DC bus. Because conversion is continuous, there is no require- downtime
ment for detection of input power disturbances in order to protect the load. This topol- What is a zero energy
ogy is seen as highly reliable. It is also generally more expensive and less efficient, than building?
the alternatives. Basics of engine installation

and operation
Because a double-conversion UPS continuously generates the output AC, a failure inside Pay Now or Pay Later?
the UPS can put the continuity of power to the critical load at risk. To address this vul-  Back to basics:
Switchgear,
nerability, these units typically include a static switch — a high-speed electronic switch transformers and
connected between input and output — that will connect the input power directly to UPSs
the load. The UPS monitors its own output and, should the output fall out of acceptable Cummins Digital
limits, the UPS closes the static switch and disconnects itself from the load. Engineering

A “single-conversion” or “standby” UPS continuously passes its input power directly to the Demand
load, while the input is acceptable. The UPS monitors the input power for disturbances and,
should any appear, it disconnects input power and begins to serve the load from its batteries energy buildings and smart
grid integration
through its inverter. This process necessitates a delay between the input disturbance and the
commencement of replacement power, for detection, realignment of the system and starting Beyond ECO Mode:
the inverter. A standby UPS is therefore applicable to loads with a higher tolerance for sys- Without Compromise
tem disturbances. This topology is seen as less reliable than double conversion. It is, howev-
Mode
er, more efficient, since it doesn’t incur losses in its rectifier or its inverter in normal operation.
Why is ground fault
protection needed?
Ratings for uninterruptible power systems include:
• Full load runtime — a function of the battery capacity.
48
• Input voltage. Integrating building

• Maximum output apparent pow-
er, expressed in volt-amperes. Taking a zero-tolerance
• Maximum output wattage, ex- downtime
pressed in watts. What is a zero energy
• Output voltages. building?

and operation
A UPS is typically sized at about Figure 5: A block diagram of a double-conversion
125% of its expected maximum load, esti- uninterruptible power supply is shown. Courtesy: Pay Now or Pay Later?
mated for its entire life cycle. Data center Johnston, LLC
 Back to basics:
Switchgear,
applications call for estimates of aggres- transformers and
sive load growth that sometimes don’t materialize, stranding excess capacity. To address UPSs
this issue, some systems are available with modular, hot-swappable power supply and Cummins Digital
battery modules to allow incremental capacity and runtime upgrades as load increases. Engineering

UPSs require routine maintenance and, like everything else, they sometimes fail in service. Demand
For some systems, a wrap-around maintenance bypass, connecting the load directly to
utility power, is an adequate provision for maintenance and repair activities. More sensitive energy buildings and smart
grid integration
systems will require a level of redundancy. Units can be connected in parallel or in series to
provide redundant capacity, with communication and monitoring among redundant units. Beyond ECO Mode:
Without Compromise
Tom Divine, PE, LEED AP
Mode
Tom Divine is a senior electrical engineer at Johnston, LLC. He is a member of the Con-
Why is ground fault
sulting-Specifying Engineer editorial advisory board. protection needed?
49
Cummins Digital Engineering
downtime

building?

and operation

 Cummins Digital
Engineering

Demand

grid integration
Cummins Digital Engineering Beyond ECO Mode:

Cummins engineers know reliable power is only possible with Without Compromise
digital control. Applying digital engineering to decades of Using Dynamic Online
Mode
experience. Studying every possible anomaly from simple
power systems to the most complex. Why is ground fault
protection needed?
50
Successful Power System Upgrades
That Meet Every Demand Integrating building
Thoughtful Considerations and Expert Partnerships. Taking a zero-tolerance

downtime
U pdating emergency standby power systems or system components has challenges

and risks that begins with the decision-making process through design, installa-
tion and testing.
building?

and operation
Motivations for updating an emergency standby power system or system components may Pay Now or Pay Later?
include expanding operations, building upgrades or adding new features such as, parallel- Back to basics: Switchgear,
ing or remote monitoring. In some cases, the need may be more immediate due to an ag- transformers and UPSs
ing infrastructure, equipment failure, or obsoleted parts for vintage engines. While in other Cummins Digital
Engineering
cases, the loads on the system may expand to include emergency or fire pump equipment
which have more demanding requirements. To further complicate matters, additions and  Successful Power
System Upgrades
changes to a facility’s emergency equipment may drive the need for changes or the need That Meet Every
to segregate loads into life safety, critical, and equipment branches. Demand
There is almost always a need to maintain some level current operations during a renova- grid integration
tion project, so temporary equipment or other considerations may drive additional costs.
Beyond ECO Mode:
Design considerations must consider potentially complex logistics, limited space for new Delivering Efficiency
Without Compromise
and expanded equipment, system changes and compatibility of system expansion and Using Dynamic Online
future expansion. Mode
Why is ground fault

protection needed?
In many ways a renovation project can be more difficult than a completely new instal-
lation that has the advantage of starting with a clean slate. When system changes are
required to be put out to bid it is critical to evaluate suppliers and restrict the bidding to
51
Successful Power System Upgrades That Meet Every Demand
truly qualified candidates. Integrating building

During the solution partner selection process, consider their viability, knowledge of com- Taking a zero-tolerance
patibility of power system components including system controls and their accountability downtime
for component and solution design. Perhaps most importantly, consider the supplier’s What is a zero energy
support plan for service and aftermarket parts. building?

and operation
Here are three unique upgrade case studies:
Major upgrade at anmed health medical center Back to basics: Switchgear,

The AnMed Health Medical Center in Anderson, South Carolina, has been serving its com-
munity for over 100 years. Following several major expansions in recent decades, hospital Cummins Digital
Engineering
executives recognized the need to upgrade the center’s electrical power system infrastruc-
ture to meet increased energy demands, improve overall power reliability and ensure the  Successful Power
System Upgrades
facility met or exceeded the latest NEC code requirements. The hospital developed de- That Meet Every
Demand
tailed specifications and sought bids for a comprehensive upgrade to its electrical plant,
including a new emergency power system.
grid integration
• The comprehensive upgrade also included: Beyond ECO Mode:
• An expanded central utility plant Delivering Efficiency
Without Compromise
• Normal and essential power distribution risers for all eight floors of the hospital Using Dynamic Online
Mode
• New distribution risers for data and telecommunications
• A new fire alarm system Why is ground fault
protection needed?
• A customized power monitoring and control system
With the new system of three 2000 kW generator sets, paralleling switchgear and auto-
52
matic transfer switches in place, the hospital Integrating building

now has enough emergency power to han-
dle the loads of the entire facility. Planning Taking a zero-tolerance
for the new emergency power system took downtime
into consideration the need to handle in- What is a zero energy
creased loads in the future. A fourth gen- building?
erator set can be easily installed — without Basics of engine installation

and operation
interrupting service or adding to the wiring
or switchgear — to maintain N+1 redun- Pay Now or Pay Later?
dancy. Closed-transition automatic transfer Back to basics: Switchgear,

switches eliminate disruption to site loads
during testing or after testing of the system. Cummins Digital
Engineering
Successfully executing such a major upgrade
to a century-old facility under tight deadlines  Successful Power
System Upgrades
while the hospital continued to function was That Meet Every
Demand
a complex planning and logistical challenge.
As Chuck Parker, AnMed Health Director grid integration
of Engineering Services explained, “We Beyond ECO Mode:
were replacing the entire electrical system. Delivering Efficiency
Without Compromise
We moved all the normal, non-emergency Using Dynamic Online
Mode
circuits over to the new system one at a
time. Then we made one big transfer of the Why is ground fault
protection needed?
emergency circuits for the new construction
part of the project, and then another big
switch for the older part of the hospital.”
53
More power for sasktel data center Integrating building

SaskTel is a leading Information and Communications Technology (ICT) provider in Sas-
katchewan, Canada, with more than 1.4 million customer connections. In recent years, approach to data center
Cummins Sales and Service, (formally Cummins Western Canada) established itself as a downtime
trusted partner to SaskTel, providing switchgear in the Saskatoon data center and commis- What is a zero energy
building?
sioning a new complete power system in another location. As SaskTel evaluated their plan-
ning for future growth, they determined the existing 1750 kW generator set did not offer Basics of engine installation
and operation
adequate capacity to catch growth goals. In order to maximize the capacity and reliability
of its downtown Saskatoon data center location SaskTel issued a request for proposal for a
robust standby generator set. Back to basics: Switchgear,
Cummins Digital
When they became aware of the new QSK95 HHP, with 3250 kW of standby power and Engineering
best-in-class fuel economy within an ideal footprint, they found it fit their needs perfectly.
 Successful Power
System Upgrades
The SaskTel QSK95 installation in its downtown Saskatoon location was unique in many That Meet Every
Demand
respects. The third-floor position of the generator set room presented the installation
team with its primary challenge. Not only would the 3250 kW HHP generator set need to energy buildings and smart
be brought in with a crane and placed on the third floor, but one 300-ton crane would be grid integration
needed to assemble a hoist crate and lift the unit into position. To allow ample room for Beyond ECO Mode:
the safe assembly of the crane, lifting of the generator set and subsequent hoist crane dis- Without Compromise
assembly, the installation team worked with SaskTel and Saskatoon city leaders to close the Using Dynamic Online
Mode
affected city block for several days.
Why is ground fault
protection needed?
“Installation of the QSK95 was not an easy task,” said Bryan Haza, territory manager for
Cummins Sales and Service. “Closing a downtown street on a Saturday meant that exe-
cution needed to be flawless to minimize the impact on the community. Project manage-
54
ment teams from SaskTel, Cummins Sales and Service, Alliance Energy, PCL and Cummins Integrating building
worked together for several months to ensure that everything was in place on the day of
the installation,” he added. Taking a zero-tolerance
downtime

building?

and operation

Cummins Digital
Engineering
 Successful Power
System Upgrades
That Meet Every
Demand
grid integration
Preserving history while upgrading a historic hospital Beyond ECO Mode:
Oregon State Hospital in Salem was built in 1883 as the Oregon State Insane Asylum. Delivering Efficiency
Without Compromise
Mode
The renovations needed to preserve as many of the original buildings as possible because
the entire hospital campus had been inducted into the National Register of Historic Plac- Why is ground fault
protection needed?
es in 2008. Patients are provided care on a campus that has seen several renovations over
the years. The previous updates had created a better facility, but with a less than ideal
power configuration with multiple utility services providing electricity to different parts of
55
the campus. To address this challenge, the Oregon State Hospital Replacement Project Integrating building
planned for a migration to a single point primary power source for the entire campus with
distribution by a single utility connection. Completing such a plan with limited finances Taking a zero-tolerance
led to the hospital to explore alternative ways for making the capital investment for a new downtime
power system. Oregon State Hospital turned to Portland General Electric’s (PGE) Dispatch- What is a zero energy
able Standby Generation program (DSG). building?

and operation
Bruce Barney, Project Manager, PGE said, “PGE assumes maintenance responsibility, but is
not the owner of generators, fuel systems and some of the electrical gear and controls. We Pay Now or Pay Later?
maintain all of the switchgear and generators, and buy all the fuel, and in return, the cus- Back to basics: Switchgear,
tomer lets us use that machine up to 400 hours per year. However, in a typical year, PGE’s
use is closer to 10 hours.” Cummins Digital
Engineering
Cummins Sales and Service, (formally Cummins Northwest) was selected to provide the  Successful Power
System Upgrades
power generation system for several reasons. One was their willingness to work in part- That Meet Every
Demand
nership with the hospital, PGE, Affiliated Engineers Inc and Hoffman Construction to
meet the unique system challenges facing the team. Another was Cummins ability to
meet the short timeline. grid integration
Beyond ECO Mode:

“Cummins was selected because we could meet the short lead time,” according to Jim Delivering Efficiency
Without Compromise
Stalnaker, of Cummins Sales and Service. “We cut at least two months off the process with Using Dynamic Online
Mode
a switchgear option. Cummins provided the switchgear drawings within two weeks, and
approval was received within a week allowing the factory to start building the equipment Why is ground fault
protection needed?
right away. This process can take 20-24 weeks.”
Cummins Power Generation was also able to meet the space and sound limitations.
56
“Space was certainly a challenge. The architect had designated a very specific service and Integrating building
loading dock area,” Murphy said. “The generators needed to fit within the service yard en-
closure and there was a pretty stringent acoustical requirement because these generators Taking a zero-tolerance
would be located so close to the residents at the facility.” The acoustical attenuation of 65 downtime
dba at 23 feet was met by making the enclosures a little bit larger than usual. What is a zero energy
building?
It was also important to Oregon State Hospital and Hoffman Construction to obtain all the Basics of engine installation
and operation
equipment from one company. “The other enticing thing for the general contractor was he
was selecting a system that came all from the same company, all designed to work togeth- Pay Now or Pay Later?
er,” Stalnaker added. Cummins Power Generation was the single source manufacturer Back to basics: Switchgear,
for the complete system consisting of products designed to work together as one. The 4
MW system from Cummins Power Generation consists of one Digital Master Control with Cummins Digital
Engineering
switchgear for paralleling of the generators and service for four 2000 amp bypass switches,
four 800 amp bypass switches, and one 400 amp bypass switch. The generator sets were  Successful Power
System Upgrades
installed in sound-attenuated housings and a remote monitoring system with Joint Com- That Meet Every
Demand
mission reporting tool was provided.
For additional information about onsite power systems, visit power.cummins.com. grid integration
Beyond ECO Mode:

Without Compromise
Mode
Why is ground fault

protection needed?
57
Best practices for zero energy
buildings and smart grid integration Integrating building
Zero energy buildings, renewable energy and the smart grid are key approach to data center
downtime
considerations to commercial building design
building?
W hen researching building energy efficiency, renewable energy and the electrical
grid, industry publications and academic journals will invariably have articles and
papers on zero energy buildings and the smart grid.
and operation

To eliminate any discrepancies in terminology that may occur in the different publica- transformers and UPSs
tions, we need to use common terminology for ZEB and smart grid. For example, differ- Cummins Digital
ent organizations use nomenclature for ZEB such as zero net energy, net zero energy, net Engineering
zero, etc. The legacy definitions are not necessarily incorrect; rather they reflect the rapid Successful Power System
refinement of technical definitions and nomenclature over the past several years.
Demand
To rectify these differences, in 2015 the National Institute of Building Sciences prepared  Best practices for zero
energy buildings and
a study titled, “A Common Definition of Zero Energy Buildings” for the U.S. Depart- smart grid integration
ment of Energy: Beyond ECO Mode:

Without Compromise
“In 2014, the U.S. DOE Building Technologies Office contracted with the National Insti- Using Dynamic Online
Mode
tute of Building Sciences to establish definitions, associated nomenclature and measure-
Why is ground fault
ment guidelines for zero energy buildings, with the goal of achieving widespread adop- protection needed?
tion and use by the building industry.”
Similarly, while smart grid is a widely used term, standards are still in development. Be-
58
Best practices for zero energy buildings and smart grid integration
cause smart grid is a long-range, phased implementation that may mean different things Integrating building
to different constituents, it is not surprising that standards and nomenclature are in a
state of flux. But for the purposes of this article, the definition of smart grid is based on Taking a zero-tolerance
the high-level National Institute of Standards and Testing definition: downtime

“… a modernized grid that enables bidirectional flows of energy and uses two-way com- building?
munication and control capabilities that will lead to an array of new functionalities and Basics of engine installation
and operation
applications.”
Zero energy buildings in the commercial market Back to basics: Switchgear,

In the past decade, much progress has been made regarding ZEB, and not just research
and analysis; many buildings have been designed, built and are operational. The oper- Cummins Digital
Engineering
ational facilities offer the opportunity for measurement and monitoring, which is invalu-
able for the design and construction of future buildings. Upgrades That Meet Every
Demand
As building codes in the United States slowly move toward a requirement for all new build-
 Best practices for zero
ing projects to be designed and built in compliance to ZEB standards, the operational data
smart grid integration
from the facilities will become essential to inform the code officials.
Beyond ECO Mode:
For example, California Title 24 updates , which went into effect January 2020, require all Without Compromise
new single-family homes and low-rise apartment buildings to install solar panels to com- Mode
pensate for all electricity used by the building. Also, in 2018 The United States Conference Why is ground fault
of Mayors passed resolutions that support net-zero building construction by 2050. protection needed?
Some municipalities require building construction to be “zero energy ready” meaning that
the building can be built and operate without the renewable energy component and renew-
59
able energy can be added later without significant changes to the building infrastructure. Integrating building
According to the New Buildings Institute 2019 listing of zero energy buildings in the U.S. Taking a zero-tolerance
and Canada, projects completed and verified between 2016 and 2019 rose 53% and proj- downtime
ects that are in planning or construction rose 79%. These data confirm the idea that zero What is a zero energy
energy buildings will continue to grow and become a larger percentage of the building building?
stock over time (see Figure 1). Basics of engine installation

and operation
Worldwide, there are many Pay Now or Pay Later?
examples of highly efficient Back to basics: Switchgear,

buildings that use a fraction
of the energy compared to a Cummins Digital
Engineering
code-compliant building of
similar construction, size and Upgrades That Meet Every
location. While these buildings Demand
are ground-breaking and highly

efficient, for the most part they
rely on electricity supplied by
Beyond ECO Mode:
the electrical grid. ZEB are also Figure 5: A block diagram of a double-conversion Delivering Efficiency
uninterruptible power supply is shown. Courtesy: Without Compromise
extremely innovative and efficient and
Johnston, LLC Using Dynamic Online
use electricity produced by on-site re- Mode
newable energy. Why is ground fault
protection needed?
A building that is powered by on-site wind and solar resources has a greater degree of
complexity, resulting in more design parameters and code requirements. There is cer-
tainly a financial benefit for ZEB; while various reports indicate a range of payback peri-
60
ods, many of studies indicate similar financial benefits: utility cost savings of 20% to 50%, Integrating building
a payback between 5 and 10 years and a first-cost increase of 3% to 5%. Certainly, num-
bers like these can vary widely based on several factors, but there are many examples Taking a zero-tolerance
coming from the design and construction industry that indicate a zero energy building downtime
can be a good financial investment. What is a zero energy
building?
Zero energy building standardization Basics of engine installation

and operation
As more ZEB are constructed, the lessons learned from the previous projects will gradu-
ally close the gap between rock-solid design and construction practices and the difficul- Pay Now or Pay Later?
ties that invariably arise working on a novel and technically innovative project. When the Back to basics: Switchgear,
gap is nearly closed, there should be a number of resources that can be made available
to professionals assessing the viability of constructing a ZEB. Cummins Digital
Engineering

Open source standards and best practices is one way to safeguard the future success Upgrades That Meet Every
of zero energy building projects; planning, design, construction and operation are all Demand
key principles that need to be available to a wider audience. This standardization will
encourage closer coordination between manufacturers and builders and allow for a
common dialog between code officials and designers. Ultimately, if lawmakers and their
Beyond ECO Mode:
constituents understand the value of ZEB to the public and the environment, there will Delivering Efficiency
be a good deal more support. Without Compromise
Mode
To make this happen, there are important steps that need to be taken: Why is ground fault
protection needed?
• The goals of the projects need to be clear to the architecture, engineering and
construction industry and to lawmakers, encouraging discussion and engaging in
meaningful exchange of ideas.
61
• The zero energy project must demonstrate (in an easily understandable way) signif- Integrating building
icant reductions in energy use, purchased electricity cost and how the on-site re-
newable energy source will contribute to the reduction of CO2 emissions compared Taking a zero-tolerance
to a “business as usual” scenario. downtime
• Using the S. Green Building Council’s LEED as an example, the building project What is a zero energy
must have the ability to classified by the industry using a standard method. building?
• All design concepts for zero energy buildings must be flexible and adaptable as Basics of engine installation
and operation
new renewable energy technologies enter the marketplace. Because technologies
sometimes have very short cycle times before the next generation is released, care Pay Now or Pay Later?
must be taken to avoid obsolescence. Back to basics: Switchgear,

• Accurate measurement and verification of the electricity flows (site to building, site
to grid, source to site) is essential in understanding how the buildings operate and Cummins Digital
Engineering
to learn for future projects. As the smart grid continues to mature, building owners
will have the ability to communicate directly with their energy providers to optimize Upgrades That Meet Every
electricity use and production. Demand

Design strategies for zero energy buildings energy buildings and
Design and construction professionals recognize the value working in a team environment
Beyond ECO Mode:
where all team members eventually develop a solid understanding of the project goals Delivering Efficiency
and holistic design concepts. This team becomes especially important when designing a Without Compromise
ZEB; there are elements (such as the renewable energy) that require close coordination Mode
and communication that are outside the scope of a “normal” high-performance building. Why is ground fault
protection needed?
Among the dozens of technical approaches that shape the building and systems, there are
four major design elements for zero energy buildings that form the basis of the overall de-
sign strategy; they are all interdependent with each other and must be viewed as a whole:
62
1. Passive design elements: The most basic ideas of passive cooling and heating Integrating building
are foundational to the successful operation of a zero energy building. But these
concepts are not new; they have been used in dwellings worldwide for millennia. Taking a zero-tolerance
The widespread use of and advancements in building design technology, materials downtime
and building systems continue to make the fundamental design ideas more viable. What is a zero energy
The main theory behind any sustainable design strategy is to work with the climate, building?
not against it. For many decades, commercial office buildings were designed with Basics of engine installation
and operation
impervious external envelopes with sealed windows. At certain times of the year,
in certain climate zones, this type of construction is vital to minimize heat transfer Pay Now or Pay Later?
across the exterior wall assembly and to eliminate air infiltration. However, having Back to basics: Switchgear,
the ability to use natural ventilation and passive design elements to reduce solar
heat gain and shift the peak cooling load, introduced cost reduction and improved Cummins Digital
Engineering
comfort. The design of a zero energy building is optimized using site weather data
including solar and wind data for designing on-site renewable energy systems. At Upgrades That Meet Every
the same time, the passive design components must not have a negative impact Demand
on other parts of the design. The final design results in a building that uses as little
source energy as possible for the lighting and heating, ventilation and air condi-
tioning systems.
Beyond ECO Mode:
2. Plug and process load: Buildings have a base level of technology (computers, Delivering Efficiency
networking gear, etc.) to provide a functional environment for the occupants. LED Without Compromise
lighting with occupant sensors, adaptive ambient light level control, high efficien- Mode
cy power supplies and Energy Star office equipment are a few ways to reduce the Why is ground fault
annual source energy requirement. Minimizing or eliminating these loads saves fan protection needed?
and compressor energy.

3. Efficiency of HVAC systems: Heating, cooling and ventilation systems are one of
the highest energy consumers in an office building. Reducing the annual energy
63
use of the HVAC systems will result in a significant energy savings, so there is a Integrating building
priority on energy-efficient design solutions for the HVAC systems. Also, the HVAC
and lighting systems have a close relationship with the passive elements of the Taking a zero-tolerance
building design; shading, lighting, thermal mass and ventilation strategies will all downtime
provide opportunities to reduce annual energy use. What is a zero energy
4. On-site renewable energy: Before renewable energy is introduced into this discus- building?
sion, it is important to acknowledge that applying the design principles discussed Basics of engine installation
and operation
above to a building strategy (passive design, optimal plug and process load and
efficient HVAC systems) results in high-performance building that does not have Pay Now or Pay Later?
to rely on renewable energy to power the building; it is able to stand on its own as Back to basics: Switchgear,
“traditional building” relying on the grid and source energy (albeit using far less
energy than a regular code-compliant building). But when renewable energy is Cummins Digital
Engineering
brought back into the discussion, things becomes interesting.
Renewable energy generation Demand
On-site renewable energy is the secret sauce for ZEBs. Photovoltaic panels and wind
turbines are among the most popular methods for generating on-site electricity. For
example, PV panels continue to have a year-over-year reduction in purchase price and
Beyond ECO Mode:
the installation methods for the product have become very familiar to contractors and for Delivering Efficiency
buildings that have site constraints, PV panels are the best option. One important point: Without Compromise
For a ZEB, the renewable energy system has to be located “behind the meter,” meaning Mode
the use of outside sources of renewable energy (like a local wind farm) can’t be classified Why is ground fault
as site electricity production and is not a part of the renewable energy usage. protection needed?
In simple terms, electricity flow for a zero energy building has a limited number of paths.
But the amount of electricity will vary based on several site and weather factors. As a
64
means of demonstrating the Integrating building

resource consumption and
environmental impact from Taking a zero-tolerance
greenhouse gas emissions, site downtime
amount of energy used is nor- What is a zero energy
malized to source energy. building?

and operation
Electricity generated off-site at
a power plant is subjected to Pay Now or Pay Later?
energy losses in thermal com- Figure 2: Growth of ZEB projects 2012 to 2019. Courtesy: Bill Kosik
bustion of fossil fuels, energy
losses in transmission and distribution to the building site. As such, the amount of elec- Cummins Digital
Engineering
tricity that is generated at the source is higher than what is delivered to the site. These
losses are accounted for by applying factors that convert the energy consumed at the Upgrades That Meet Every
site (not including the on-site renewable energy) to the equivalent amount of energy Demand
generated at the source. This process is necessary to assess relative efficiencies of build-
ings with varying fuel types.
Beyond ECO Mode:
ZEBs are a part of a greater ecosystem of different energy-efficiency strategies. As stated Delivering Efficiency
earlier, constructing a building that uses less energy and reduces the corresponding CO2 Without Compromise
emissions is one of the core tenets of a zero energy building. Mode
Why is ground fault

On top of this, there is no shortage of reasons why producing electricity on-site using protection needed?
renewable energy sources such as the sun and wind is notable and forward-looking:
• Fossil fuels have a limited life.

65
• Combustion of fossil fuels to generate electricity is one of the primary causes of Integrating building
climate change.
• Electricity generated at peak times comes from smaller, less efficient generators, Taking a zero-tolerance
resulting in a greater rate of CO2 compared to larger, base-loaded generation plants. downtime
Some utilities have generation capacity problems and/or aging distribution systems. What is a zero energy
building?
Producing electricity on the customer’s side of the electricity meter (also known as be- Basics of engine installation
and operation
hind the meter), goes a long way to minimize these issues and over time, potentially
eliminate them. Zero energy buildings are a part of a greater ecosystem of different en- Pay Now or Pay Later?
ergy-efficiency strategies, including energy and water efficiency, electric vehicle charging Back to basics: Switchgear,
and on-site energy storage.
Cummins Digital
Engineering
While these and other strategies may come from different technical domains, they are ul-
timately implemented for similar reasons — to reduce energy use and the corresponding Upgrades That Meet Every
CO2 emissions by using renewable energy. The ability to feed power back into the grid Demand
relies heavily on the state public utility commission and the electrical distributing compa-
ny. The rules on net metering are generally regulated and depend on the specific elec-
trical grid. So, unfortunately, there are no uniform rules on net metering; this is a good
Beyond ECO Mode:
example of the types of things that need be less complex and less onerous. Delivering Efficiency
Without Compromise
Carbon dioxide emissions Mode
CO2 emissions are attributable to fossil fuel power plants that use coal, natural gas or oil Why is ground fault
as a fuel. In simple terms, fuel is combusted (the source of the CO2 emissions) into boil- protection needed?
ing water, which releases steam to turbines, which drives the power generator. Generally
speaking, the electricity that is generated midnight to midnight is considered the base
load, where large power plants generate electricity very cost-effectively.
66
downtime

building?

and operation

Figure 3: These definitions are from the 2015 National Institute of Building Sciences study titled, “A Common
Definition of Zero Energy Buildings” prepared for the U.S. Department of Energy. Courtesy: Bill Kosik Back to basics: Switchgear,
Cummins Digital
During the day, as more buildings come online and other industrial process are starting, Engineering
a second and third tier of power generation is brought online to handle the demand that Successful Power System
cannot be met by the baseline electricity generation alone. And during certain days and Upgrades That Meet Every
Demand
times, especially in the hot summer months, a fourth tier of generation is started.
This is a very basic overview of how a utility operates its generation assets, but it pro- smart grid integration
vides necessary background information on source generation, site electricity production Beyond ECO Mode:
and CO2 emissions. Delivering Efficiency
Without Compromise
Mode
The utility’s capability to adjust source electricity production to match actual end-user
demand makes behind the meter electricity production using renewables much more Why is ground fault
protection needed?
feasible. Depending on the type of technology used in the current source generation
plants, some are only suited for satisfying base electricity demand.
But there are power plants such as combined-cycle plants (usually fueled by natural 67
gas) that can cost-effectively ramp up and down to meet the rapid changes in demand Integrating building
that typically occur at the start and end of the peak load. These generators, sometimes
referred to as “peaker plants,” are able to start up quickly and respond rapidly, but Taking a zero-tolerance
this flexibility comes at a cost — these units are less efficient than the base load power downtime
plants, consuming more fuel per megawatt-hour of power produced, resulting in higher What is a zero energy
CO2 emissions. building?

Energy delivery and operation
In developing a model of the electricity flows to and from a ZEB, we need to start by Pay Now or Pay Later?
analyzing some foundational concepts which are key for the accurate accounting of CO2 Back to basics: Switchgear,
based on the consumption of site and source electricity emissions.
Cummins Digital
Engineering
• Energy consumed by the zero energy building: This includes traditional building
loads such as HVAC, lighting, appliances, electronic equipment, etc. Interestingly, Upgrades That Meet Every
the charging of electric vehicles counts for exporting renewable energy other than Demand
to the grid.
• Delivered energy: This is electricity taken off the grid generated by external sourc-
es. Delivered energy also includes district heating/cooling, electricity generated by
Beyond ECO Mode:
renewable and nonrenewable fuels. Delivering Efficiency
• On-site renewable energy: This refers to the legal site boundaries where the zero Without Compromise
energy building is located. All means of electricity production must be located on Mode
the site such as PV arrays, wind turbines and other renewable energy technologies. Why is ground fault
If the on-site renewable electricity production exceeds the need of the ZEB, the protection needed?
“extra” electricity can be put on the grid.
All energy consumed by the ZEB will come from the on-site electricity production, the
68
source generation or a combination of the two (with a maximum of 50% coming from Integrating building
source energy).
The smart grid downtime
“Nonwires solutions” and “nonwires alternatives” are terms referring to an overarching What is a zero energy
portfolio of ideas related to optimizing electricity delivery across the existing grid. These building?
ideas may come from means other than the construction of new transmission lines to Basics of engine installation
and operation
relieve grid congestion and improve reliability. In essence, NWS is designed to identify
the optimal approach to distribution and transmission enhancement. At the same time Pay Now or Pay Later?
planning practices are applied to analyzing the need for power generation projects. Back to basics: Switchgear,
The aim of NWS is to meet public Cummins Digital

Engineering
policy objectives, lower costs and/
or satisfy reliability goals. Some of Upgrades That Meet Every
the options include: Demand

• Demand response.
• Dynamic retail pricing.
Beyond ECO Mode:
• Distributed generation. Delivering Efficiency
• Energy efficiency. Without Compromise
Figure 4: The method of production of energy (electricity) varies Using Dynamic Online
• Application of technologies widely depending on the renewable energy technology, climate, Mode
to expand the capacity of capacity and end use. This example is to demonstrate the concept
Why is ground fault
of zero energy buildings and how the energy demand of the
the system. protection needed?
building interacts with source of energy production. The diagram
• Alternative power dispatch simulates a technology that is unable to generate energy or
options. generate very little, indicated by the minimum energy production
point. It is also assumed that during the day it will generate an
increasing amount of energy. Courtesy: Bill Kosik 69
ASHRAE Standard 201-2016: Facility Smart Grid Information Model, published by the Integrating building
American National Standards Institute, ASHRAE and National Electrical Manufacturers
Association, provides a roadmap for long-term development of a smart grid. There are Taking a zero-tolerance
dozens of documents published by government agencies and private companies on downtime
the advantages of fully integrating renewable energy into the national electric grid. And What is a zero energy
there are many examples that are in-service and functioning as planned. building?

and operation
However, there is a concern that has been around for many years on how to intelligent-
ly interconnect energy sources such as PV and wind to the grid, resulting in the aptly Pay Now or Pay Later?
named smart grid. It is anticipated that smart grids will have the following characteristics: Back to basics: Switchgear,
• Resilient to disaster and intentional damage. Cummins Digital

Engineering
• Self-healing networks for rapid deployment after a disturbance.
• Enable new markets. Upgrades That Meet Every
• Participation of the end-user (customer). Demand
• Power quality to support technology.

• Alternatives for storage generation.
• Optimization of assets allowing for very high operational efficiency.
Beyond ECO Mode:
Currently, the primary means for communication on energy use and energy-efficiency Without Compromise
strategies between the utility and the customer is limited to the customer’s utility bill Mode
and any demand reduction/curtailment agreements that are in place. To build more zero Why is ground fault
energy buildings that optimize the use of the on-site renewable energy (and reduce CO2 protection needed?
emissions), all of the challenges and successes that stem from grid interconnectivity must
be included in a collective knowledgebase. This type of communication must happen
early in the planning phases to understand how the on-site electricity production can
70
impact the grid capacity and many other technical issues. Integrating building
Smart grid standard: ASHRAE 201 Taking a zero-tolerance

Another type of communication that is required consists of two-way data transfer be- downtime
tween the end user and the utility. ASHRAE Standard 201: Facility Smart Grid Information What is a zero energy
Model is an industry-developed and vetted standard that attempts to capture common- building?
alities to standardize the content of the information that a facility manager needs to Basics of engine installation
and operation
exchange with the energy provider, to manage the facility.
In turn, energy providers will use the models to develop ways to interact with all different Back to basics: Switchgear,
types of facilities using a normalized protocol. Standard 201 defines an abstract informa-
tion model that will enable facilities’ building automation and control systems to manage Cummins Digital
Engineering
not only facility energy use (similar to what exists now), but also determining generation
sources. This will be as a result of communication with the smart grid and to communicate Upgrades That Meet Every
information about those electrical loads to utility and other electrical service providers. Demand

Ultimately this two-way communication will enable connectivity and optimization of site
energy use and source energy generation. The ability to have two-way communication
Beyond ECO Mode:
between the facilities’ systems and the utility removes the consumer from a position of Delivering Efficiency
passive bystander and into the role of active participant. Without Compromise
Mode
In 2007 a federal law was passed called the Energy Independence and Security Act (EISA) Why is ground fault
of 2007. In that law, National Institute of Standards and Technology was given the respon- protection needed?
sibility for coordinating the development of a framework for smart grid standards. The
outcome of the NIST smart grid program will provide guidance on how to connect facilities
to the next generation smart grid by developing the technical basis for real-time pricing,
71
distributed energy resources, demand response, distributed generation, energy storage, Integrating building
electric vehicle charging control and consumer access to energy usage information.
This is the type of program that, over time, will enable the full potential of renewables downtime
used in zero energy buildings; the bidirectional exchange of real-time data and analytics What is a zero energy
is a crucial component to synchronize the actions of the utility and end user. In certain building?
scenarios these actions will be automated allowing for a rapid response to address po- Basics of engine installation
and operation
tential grid instability or reliability.
Although details on planning and future development of the smart grid are beyond the Back to basics: Switchgear,
scope of this article, the successful growth of ZEB projects is very much dependent on
the smart grid. The independent and collaborative organizations responsible for the co- Cummins Digital
Engineering
ordination, control, monitoring and operation of the electrical power system are playing
a major role in this endeavor. Upgrades That Meet Every
Demand
And because these organizations encompass multiple states, standardization and unifor-
mity is critical for planning and implementation. Understanding the potential of reducing
the demand on the electric grid, as well as decreasing CO2 emissions from the built en-
Beyond ECO Mode:
vironment, ZEB are and will continue to be an essential component to the advancement Delivering Efficiency
of site renewable energy technology and the smart grid. Without Compromise
Mode
Bill Kosik, PE, CEM, Oak Park, Illinois Why is ground fault
Bill Kosik is a senior energy engineer and an industry-recognized leader in energy effi- protection needed?
ciency for the built environment with an expertise in data centers. He is a member of the
Consulting-Specifying Engineer editorial advisory board.
72
Beyond ECO Mode: Delivering
Efficiency Without Compromise Using Integrating building
Dynamic Online Mode Taking a zero-tolerance

downtime
M odern data centers have become more efficient over the last decade, driven in
large part by the introduction of energy-efficient technologies and design prac-
tices, as well as the rise of more efficient cloud and hyperscale facilities. As a result,
building?

the industry has managed to maintain global energy consumption levels of around and operation
1% even as the volume of computing has skyrocketed. Pay Now or Pay Later?

This is important and encouraging, but the ongoing implementation of artificial in- transformers and UPSs
telligence, virtual reality, autonomous automobiles, and other advanced and 5G-en- Cummins Digital
Engineering
abled applications will increase energy demands across the data center ecosystem.
Additional innovation is necessary to manage these increases.
Demand
Uninterruptible power supply (UPS) systems provide clean power to electronic devic- Best practices for zero
es such as computer networks and servers and protect against costly power outages. energy buildings and smart
grid integration
They also are a critical link in the power chain capable of significantly influencing a
data center’s overall energy efficiency.  Beyond ECO Mode:
Without Compromise
The energy efficiency of a UPS system is the ratio between the power entering the Mode
UPS and the power exiting the UPS to supply the load. Whenever current passes
Why is ground fault
through the internal components of a UPS, a certain amount of energy is dissipat- protection needed?
ed as heat, which results in energy losses. Consequently, additional energy is con-

sumed when air conditioning systems cool the area. A certain amount of energy
loss is inevitable, but a reduction in UPS power consumption has a cascading effect
73
Beyond ECO Mode: Delivering Efficiency Without Compromise Using
Dynamic Online Mode
on a data center’s overall energy efficiency because it also reduces energy used for systems through controls
cooling. Taking a zero-tolerance
downtime
The savings generated by increased UPS efficiency extrapolated over 24 hours a day,
365 days a year over a five-year period, have the potential to not only exceed the pur- What is a zero energy
building?
chase price of a UPS but also actively contribute to reducing carbon dioxide and other
climate change emissions. and operation

The most common UPS mode of operation used for supplying secure power to data
centers is double conversion mode, which ensures a Voltage and Frequency Indepen- transformers and UPSs
dent (VFI) type of operation by providing the highest level of power quality to the load
Cummins Digital
at all times. However, because there are two stages of power conversion, this mode of Engineering
operation consumes the most energy. Successful Power System

Demand
Even when considering a double conversion UPS system, there are significant differ-
ences in terms of double conversion efficiency. Legacy UPS systems may operate with energy buildings and smart
93% efficiency when operating in double conversion mode, while the highest efficiency grid integration
modern UPS systems can achieve levels approaching 97% in the same mode. To further  Beyond ECO Mode:
increase efficiency, most UPS manufacturers have introduced high-efficiency modes Without Compromise
of operation, such as ECO mode. Most of these modes remain more theoretical than Using Dynamic Online
Mode
practical, as increased efficiency with ECO mode comes with risks to load availability –
risks few organizations are willing to take with their data centers. Why is ground fault
protection needed?
There’s good reason for caution. The cost of data center downtime is increasing,
according to research published in 2016 by the Ponemon Institute, and sponsored by
Vertiv. That research found that, between 2010 and 2016, the average cost of downtime 74
Dynamic Online Mode
increased by 38%, to more than $500,000 systems through controls
for an average outage. With that in Taking a zero-tolerance
mind, it’s easy to understand why ECO approach to data center
downtime
modes remain largely unused by most
organizations. What is a zero energy
building?

The Pros and Cons of ECO and operation
Mode Pay Now or Pay Later?
Each electronic device has a unique
specification, so it is useful to have a transformers and UPSs
point of reference to compare the per-
Cummins Digital
formance of these devices. Engineering

From a holistic point of view, IT equip- Upgrades That Meet Every
Demand
ment performance can be analyzed by
referring to the ITI (CBEMA) curve (right). energy buildings and smart
The ITI (CBEMA) curve describes an AC input voltage envelope that can typically be grid integration
tolerated (no interruption in function) by most pieces of IT equipment.  Beyond ECO Mode:
Without Compromise
Electronic devices should be able to operate normally under the condition shown in Using Dynamic Online
Mode
the curve. The steady-state range describes an RMS voltage that is either varying very
slowly or is constant. The subject range is +/- 10% from the nominal voltage. Any volt- Why is ground fault
protection needed?
ages in this range may be present for an indefinite period and are a function of normal
loadings and losses in the distribution system. Electronic devices also should be able
to operate temporarily without voltage for up to 20 milliseconds.
75
Dynamic Online Mode
These types of electronic equipment do not require perfect power quality. ECO modes systems through controls
are designed to take advantage of this by leveraging the grid when there is good Taking a zero-tolerance
power quality. Specifically, ECO modes transfer the UPS to bypass and supply the approach to data center
downtime
load directly through the grid via the bypass line. When input power quality is inside
tolerances, the UPS can maximize the efficiency supplying the load through the static What is a zero energy
building?
bypass switch instead of the power conversion section of the UPS where energy losses
are higher. Advanced control techniques and power tracking permit a UPS to transfer and operation
to double conversion mode as soon as power quality is outside of tolerances or there
is a mains failure.
Of course, job one for any UPS system is to protect the load. So, how does ECO
Cummins Digital
mode affect UPS reliability? The answer is somewhat complicated. When operating in Engineering
ECO mode, some of the internal components inside the inverter and rectifier are less Successful Power System
stressed, so in that sense, the reliability of a UPS may actually increase. On the other Upgrades That Meet Every
Demand
hand, since there is no power conditioning performed by the UPS during this mode of
operation, there may be a decrease in power quality supplied to the load, thus affect- energy buildings and smart
ing the load power availability. grid integration
 Beyond ECO Mode:

There are other considerations. The first is transfer time – the amount of time it takes Without Compromise
to transfer from one mode of operation to another. Legacy UPS systems need 10 mil- Using Dynamic Online
Mode
liseconds to transfer in the worst possible conditions and may have voltage instability
on their output for a few cycles. As a result, the load will not be protected against Why is ground fault
protection needed?
disturbances of duration from a few microseconds up to a few milliseconds. This
mode change poses the biggest threat to availability when using traditional ECO
mode.
76
Dynamic Online Mode
While loads are compatible with power outages of this duration, as shown in the CBE- systems through controls
MA curve, protection against overvoltage must be considered for disturbances of 0.1 Taking a zero-tolerance
milliseconds or more. Thus, in order to ensure load protection against these types of approach to data center
downtime
disturbances, additional passive filtering on the bypass line should be considered. This
isn’t standard in most UPS systems. What is a zero energy
building?

Another consideration: When installing a UPS or any piece of equipment, especially and operation
for large power installations, it is important to ensure harmonics and power factor of
the device are within the limits defined by the grid supplier. The input power factor
of a modern UPS using an IGBT rectifier is 0.99 down to 20% load, while harmonics transformers and UPSs
levels (THDi) can be less than 5%. When a UPS operates in double conversion mode,
Cummins Digital
the power factor and THDi generated by the UPS rectifier will be injected back into Engineering
the grid. It is also added to the power factor and THDi generated by other pieces of Successful Power System
equipment directly connected to the grid, such as compressors and chillers. If the UPS Upgrades That Meet Every
Demand
is connected to a grid with a high level of voltage distortion, it would not affect the
load in any way since, when operating in double conversion mode, the UPS provides energy buildings and smart
isolation between the load and the grid. grid integration

However, when the UPS is operating in ECO mode, there is a direct connection be- Without Compromise
tween the load and the grid via the static bypass switch. Because of this, the power Using Dynamic Online
Mode
factor and harmonics levels that need to be verified are no longer those of the UPS
but rather those of the load connected downstream of the UPS. Most servers have a Why is ground fault
protection needed?
dual power supply, so the load on the power supply units usually does not exceed 50%
during normal operation. In addition, servers often do not run at 100% capacity. Typ-
ically, the power supply units operate between 10 and 40% capacity. The grid may be
exposed to load power factor levels between the range of 0.77 up to 0.98 leading, and 77
Dynamic Online Mode
harmonics in the range between 20% down to 7%. This scenario is much worse than systems through controls
what happens on the input of the rectifier where the UPS maintains power factor levels Taking a zero-tolerance
at 0.98 and THDi less than 8% down to 10% load. approach to data center
downtime
Due to the above variables, when operating through the bypass line, one should be sure What is a zero energy
building?
to have additional equipment to reduce harmonics and compensate for the power factor
of the power supply units. The same is valid if supplying mechanical loads through the and operation
bypass line. This can be achieved through the installation of an active filter or re-phasing
banks. Long transfer times and the missing passive and active filtering when operating in
ECO mode are the main reasons why ECO mode has persisted largely as a marketing fea- transformers and UPSs
ture rather than a concrete, widely adopted way of increasing the efficiency of the UPS.
Cummins Digital
Engineering
To overcome the drawbacks that can occur when operating in ECO mode, there are Successful Power System
actions that can be taken to ensure proper load protection: Upgrades That Meet Every
Demand

• Passive filtering (power interface) when operating on the bypass line energy buildings and smart
grid integration
• Active filtering to provide load and network power conditioning to ensure good  Beyond ECO Mode:
quality supply at all times Without Compromise
Mode
• Elimination of transfer time between different functioning modes
Why is ground fault
protection needed?
Traditional UPS Operating Modes
VFI Mode/Online
VFI mode allows the best power to be supplied to the load whenever the system de-
tects the electrical environment requires conditioning. 78
Dynamic Online Mode
In the event a degrade of network conditions occurs and the monitored parameters are systems through controls
out of tolerance, VFI mode allows complete conditioning and supply to the load using Taking a zero-tolerance
the double conversion mode with an efficiency of more than 96.5%. approach to data center
downtime
Voltage Independent (VI Mode/Line Interactive) What is a zero energy

building?
VI mode enables the system to condition the energy supply sufficiently without having
to switch to VFI configuration. When a reactive load or non-linear load is connected to and operation
the UPS and harmonics or reactive current are present, the UPS is able to compensate
by operating as an active filter and consuming only the necessary energy to compen-
sate the line disturbances, thus achieving the highest efficiency possible resulting in an transformers and UPSs
efficiency variation of 98% up to 99%. The use of VI mode allows users to remove part
Cummins Digital
of the issue of directly connecting the mains to the load through the bypass line. Engineering

Voltage and Frequency Dependent (VFD Mode/Offline) Upgrades That Meet Every
Demand
VFD mode – or ECO mode – detects when the mains energy supplied to the unit is of
an ideal quality and the need for conditioning is limited. When network conditions are energy buildings and smart
stable, the UPS shifts to VFD mode, allowing the energy to pass through the power grid integration
interface line, reaching an efficiency of up to 99.5%. When present, the power interface  Beyond ECO Mode:
line provides a passive filtering action to the load to maintain the load protection when Without Compromise
supplied through the bypass line. Using Dynamic Online
Mode
Dynamic Online Mode Why is ground fault

protection needed?
The next evolution in high-efficiency modes of UPS operation is finding a way to
achieve ECO mode efficiency without the compromises to availability. At Vertiv, we
achieve this with a new UPS operating mode we call Dynamic Online mode, which en-
ables energy efficiency of up to 99% without sacrificing availability. In fact, while in this 79
Dynamic Online Mode
downtime

building?
mode, the inverter can instantaneously assume the load and maintain the output volt- Basics of engine installation
and operation
age within the IEC 62040 Class 1 specification.
Systems equipped with Dynamic Online mode are able to safely transition from high Back to basics: Switchgear,
efficiency mode to inverter mode with a 0-millisecond transfer, thus providing guaran-
teed load power protection under virtually any power outage condition. With Dynamic Cummins Digital
Engineering
Online mode, voltage and frequency dependence has been removed from the equa-
tion. In VFD mode, the UPS cannot guarantee a Class 1 response. With this depen- Upgrades That Meet Every
dence removed, the UPS can ensure maximum reliability with only a small decrease in Demand
average operating efficiency. Best practices for zero

grid integration
Dynamic Online mode delivers energy cost savings that reduce total cost of owner-
ship (TCO) and allow the system to pay for itself in energy savings alone in just five
years. Vertiv customers using Dynamic Online mode are already saving the equivalent Without Compromise
amount of energy that would be emitted by driving 28 times around the equator using Mode
an electric car. Why is ground fault
protection needed?
We believe Dynamic Online mode is the most important advance in performance

and energy efficiency for data centers since lithium-ion batteries emerged about five
years ago.
80
Dynamic Online Mode
The world may be tentatively systems through controls
emerging from a global pandemic Taking a zero-tolerance
but plenty of other long-term chal- approach to data center
downtime
lenges, such as climate change, re-
main. A UPS that delivers maximum What is a zero energy
building?
power performance and energy
efficiency is an important step for- and operation
ward for company balance sheets
and the planet in our economically
uncertain time. transformers and UPSs
Cummins Digital
Conclusion Engineering
The use of ECO mode should be Successful Power System

limited to resistive loads since this Upgrades That Meet Every
Demand
mode of operation typically does
not include any power factor or energy buildings and smart
harmonic compensation. To ensure grid integration
proper load protection, active and  Beyond ECO Mode:

possibly passive filtering should al- Without Compromise
ways be present in a UPS that offers Using Dynamic Online
Mode
ECO mode. When selecting a UPS
with ECO mode, it is important to Why is ground fault
protection needed?
ensure the associated transfer time
is compatible with downstream
loads, static transfer switches,
transformers, and servers, which 81
Dynamic Online Mode
all must be fully coordinated. Because this is difficult to ensure, ECO mode, as it is, is systems through controls
rarely used. Taking a zero-tolerance
downtime
Dynamic Online mode ensures the highest level of load protection with no trade-off
between efficiency and availability, making power systems equipped with this function- What is a zero energy
building?
ality the ideal solution for protecting data centers and helping reduce power usage
effectiveness (PUE) to minimum levels. and operation

Early field installations have shown a significant increase in average operating efficien-
cy. The use of this technology for the replacement of legacy units can provide a return transformers and UPSs
on investment (ROI) in a couple of years. Consider this: For a 1 MW load, choosing a
Cummins Digital
UPS with higher efficiency could save about $14,000 per each 1% efficiency difference. Engineering
Dynamic Online mode could provide six points higher efficiency versus existing units Successful Power System
while reducing heat dissipation by more than 60%. Upgrades That Meet Every
Demand

Systems equipped with Dynamic Online mode are able to safely transition from high energy buildings and smart
efficiency mode to inverter mode with a 0-millisecond transfer, providing absolute load grid integration
power protection under virtually any input power outage condition. Simply put, a UPS  Beyond ECO Mode:
running in Dynamic Online mode offers a way to improve UPS operating efficiency and Without Compromise
reduce overall TCO, while maintaining the highest levels of availability and power pro- Using Dynamic Online
Mode
tection for modern IT loads.
Why is ground fault
protection needed?
For more on this topic, visit www.vertiv.com/PowerYourFuture.
82
Why is ground fault
protection needed? Integrating building
Electrical system ground fault protection is vital to ensure the safety of approach to data center
downtime
personnel and equipment and to reliably maintain systems based on the loads
they serve building?
W
hile the more powerful three-phase or arcing faults receives a large amount of and operation
attention when discussing electrical system protection, ground faults actually
present a far more common and — in aggregate — potentially more dangerous occur-
rence for personnel and equipment. Grounding, bonding and ground fault protection transformers and UPSs
are vital to decrease shock hazards to personnel during a ground fault such as when a
Cummins Digital
current-carrying conductor’s insulation fails or inadvertently faults to ground. Engineering

Ground fault protection allows an electrical system to be maintained in a reliable manner Upgrades That Meet Every
Demand
matching the needs/loads it serves and to isolate undesirable fault conditions in a quick
and ideally selective manner. energy buildings and smart
grid integration
Per the 2017 edition of NFPA 70: National Electrical Code 250.4(A)(1) Electrical System Beyond ECO Mode:
Grounding, “Electrical systems that are grounded shall be connected to earth in a manner Without Compromise
that will limit the voltage imposed by lightning, line surges or unintentional contact with Using Dynamic Online
Mode
higher-voltage lines and that will stabilize the voltage to earth during normal operation.”
 Why is ground fault
protection needed?
Ground fault protection for specific equipment such as generators, transformers or
motors is worthy of several articles and will only be discussed tangentially here. Unless
noted otherwise, all discussion of ground fault protection applies primarily to the coordi-
nation of distribution protective devices. 83
Why is ground fault protection needed?
Ground, as defined in the NEC, is the earth. A ground-fault occurs when a conductor at a Integrating building
voltage other than the earth reference comes into contact with another conductive mate-
rial connected to ground. Depending on the type of grounding system installed, this can Taking a zero-tolerance
lead to transient or sustained overvoltages, undervoltages and undesirable single-line- downtime
to-ground fault currents. If not isolated, these faults can harm personnel and damage to What is a zero energy
systems or even propagate into faults of higher magnitude. building?

and operation
It should be noted that an effective ground-fault current path‘s primary purpose is to
keep noncurrent-carrying conductive materials as close to the system ground potential Pay Now or Pay Later?
as possible and to provide a safe path for ground-fault current in the event of a fault. Back to basics: Switchgear,
However, the absence of an equipment grounding conductor, which is part of the ef- Cummins Digital
Engineering
fective ground-fault current path, does not mean an electrical system is ungrounded or
that ground fault protection cannot be used. The zero-sequence impedance of a set Upgrades That Meet Every
of conductors is impacted by several factors Demand
including conductor arrangement, presence of Best practices for zero

grounding paths (equipment grounding con-
grid integration
ductor, cable shields, parallel paths, etc.) and
Beyond ECO Mode:
the surrounding environment. Delivering Efficiency
Without Compromise
Grounding standards and codes Mode
All electrical designs or construction must ad-
here to applicable standards and codes. The
protection needed?
following are some of the items that relate to
grounding and bonding of electrical systems Figure 1: This is a switchgear installation with
circuit breakers having phase- and ground fault
and ground fault protection requirements: protection capabilities. Courtesy: CDM Smith 84
• Article 250: Grounding and Bonding Integrating building

o Article 250.4: General Requirements for Grounding and Bonding.
o Article 250.20: Alternating-Current Systems to be Grounded. Taking a zero-tolerance
o Article 250.130: Equipment Grounding Conductor Connections. downtime
• Article 230.95: Ground fault protection of Equipment for Services. What is a zero energy
• Article 215.10: Ground fault protection of Equipment for feeders. building?
• Article 240.13: Ground fault protection of Equipment. Basics of engine installation

and operation
• NFPA 780: Standard for the Installation of Lightning Protection Systems.
• Occupational Safety and Health Administration Standard 1910.304: Wiring Design Pay Now or Pay Later?
and Protection. Back to basics: Switchgear,

• OSHA Standard 3007: Ground Fault Protection on Construction Sites.
Cummins Digital
Engineering
Grounding system types
The term grounded or grounding is often loosely used in the industry. Grounding, per Upgrades That Meet Every
the 2017 NEC, is the connection to ground or to a conductive body that extends the Demand
ground connection. Grounding includes both equipment and systems. Equipment Best practices for zero
grounding refers to the connection together of the noncurrent carrying conductive parts
grid integration
of equipment and to the system grounded conductor or to the grounding electrode or
Beyond ECO Mode:
both. System grounding refers to the connection of the power system grounded conduc- Delivering Efficiency
tor or neutral to earth ground through a grounding electrode conductor. Without Compromise
Mode
There are different types of system grounding practiced in the industry, such as solidly
grounded systems, (low or high) impedance grounded systems as well as ungrounded
protection needed?
systems.
Ungrounded systems operate with no connection to earth ground. Per NEC 250.4 (B),
85
noncurrent-carrying conductive materials enclosing electrical conductors or equipment Integrating building

or forming part of such equipment shall be connected to earth in a manner that will limit
the voltage imposed by lightning or unintentional contact with higher-voltage lines and Taking a zero-tolerance
limit the voltage to ground on these materials. Two common ungrounded type systems downtime
are shown in Figure 2: an ungrounded delta type system or a wye with no grounded neu- What is a zero energy
tral system. building?

and operation
Ungrounded systems,
while less common in the Pay Now or Pay Later?
present, offer the following Back to basics: Switchgear,

advantages:
Cummins Digital
Engineering
• Low line-to-line
ground fault current Upgrades That Meet Every
because ground fault Demand
Figure 2: The illustrations show simplified typical wiring diagrams
current is dependent Best practices for zero
for different types of system grounding. To the left, a grounded wye-
on the capacitive cur- system; in the middle, an ungrounded delta system; and to the right, grid integration
rent returning through an ungrounded wye system. It is important to note that the equipment
grounding conductor exists in all three examples. Courtesy: CDM Smith Beyond ECO Mode:
the network phase to Delivering Efficiency
ground capacitance. Without Compromise
• No flash hazard for personnel for accidental first occurrence line-to-ground fault. Mode
• Continued operation of process on the first occurrence of a line-to-ground fault.
protection needed?
However, even with these advantages, having an ungrounded system can make it difficult
for personnel to locate line-to-ground faults. It also places personnel at risk during main-
tenance and offers little control over transient overvoltage.
86
There are two main types of alternating current system grounding: solidly grounded and Integrating building
impedance grounded. The benefits of grounded systems include:
• Provides a common reference point. downtime
• Improved safety. What is a zero energy
• Better protection for equipment. building?
• Ground fault locations can be detected easily. Basics of engine installation

and operation
• Electrostatic accidents can be better avoided.
• Allows better control of transient overvoltages. Pay Now or Pay Later?

Solidly grounded electrical systems have a grounded conductor connected to earth
ground through a grounding electrode conductor with no intentionally added impedance Cummins Digital
Engineering
in the circuit. The general requirements for solidly grounded systems can be found in the
NEC Article 250.4(A); with some exceptions, NEC articles 215.10 and 240.13 require ground Upgrades That Meet Every
fault protection where low-voltage protective equipment is rated 1,000 amperes or greater. Demand

Solidly grounded systems are the most common type of system and offer the following
grid integration
advantages:
Beyond ECO Mode:
• Provides supply to line-neutral loads. Without Compromise
• Ensures that ground fault, in one phase, does not cause the voltage of the other Mode
two phases to increase appreciably.
• No possibility of transient overvoltage.
protection needed?
Along with these advantages, there are also a few disadvantages, including:
87
downtime

building?

and operation
Figure 3: This shows simplified current transformer wiring schemes for residual ground, core-balance and Pay Now or Pay Later?
ground-return protection systems. In modern systems, the CT secondary wires are generally installed directly to
the relay. In older systems, the residual ground CTs might be connected before the relay. Courtesy: CDM Smith
• High severity for arc flash hazards. Cummins Digital
• High fault current values. Engineering
• High possibility of single-phase fault becoming three-phase fault. Successful Power System
Demand
Impedance grounded systems are like solidly grounded system, but with an intentionally
added impedance — typically a resistor — that limits the ground-fault current. The ad- energy buildings and smart
vantages of an impedance grounded system include: grid integration
Beyond ECO Mode:

• Limits the ground fault current to a lower level; this is controllable depending on Without Compromise
the type of impedance equipment installed (i.e., Peterson Coil). Using Dynamic Online
Mode
• Controls transient overvoltage.
• Reduces line voltage drop caused by ground fault.  Why is ground fault
protection needed?
• For high impedance systems, continued operation of the process/facility on the first
occurrence of a line-to-ground fault while the fault is being located.
88
Disadvantages: Integrating building

• If line-neutral connected loads are required, a separate transformer must be in- Taking a zero-tolerance
stalled to serve those loads. downtime
• Equipment such as breakers must be rated for line-line voltages, e.g.,“slash” rated What is a zero energy
breakers, 480/277 volts alternating current rated breakers are not allowed to be building?
used on an impedance grounded system. Basics of engine installation

and operation
How is ground fault protection performed? Pay Now or Pay Later?
The type of ground fault protection employed and how it is measured are mostly deter- Back to basics: Switchgear,
mined by the type of system grounding employed, but are generally limited to voltage-
and current-based detection systems. Knowledge of sequence networks — especially Cummins Digital
Engineering
the zero-sequence network — is vital to understanding why a certain detection system is
or is not ideal for a given type of system grounding, however, that is beyond the scope Upgrades That Meet Every
of this article. NEC Article 250 provides specific requirements for the type of protection Demand
that must be implemented for a given type of grounding system. Best practices for zero
grid integration
Ground fault protection on solidly grounded and impedance-grounded systems gener-
Beyond ECO Mode:
ally employ current-based detection systems, though the preferred form of measuring Delivering Efficiency
ground-current in each system varies with the expected magnitude of ground-fault cur- Without Compromise
rent. Each system may use residual ground-fault detection, ground-return detection or Mode
core-balance detection; however, the latter may be overly sensitive for solidly grounded
systems.
protection needed?
Ground fault protection on ungrounded systems are normally voltage-based, as no

ground-fault current will flow if only one conductor is faulted to ground. If a second con-
89
ductor were to fault to ground, the fault would be phase-to-phase and would not intro- Integrating building
duce significant ground-fault current. As the line-to-ground voltage on the unfaulted
phases of an ungrounded system experiencing a fault will increase to match the line-to-line Taking a zero-tolerance
voltage, an overvoltage relay must be used to protect these systems per NEC 250.21(B). downtime

High-impedance grounded building?
systems can operate very simi- Basics of engine installation

and operation
larly to ungrounded systems, so
a protection system based upon Pay Now or Pay Later?
voltage detection may also be Back to basics: Switchgear,

advisable for these systems.
Cummins Digital
Engineering
While current transformers may
be installed in multiple arrange- Upgrades That Meet Every
ments, thanks to advancements Demand
in relay and protection technol- Best practices for zero

ogies, it is rarely necessary to
grid integration
install them in anything other
Beyond ECO Mode:
than a wye-arrangement. For Figure 4: In this simplified 3V0 ground fault protection scheme, wiring
the three potential transformer secondaries in series yields a vector Without Compromise
existing systems that have CTs sum of the phase voltages and therefore only the zero-sequence Using Dynamic Online
installed in another manner, voltage is impressed on the resistor and relay. Courtesy: CDM Smith Mode
such as delta, the methods of
ground fault detection discussed may not apply.
protection needed?
Residual ground-fault detection systems use CTs installed for each set of phase conductors
(and neutral, if applicable) to determine the ground-fault current. Traditionally, this was
90
accomplished by combining one set of CT secondaries before the relay or trip unit such Integrating building
that the phasors would sum/cancel to yield the unbalanced current equal to the ground-
fault current. In most modern relay protection systems, the protective device calculates the Taking a zero-tolerance
current unbalance internally from the direct input of the phase CTs, eliminating the need downtime
for additional CTs. What is a zero energy
building?
Core-balance ground-fault detection Basics of engine installation

and operation
systems are referred to by a wide-variety
of names: zero-sequence, window-CT or Pay Now or Pay Later?
donut-CT, but all do the same thing: in- Back to basics: Switchgear,
stall a single large CT around all phase
conductors (and neutral, if applicable). Cummins Digital
Engineering
The CT measures the vector sum of the
current-carrying conductors in a similar, Upgrades That Meet Every
but more direct manner than the resid- Demand
ual ground-fault detection method, but Best practices for zero

does not need to be sized for the full
Figure 5: This shows a switchgear installation with relays grid integration
fault current as is needed for individ- having phase and ground fault protection capabilities.
Beyond ECO Mode:
ual phase CTs. Courtesy: CDM Smith Delivering Efficiency
Without Compromise
Care must be given when installing cables that provide a ground- or neutral-current return Mode
path (i.e., cable shields, integral ground conductors, etc.) where core-balance detection
systems are employed to ensure the return-path conductors either do not pass through the
protection needed?
window-CT or where they do, pass back through the same CT in the opposite direction. If
the shielding is not installed correctly, the relay could operate prematurely.
91
Ground-return ground-fault detection systems use a CT installed on the ground-fault re- Integrating building
turn path to the source — generally at the ground bus. While this system provides good
sensitivity and control, it is not popular due to the potential for alternate ground-fault Taking a zero-tolerance
return paths (such as through a conductive conduit bonded to structural steel that is downtime
itself grounded); medium-voltage impedance grounded systems often use this method What is a zero energy
by measuring the current at the connection from the impedance to ground. building?

and operation
Ground differential protection systems can be considered a subset of ground-return
detection systems when examining three-phase systems: CTs are installed in the ground Pay Now or Pay Later?
fault return path and each feeder; if the current measured by the CT installed in the Back to basics: Switchgear,
ground-fault return path differs from the sum of the currents measured by the other CTs,
the system would operate. Cummins Digital
Engineering

Ground/neutral voltage detection: Upgrades That Meet Every
When a single phase in an unground- Demand
ed system faults to ground, the wye Best practices for zero

point of the source increases from ef-
grid integration
fectively zero to the normal operation
Beyond ECO Mode:
line-to-ground voltage. An overvolt- Delivering Efficiency
age relay installed to either directly Without Compromise
measure the voltage at the wye point Mode
or to measure the secondary voltage
of a transformer installed between
protection needed?
the wye point and ground can there-
fore be used to detect the fault. Figure 6: Shown is a switchgear installation with neutral
92
grounding resistor mounted on top of the transformer
radiation fins. Courtesy: CDM Smith
In many ungrounded systems, a special type of ground fault relay, a broken delta volt- Integrating building
age (3V0) overvoltage relay is used to measure zero-sequence components to provide
sensitive protection. The ground/neutral voltage detection method may also be used in Taking a zero-tolerance
high-impedance low-voltage systems. downtime

Ground fault coordination building?
Ground-fault overcurrent protection in circuit breakers generally takes the form of a sin- Basics of engine installation
and operation
gle pickup with a definite time delay band, making selective coordination of ground-fault
circuit breakers in some ways much easier than the selective coordination of phase-fault Pay Now or Pay Later?
protection. It should be noted that many relays allow for the use of more advanced pro- Back to basics: Switchgear,
tection features such as inverse-time curves and multiple pickup and delay settings. The
following standards and guides provide recommendations on the setup and selection of Cummins Digital
Engineering
ground-fault protective device settings:
• IEEE 242-2001: Recommended Practice for Protection and Coordination of Industri- Demand
al and Commercial Power Systems (Buff Book). Chapter 8 Ground fault protection. Best practices for zero
• IEEE C37.101-2006: Guide for Generator Ground Protection.
grid integration
• IEEE C37.102-2006: Guide for AC Generator Protection.
Beyond ECO Mode:
• IEEE 3003.1-2019: Recommended Practice for System Grounding. Delivering Efficiency
• IEEE 3003.2-2014: Recommended Practice for Equipment Grounding and Bonding Without Compromise
in Industrial and Commercial Power Systems. Mode
• IEEE 3004.1-2013: Recommended Practice for the Application of Instrument Trans-
formers in Industrial and Commercial Power Systems.
protection needed?
• IEEE 3004.5-2014: Recommended Practice for the Application of Low-Voltage Cir-
cuit Breakers in Industrial and Commercial Power Systems.
• IEEE 3004.8-2016: Recommended Practice for Motor Protection in Industrial and
93
Commercial Power Systems. Integrating building

• IEEE 3004.11-2019: Recommended Practice for Bus and Switchgear Protection.
Coordination of ground-fault protective devices follows a similar process to that of phase downtime
overcurrent protective devices: the closer to the power source a device is, the higher What is a zero energy
pickup setting and time delay it will have. building?

and operation
However, there are two challenges unique to the coordination of ground-fault overcur-
rent protective devices that may arise, which can limit the ability of a system to be selec- Pay Now or Pay Later?
tively coordinated. NEC 230.95 requires that the ground-fault pickup at a service be no Back to basics: Switchgear,
more than 1,200 amperes and that the protection must operate in one second or less for
ground-faults greater than or equal to 3,000 amperes, thus setting an upper bound for Cummins Digital
Engineering
all ground-fault settings.
In systems where ground fault protection is installed throughout multiple levels of distri- Demand
bution (at the same voltage level), an engineer may reach a point where the ground-fault Best practices for zero
settings of a downstream protective device cannot be adjusted lower than the preceding
grid integration
protective device creating an area of miscoordination.
Beyond ECO Mode:
The second challenge may arise when ground-fault protective devices feed equipment Delivering Efficiency
that does not have ground fault protection. In such situations, the ground fault protec- Without Compromise
tion should be coordinated with the instantaneous setting of the downstream protective Mode
devices. As ground fault protection is generally low in magnitude and instantaneous phase
protection is generally high in magnitude, it may not be possible to selectively coordinate
protection needed?
these devices without negatively impacting the coordination of upstream protective devic-
es. In such a situation, the engineer performing the coordination study should select the
protective device settings such that any miscoordination is as far from the source and/or
94
important equipment as possible. Integrating building

Zone selective interlocking is often em- Taking a zero-tolerance

ployed for both ground- and phase-fault downtime
protection schemes to ensure selective What is a zero energy
coordination and to improve coordination building?
where the above limitations exist. When a Basics of engine installation

and operation
fault occurs in a system with ZSI enabled,
the protective device closest to the fault Pay Now or Pay Later?
sends a signal to the next upstream de- Back to basics: Switchgear,

vice to block it from tripping for a given
amount of time if the fault is not cleared Cummins Digital
Engineering
during that time, the next upstream de-
vice then may trip and hopefully clear the Upgrades That Meet Every
fault; the ZSI trip/block signals propagate Demand
up to the highest level of the system Best practices for zero

containing ZSI. The major drawback of Figure 7: This time-current curve shows selective
coordination of the main and tie ground-fault devices with grid integration
ZSI is that it requires control cables to
feeders, two also having ground fault protection and one Beyond ECO Mode:
be installed between each level of pro- having only phase-protection. Courtesy: CDM Smith Delivering Efficiency
tection which can be costly depending Without Compromise
on the devices’ proximity to each other. Mode
Although ground faults do not receive the same infamy as three-phase or arcing faults, it
protection needed?
is critical to have ground fault protection because ground faults are the most commonly
seen fault type. Ground fault occurs when there is an unwanted connection between the
ungrounded system conductors and ground. This type of fault can go unnoticed and po-
95
tentially propagate into a higher fault current or causes equipment to be damaged over Integrating building
time. Undetected ground faults can pose potential safety risks to personnel that range
from equipment malfunctions, to fire and electric shock. Taking a zero-tolerance
downtime
Will McGugan and Lilly Vang What is a zero energy
Will McGugan is an electrical engineer at CDM Smith, focusing in the design and anal- building?
ysis of electrical power systems. Lilly Vang is a junior electrical engineer at CDM Smith, Basics of engine installation
and operation
where she focuses on electrical power system design and analysis.

Cummins Digital
Engineering

Demand

grid integration
Beyond ECO Mode:

Without Compromise
Mode

protection needed?
96
Electrical &
Power
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Electrical

3  Integrating building systems through controls

By considering updated controls architecture, integrating building systems Taking a zero-tolerance

What is a zero energy

Basics of engine installation

Beyond the state level, lo-  Integrating building

codes, versions and compli- What is a zero energy

Recently, ASHRAE published Guideline 36: High-Performance Sequences of Operation for

HVAC Systems, which standardizes  Integrating building

enced to provide a verified and What is a zero energy

MS/TP connections inherently add Back to basics: Switchgear,

Why is ground fault

What is a zero energy

Codes and standards What is a zero energy

• ASHRAE Standard 90.1. Back to basics: Switchgear,

Why is ground fault

ensuring energy reduction.  Integrating building

To support the user, occupancy/vacancy, daylight harvesting and scheduling require-

Beyond ECO Mode:

Digital systems  Integrating building

able for digital systems. Beyond ECO Mode:

Understanding the limits Back to basics: Switchgear,

user, however delays What is a zero energy

Shared control protocols  Integrating building

Basics of engine installation

However, B-ASCs currently  Integrating building

lenging with the current ASCs What is a zero energy

Beyond ECO Mode:

What is a zero energy

Elena Gowdy and Matt Fogarty Basics of engine installation

Successful Power System

Best practices for zero

Beyond ECO Mode:

Why is ground fault

Basics of engine installation

Pay Now or Pay Later?

Successful Power System

Best practices for zero

Taking a zero-tolerance approach to data Beyond ECO Mode:

low as possible. Successful Power System

Beyond ECO Mode:

creasing a small portion of the electrical de- Integrating building

Beyond ECO Mode:

Beyond ECO Mode:

Why is ground fault

C ombustion engines and gas turbines are widespread, essential components in

• Controls and Instrumentation.

• Fire protection. Integrating building

Back to basics: Switchgear,

Successful Power System

incorporated at a minimum. Integrating building

Pay Now or Pay Later?

Successful Power System

Beyond ECO Mode:

Why is ground fault

Engines located within dedicated detached structures: Detached structures need to be

Successful Power System

What is a zero energy

Pay Now or Pay Later?

Back to basics: Switchgear,

Beyond ECO Mode:

relief valves.  Basics of engine