AUTOMATIC TRANSFER SWITCH

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AUTOMATIC TRANSFER SWITCH
An automatic transfer switch is an integral component of an emergency power supply system
(EPSS). This transfer switch allows safe switching from utility power to standby generator power
while maintaining isolation of each source from the other. The main goal is to provide electrical
power to the facility loads (during a power outage) from the standby generator without
backfeeding that can damage utility equipment and hurt (or kill) utility workers. Automatic
transfer switches safeguard data and telecommunication networks, industrial processes and
critical installations such as health care facilities and financial transaction centers.
TRANSFER SWITCH COMPONENTS
Automatic transfer switches continually monitor the incoming utility power. If the normal power
source, often the utility, fails or exhibits some anomalies such as voltage sags, spikes or surges,
these switches detect this loss of power (or anomaly) and send a start signal to the standby
generator. The switches connect the generator to the facility loads when the generator has
achieved proper frequency and voltage. When utility power returns or no anomalies have
occurred for a set time, the transfer switch will then transfer back to utility power. It will instruct
(command) the generator to turn off, after a specified amount of "cool down" time with no load
on the generator. Electrical power to a facility's loads will be lost for a period of approximately
10 seconds while the generator set starts-unless there is an uninterruptible power supply (UPS)
serving loads in the system to bridge the power gap while the generator set starts.

Power system specialists can set up a transfer switch to provide power only to critical circuits or
entire electrical (sub) panels. Some transfer switches allow for load shedding or prioritization of
optional circuits, such as heating and cooling equipment.

There exist three different ways in which a transfer switch can provide power-switching
operation:

 Open Transition - Break-before-Make operation

 Closed Transition - Make-before-Break operation

 Closed Transition Soft Load - Both sources are paralleled
The three (3) functional components of a transfer switch are:
 Power switching device to shift the load circuits to and from the power source

 Transfer Logic Controller to monitor the condition of the power sources and provide the
control signals to the power-switching device.

 Control power source to supply operational power to the controller and switching device
TRANSFER SWITCH
TESTING
Power system specialists should test automatic transfer switches on a monthly basis for EPSS in
accordance with NFPA (National Fire Protection Association) Code 110. This standard also
requires a monthly generator run. There are two main steps for such testing: 1) automatic
generator start that is initiated by the transfer switch, 2) automatic transfer of facility load onto
the standby generator. During the test, the specialists should also take appropriate action when
power interruption to the facility load is a matter of concern.
EXISTING FACILITIES
For existing facilities, the engineer must determine the loads that may actually suffer negative
impact from monthly interruptions in power. One solution for this is to use UPS for protection
from these negative impacts. Also, engineers can replace existing open transition switches with
closed transition switches.

The testing of a transfer switch establishes the following:

 The switch is not going to fail during a transfer

 Moving parts will continue to operate smoothly

 Transferring capacity to the standby generator will be very smooth

How Prime Power can help you with different automatic transfer switch related services
We at Prime Power provide the installation, testing, troubleshooting, and maintenance of your
automatic transfer switch. You can rest assured of the quality of the automatic transfer switches
that we offer. They are safe, reliable, rugged, versatile, and compact assemblies for transferring
essential loads and electrical distribution systems from one power source to another. Prime
Power can deliver transfer switches in separate enclosures for stand-alone applications, or as an
integral component of other equipments such as switchgear.
 If your business relies on safeguarding data on telecommunications networks, industrial
processes and critical installations such as health care facilities and financial transaction centers,
we can help your business by installing high-quality automatic transfer switches for your EPSS.

Prime Power's automatic transfer switches are characterized by:

 Fewer moving parts resulting in higher reliability

 Inherent double-throw operation

 Silver alloy main contacts (highly conductive) and arcing contacts (resistant to heat)

 Repeatable fast transfer operation

 Safe manual operation under load (without opening door)

 Slow switch operation for maintenance and adjustment.

 UL listing with "any breaker

Prime Power also provides high-quality services such as:

 Engineering, design, and service responsibility, all under one roof

 Staffed service centers that operate 24/7. Service vans that are stocked with parts and not
dependent upon supply from other manufacturers
We understand that automatic transfer switches require regular maintenance including preventive
maintenance in the form of testing. Our engineers are highly experienced to carry out testing of
automatic transfer switches to see you and your business prepared for a power-outage
emergency.

Diesel Fuel Storage and Testing

Published: August 21, 2019 Danny Chisholm

Along with starting batteries, fuel is the most common reason an emergency power
supply (EPS or “generator”) fails to start. Problems with the fuel system stem mainly
from foreign matter such as fine abrasives, water, and “coagulated” aging fuel. These
contaminants cause reduced performance and expensive repairs, not to mention
preventing the generator from starting in an emergency.
The need to store substantial quantities of fuel on-site for a potential long-lasting
emergency creates a problem, the one of dealing with this “aging” fuel. The technical
committee responsible for NFPA 110, Standard for Emergency and Standby Power
Systems, recently held its annual meeting to discuss proposed changes. One topic of
discussion included stored diesel fuel.

Problems with Storing Diesel Fuel

When tanks are not full, excess air space allows for warm, humid air to enter the tank
and condense moisture during the cooler evenings. The presence of this water leads to
microbiological contamination and growth, causing tank and tank component corrosion.
A regularly scheduled maintenance program is needed to ensure the build-up of any
contaminants are not present, preventing the EPSS from operating efficiently and
reliably.

Fuel tanks should be kept cool and dry, and the tank as full as possible to help with the
reduction of water build-up. But over time there is no stopping the degrading of fuel
quality — especially tanks exposed to extreme temperature variations, such as storage
tanks located outside and above ground.

Fuel Quality
Diesel fuel maintained in a condition as close to “refined” as possible will outperform
fuel that is poorly maintained. To achieve optimal fuel quality, the contaminants in fuel
must be filtered out, water must be separated and removed, and the fuel must be
conditioned. This process of filtration, separation, and conditioning (known as the fuel
polishing process) is the foundation for achieving and maintaining, the quality of fuel
necessary for ultimate reliability.

 Filtration – Contamination removed to prevent clogging and abrasive wear

 Separation – Remove water to avoid increased engine compression and growth
 Conditioning – Reduce particulate sizes to prevent filter clogging

Battery Conductance Testing

Published: July 25, 2019 Danny Chisholm

One of the major causes of an emergency generator not to start is starting batteries.
Corrosion, sulfation, and loss of electrolyte are the most common reasons. With proper
maintenance and testing, these failures can be prevented and extend the life of your
battery. Not caring for your starting batteries could cost the life of a patient, or possible
financial loss, from extensive downtime.
In this article, we will explain the different types of generator starting batteries and
battery conductance testing.

Generator Starting Batteries

There are three types of batteries in use today for emergency and standby power
systems, flooded lead-acid, valve-regulated lead-acid (VRLA), and nickel-cadmium
(NiCad). Each includes charging plates and are subject to electrolyte loss. During
charging, hydrogen and oxygen vents from the battery decreasing levels of electrolyte.
Improper maintenance and charging could severely limit the life of your starting
batteries.

Flooded Lead-Acid

Flooded lead-acid batteries include a removable cap for each cell, allowing visual
inspection of the battery plates and electrolyte level. Venting is standard during
charging. To replenish electrolyte levels always use deionized water. If electrolyte levels
are not “topped off” during scheduled maintenance, permanent damage may occur.

VRLA (Valve Regulated Lead-Acid)

Valve regulated batteries, also known as “maintenance free” or sealed batteries, do not
have a removable cap. Instead, gas escapes through vents designed to release at
increased pressure levels. The term “sealed” means there is no way to access the
individual battery cells as you can with a flooded lead-acid battery. Therefore, the
battery charger must be set correctly to prevent the battery from drying out. Electrolyte
levels are not replenishable.

Nickel Cadmium or “NiCad”

While not as common as lead-acid, the nickel-cadmium battery, or NiCad, is best for its
ability to operate through a high-temperature range. It has a higher life span and fewer
maintenance requirements. Also, NiCad batteries initially cost more than lead-acid and
include cadmium, a potentially hazardous material.

Battery Conductance Testing

Lead-acid and NiCad batteries have been around for a long time. However, until the
introduction of the battery conductance tester, battery maintenance was a slow and
challenging process. Taking specific gravity readings from each battery cell and
recording on maintenance checklists is time-consuming. The use of a hydrometer is no
longer needed.
Maintenance Requirements
NFPA 110, 8.3.6.1 “Battery conductance testing shall be permitted in lieu of the testing
of specific gravity when applicable or warranted.”

With the battery conductance tester, personnel can save time and money with more
accurate results, quickly identify battery health, and uncover potential problems before
an actual emergency. Batteries fail due to buildup on charging plates. This buildup
disrupts the flow of energy increasing the batteries resistance to charge. A battery
conductance test will measure impedance and provide a report on the batteries health.

Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

Before performing any maintenance or testing task, appropriate PPE is mandatory.
Personal protective equipment should include gloves, apron, and goggles or a face
shield. Visually inspect the battery for any signs of:

 Cracking, buckled, or leaking cases.

 Corroded, loose, or damaged cables and connections.
 Corrosion on the battery terminals.
 Dirt or acid on the case top.

Testing Procedures
Depending on the brand of battery conductance tester, set up may vary. The tester
should guide you through the steps in selecting the correct settings. The most important
will be “Cold Cranking Amps” or CCA. This specification is the measure of a battery’s
ability to supply a certain amount of power for a short period. Make sure the CCA
setting is identical to the rating of your battery.

When connecting the battery conductance tester to the battery ensure the positive (+)
clamp attaches to the positive terminal, and the negative (-) clamp connects to the
negative terminal. Make sure both clamps grip the terminals. A poor connection will
prevent testing. Most testers will indicate if the link is weak or not so you can make
adjustments if necessary. Some also come pre-installed with a printer, or the ability to
add one, or transfer the data to a computer for further analysis and archiving.

Conclusion
Whichever method you choose, written, printed, or electronic format, ensure you keep
good records. Analyzing results over time will allow you to make informed maintenance
decisions and avoid costly downtime. Although conductance testing will give you a good
indication of the batteries health, cranking voltage is the truest test of readiness. Be on
the lookout for an additional article on Voltage Drop Testing in our upcoming
newsletters.

Routine Maintenance and Operational

Testing
Published: June 17, 2019 Danny Chisholm

Who has the last word on maintenance and testing requirements? NFPA 110, 8.1.1 is
essentially the genesis of all maintenance and testing (M/T) programs. Why? Because
while other standards are concerned with maintenance and testing, all refer to NFPA
110, and paragraph 8.1.1 marks the beginning. This paragraph is just one sentence in
length, but what does it mean?

How each facility responds to this simple statement is what complicates the equation,
because while manufacturers’ recommendations should be the basis of the M/T
program, manufacturers cannot control what M/T programs are ultimately followed by
the end user. Your responsibility is to see that an M/T program which adheres to the
intent of the manufacturer is put into place.

Automatic Transfer Switch Maintenance

Published: April 2, 2019 Danny Chisholm

The automatic transfer switch (ATS) is a critical system component of the emergency
power supply system (EPSS), and proper maintenance of an ATS depends on the type
of switch and its position in the critical power infrastructure. Imagine losing power during
a natural or human-made disaster due to incorrect sensing or time-delay function. Or,
the result of a maladjusted ATS control panel. A large percentage of automatic transfer
switch failures are attributed to preventive maintenance.
Compliance
Below is the sole reference in NFPA 110 (2019 Edition) referencing transfer switch
maintenance.

NFPA 110, 8.3.4* Transfer switches shall be subjected to a maintenance and testing

program that includes all of the following operations:

1. Checking of connections
2. Inspection or testing for evidence of overheating and excessive contact erosion
3. Removal of dust and dirt
4. Replacement of contacts when required.

NFPA 110, 8.3.5* Paralleling gear shall be subject to inspection, testing, and

maintenance program that includes all of the following operations:

1. Checking connections
2. Inspecting or testing for evidence of overheating and excessive contact erosion
3. Removing dust and dirt
4. Replacing contacts when required
5. Verifying that the system controls will operate as intended

The transfer switches and parallel gear are the brains of the EPSS; and while no
frequency interval for maintenance is specified, it is strongly recommended that
scheduled comprehensive reviews are performed by a ‘qualified’ technician quarterly
with ‘internal’ maintenance performed once a year.

How an Automatic Transfer Switch works

Upon sensing the loss of normal power, the ATS logic signals the emergency power
supply system (EPSS) to start. When the emergency source of power is available, and
critical parameters such as voltage and frequency are within proper range, the ATS
and/or paralleling switchgear will transfer to emergency power.

These steps are reversed upon the return of the normal power source. The
ATS/switchgear logic will again verify the normal power is within the desired parameters
and stable before retransfer. Once the ATS/switchgear returns to the normal position,
the ATS/switchgear logic dictates a cool down period for the EPSS generator(s).

Four Automatic Transfer Switch types

  Break-before-make (open transition): The load will be interrupted during the
transition from the normal to the emergency source.
 Make-before-break (closed transition): Allows transfer between two live
sources of power without the loss of critical load.
 Delayed Transition (center off): Allows magnetic fields to collapse before
reconnection to the alternate source.
 Soft Load/Unload: A form of closed transition that allows building load to be
gradually transferred between two live sources of power.

Preventive Maintenance
Proper maintenance of all components of the emergency power supply system (EPSS)
is essential and directly linked to the integrity of the critical power system. As it relates
to NFPA 99 and 110; this system is only called upon to function in an emergency. Of
course, this is the worst time for a malfunction of any one element. The total aspect of
maintenance extends far beyond the routine tasks recommended to properly maintain
any single element. Maintenance programs must be carefully reviewed, and
maintenance provider selection is just as important as any other aspect of the EPSS.

Below are examples of the recommended annual maintenance tasks to be performed

by a qualified OEM representative or certified technician:

1. Part of any complete modern maintenance plan is infrared scanning / thermal

imaging.*
2. De-energize the switchgear (ATS’s equipped with an isolation bypass feature do
not need to be de-energized).
3. Remove the arc chutes and pole covers. Consult the manufacturer’s information
for proper procedure. This step will allow visual inspection of the main and arcing
contacts.
4. Test and recalibrate all AC sensing and time-delay functions in the switchgear.
Depending on the manufacturer, the steps required will vary.
5. Vacuum the accumulated dust from the switchgear and accessory panels. Never
use air to blow out dirt. Subjecting the transfer switch mechanism to compressed
air may have a detrimental effect by forcing dirt and debris into the switch
mechanism.
6. Inspect for moisture or signs of previous wetness or dripping.
7. Clean grime with an approved non-conductive solvent. Consult the OEM for a
recommendation.
8. Inspect all main arcing contacts for excessive erosion and/or pitting. Arcing
contacts are intended to be sacrificial by nature. They take the brunt of the energy
when making or breaking the load. Careful attention should be paid to these
contacts.
9. Inspect all control relay contacts for excessive erosion and discoloration due to
excessive heat.
 10. Manually operate the main transfer movement to check proper contact alignment,
deflection, and wiping action.
11. Check all cable and control wire connections to the transfer switch controller,
sensing panels and other system components. Tighten if necessary.
12. Re-energize the switchgear and conduct a test by simulating a normal source
failure.

* This work is performed before de-energized maintenance with normal loads applied,
and against each source of power. If discrepancies are addressed; and after any
physical maintenance is performed to the transfer switch, comparison imaging should
be taken. The resultant report will define problem areas and/or resolutions…and will
allow the maintenance provider to take a proactive approach for potential changes to
the maintenance plan.

Training
Although the tasks listed above do not appear especially extraordinary; these steps
require specific training and tooling. NFPA 99 and 110 specifically state maintenance
and testing activities will be performed by qualified/competent personnel.

NFPA 110, 8.4.8 EPSS components shall be maintained and tested by qualified

person(s).

NFPA 99, 6.4.4.1.1.4(C) Test Personnel. The scheduled tests shall be conducted by

competent personnel to keep the machines ready to function and, in addition, serve to
detect causes of malfunction and to train personnel in operating procedures.

Conclusion
The total aspect of maintenance extends far beyond the routine operational testing
performed by facility engineers. The example of the annual ATS maintenance illustrates
the requirement of these procedures to be carried out by a dedicated, trained
professional.

A surface comparison of maintenance proposals by competing vendors may be

misleading. An aggressive maintenance company may state they can do everything that
is ‘required’. Go beyond that…ask the tough questions…and ask for references.

Special thanks to Steve Works with Blanchard Machinery for assistance in editing this
article.
Diesel Generator Exhaust Issues and NFPA
110
Published: January 23, 2019 Danny Chisholm

In 1999, the technical committee for NFPA 110 adopted a substantial change in the
procedure to check for wet stacking conditions present in diesel engines not being
loaded sufficiently. The modification involved comparing exhaust gas temperatures with
manufacturers’ recommended minimum temperatures. In contrast, the wording in
previous editions stated that evidence of wet stacking was indicated “by the presence of
continual black smoke during engine-run operation.” Clearly, using exhaust temperature
data will yield more objective information with which to determine if wet stacking exists.

NFPA 110 (2019 edition), 8.4.2* Generator sets in service shall be exercised at least
once monthly, for a minimum of 30 minutes, using one of the following methods:

1. Loading that maintains the minimum exhaust gas temperatures as recommended

by the manufacturer
2. Under operating temperature conditions and at not less than 30 percent of the
EPS standby nameplate kW rating

The 2019 edition removed the word “Diesel” from the paragraph text. The 2010 edition
states “8.4.2* Diesel generator sets in service…”

The alternative method of testing in #1 is of interest to those facilities whose generators

are unable to be tested consistently at the minimum 30% of nameplate rating. To obtain
the data necessary for this method, however, facilities will need to develop a system to
accurately track exhaust temperatures. In some cases, facilities will have to convince
manufacturers to cooperate by providing data regarding recommended temperatures in
several locations on the piping downstream from the exhaust port. To take accurate
exhaust temperature readings there are a few options.

Option A: Thermocouple
On the high-end side of the expense scale is a temperature probe unit, or
thermocouple, which is embedded in some portion of the exhaust system or cylinder
head and sends data automatically. Once installed, tracking exhaust temperatures is
automatic. The drawback to this system is the price: they’re rather expensive to retrofit –
upwards of several thousand dollars per engine.

Option B: Infrared Equipment

A less costly, and more practical option involves the use of infrared testing equipment.
With this approach, however, the issue is where to obtain the readings. The best place
to get readings is at the exhaust manifold-to-cylinder head connection, which is closest
to the combustion chamber where the manufacturer takes their readings.

Unfortunately, these connections are not easily accessible on some engines, and
attempting to obtain readings here may present a real threat to personal safety and
should be avoided. We recommend the safer option of specifying a location on the
exhaust manifold where all exhaust ports empty their gases and obtaining temperatures
in the same spot. Since your specified location may be some distance from the
combustion chambers, the temperatures you obtain will be cooler, and the data must be
adjusted for this difference.

Manifold temperature data can provide a very accurate picture of the condition under
which an engine is running. Readings that are too low – after adjusting for the
temperature differential between the combustion chamber location the manufacturer
used for their recommendations and the location the facility chooses to obtain their data
– can be a clear indication that wet stacking conditions are present, and appropriate
action can be taken to alleviate the problem.

Supplemental Loads
If a facility is unable to make the 30% of nameplate rating and does not have the
exhaust temperatures that demonstrate the generator is sufficiently loaded, an annual
supplemental “load run” will need to be performed. As stated in NFPA 110, 8.4.2.3,
installations that do not meet the requirements of 8.4.2 shall be exercised monthly with
the available EPSS load and shall be exercised annually with supplemental loads at not
less than 50 percent of the EPS nameplate kW rating for 30 continuous minutes and at
not less than 75 percent of the EPS nameplate kW rating for 1 continuous hour for a
total test duration of not less than 1.5 continuous hours.”

While the monthly test loading of a generator above the 30% level is not required by
NFPA 110 beyond the above circumstances, we recommend loading the generator to
75-80% of the nameplate “on occasion” to benchmark exhaust temperature readings
starting at a no-load level. The graph below is a record of such Exhaust temperatures.

Emergency Power Off (EPO)

Published: December 20, 2018 Danny Chisholm
We originally posted this article on December 20, 2018. Since that time, we received
great feedback. In this updated article, we are going to cover the purpose of the
emergency power off (EPO) switch, NFPA 70, and 110 requirements. Some AHJ
surveyors have stated the manual stop station should be located in a “remote” area
some distance away from the enclosure, while others have said, there is no specific
location stated other than “outside” the room housing the prime mover.

“Emergency Power Off” or “EPO”

An EPO or “emergency power off” is a control mechanism for an emergency power
supply (EPS) or “generator” intended to disconnect power and shut down the EPS. It’s a
safety mechanism in case the primary disconnect device is not readily accessible due to
a fire or other unsafe condition. In an emergency, firefighters will use the EPO as a
quick way to ensure others will not be exposed to dangerous voltages and eliminate
electricity as a source of ignition.

Most activations of the EPO are unintended. Therefore, any EPO system must be
designed for any possibility of accidental activation and must minimize any reason for
activation other than a life-threatening emergency. Most activations are a human error
— unintentional activation during maintenance, mistaken for the wrong button, etc.

National Electrical Code®

The 2017 edition of NFPA 70 (NEC®) states a generator will have the means to
disconnect from all associated conductors and the ability to shut down the prime mover.
This method is not the same as shutting down the generator during normal operation.
The purpose of this requirement is for emergency use only.

If the main disconnect device is not readily accessible, the Emergency Power Off switch
(or button) provides a means to disconnect the power and shut down the prime mover
from another location. Section 445.18 of the NEC® covers disconnection means and
shutting down of the prime mover.

445.18 (A) Disconnecting Means.

Generators other than cord-and-plug-connected portable shall have one or more

disconnecting means. Each disconnecting methods shall simultaneously open all
associated ungrounded conductors. Each disconnecting means shall be lockable in the
open position in accordance with 110.25.
445.18 (B) Shutdown of Prime Mover.

Generators shall have provisions to shut down the prime mover. The means of
shutdown shall comply with all of the following:

(1) Be equipped with provisions to disable all prime mover start control circuits to render
the prime mover incapable of starting.

(2) Initiate a shutdown mechanism that requires a mechanical reset

The provisions to shut down the prime mover shall be permitted to satisfy the
requirements of 445.18(A) where it is capable of being locked in the open position in
accordance with 110.25

Generators with greater than 15kW rating shall be provided with an additional
requirement to shut down the prime mover. This additional shutdown means shall be
located outside the equipment room or generator enclosure and shall also meet the
requirements of 445.18(B)(1) and (B)(2).

445.18 (C) Generator Installed in Parallel.

Where a generator is installed in parallel with other generators, the provisions of

445.18(A) shall be capable of isolating the generator output terminals from the
paralleling equipment. The disconnecting means shall not be required to be located at
the generator.

Standard for Emergency and Standby Power Systems

In 2017 the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) adopted NFPA
99, Health Care Facilities Code®, 2012 Edition. NFPA 99 references NFPA
110, Standard for Emergency and Standby Power Systems, 2010 edition. In the 2010
edition of NFPA 110, all installations are required to have a remote manual stop station
located outside the room housing the prime mover (engine) and labeled.

NFPA 110, 2010 Edition

5.6.5.6* All installations shall have a remote manual stop station of a type to prevent
inadvertent or unintentional operation located outside the room housing the prime
mover, where so installed, or elsewhere on the premises where the prime mover is
located outside the building.
5.6.5.6.1 The remote manual stop station shall be labeled.

NFPA 110, 2019 edition

5.6.5.6 All installations shall be provided with at least one remote emergency stop
switch for each prime mover.

5.6.5.6.1 The remote emergency stop switch shall be located outside the room housing
the prime mover or exterior enclosure and shall be permitted to be mounted on the
exterior of the enclosure.

5.6.5.6.2 Provisions shall be made so access is limited to qualified persons.

5.6.5.6.3 The remote emergency stop switch shall identify the prime mover it controls.

If you read the 2010 edition paragraphs above and compare to the 2019 edition, you will
see the addition of “shall be permitted to be mounted on the exterior of the enclosure.”
As you may know, most generators located outside within an enclosure come with an
EPO switch mounted on the outside of the enclosure. Since the 1980’s most
manufacturers deliver the new emergency power supply with the EPO installed.
However, this has raised some questions in the health care community on what the
CMS is allowing.

CMS
After receiving several emails from students regarding placement of the EPO, we sent a
question to the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services. “Is the CMS now disallowing
remote manual stop stations from being located on the outside of a generator
enclosure, located outside of a building?”

Answer: “CMS’s longstanding interpretation is that a manual stop needs to be “remote”

from the generator as prescribed by 2010 NFPA 110, 5.6.5.6. As such, to be “remote,” a
manual stop could not be located on the generator housing.”

Emergency Power Supply (EPS)

Automated Monitoring
Published: December 5, 2018 Danny Chisholm
Automated data collection from your emergency power supply (EPS) (also known as the
“generator”) allows for a level of accuracy, speed, and repeatability that manual data
collection simply cannot provide.  During an engine run the operator is asked to provide
values for volts, amps, frequency, oil pressure, percentage AC load, DC voltage, and
coolant temperature. With an automated EPS monitoring system these values are
collected several times each second, opening the door to diagnostic views as the EPS
starts, accepts the load, warms to normal operating temperature, transfers the load
back to utility and then cools down.

Manual record keeping for total compliance can sometimes be inaccurate and onerous.
Mechanical and electrical systems are often spot checked rather than continuously
monitored and out-of-parameter readings may be missed.

Monitoring Fundamentals
A fundamental feature of automated monitoring is the archival of data over the lifetime
of the equipment for compliance purposes. This archived data allows for analysis of the
EPS before a major mechanical issue occurs. For example, the median oil pressure
during loaded running events may remain in acceptable range over years, but if that
measurement is slowly declining over time, that trend can reasonably point to future
failure, and of course, failure prevention is the objective of remote monitoring.

Sample EPS Load Run Report

A central concept of automated remote monitoring is the notification process, whereby
designated recipients receive electronic messages related to their EPS.  Depending on
the recipient, there may be a need to know only if there is a situation requiring service,
while other recipients may need to know the status of utility and emergency power
sources for surgery scheduling reasons. Such messages may be routed directly to
those responsible parties to avoid delays and errors related to the manual interpretation
of antiquated annunciators. While electronic delivery of voice alerts is possible, emails
and text messages are most common because they have some degree of visual
permanence that helps avoid misinterpretation, as well as archival of the messages that
are sent.

Wired or Wireless?
Automated remote monitoring can be implemented on different data transport
technologies.

1. Cellular: Provides high-speed transport, is exceptionally simple to install by generator

technicians and does not rely on facility infrastructure.  Those devices are powered by the
EPS starting battery and therefore have a built-in reliable uninterruptible power source.
The nature of the cellular system includes tower redundancy, so that the devices may
automatically connect to different towers as needed. It is not locked to a single data
connection.
2. Satellite: Offers global connectivity, and for facilities in areas subject to intense weather
events, provides some users greater comfort knowing that satellite communication is not
dependent on local towers or utility power for long-term connectivity during emergency
events.  Generally, satellite communication is a bit more expensive and somewhat slower
than cellular, but it fills geographic needs well.
3. Ethernet: Commonly used throughout medical facilities using local data networks. In
such a design, the power system needs to be on its own network for security purposes,
and the data path is ENTIRELY dependent on the operation of the generator during an
emergency.  This means that every hub, switch, and router must be on emergency
circuits, and the generator must function properly. If the generator fails, the monitoring
channel fails with it.

If you would like to learn more about EPS monitoring options, please click here to
contact Dan Chisholm Sr.

On Site Fuel Supplies for the Diesel EPS

Published: September 23, 2018 Danny Chisholm
Lately, we have logged several calls on the same topic from facilities confused about
the quantity of diesel fuel required by authorities for on-site diesel-powered EPS
(emergency power supply) engines. We have responded to all inquiries with the same
answer; it all depends on your local Authority Having Jurisdiction (AHJ). While this may
seem like “passing the buck,” it is the only answer that is always correct.

For the most part, AHJ’s refer to NFPA standards for guidance; however, you would be
wise not make a buying decision based on any “standard” until you have a specific
written agreement with the local AHJ. NFPA 99, Health Care Facilities Code, defers to
NFPA 110, Standard for Emergency and Standby Power Systems, for design
requirements of Type I, II and III essential electrical system (EES) power sources. Each
of these designated “Types” are further designated as “Type 10, Class X,” as defined by
NFPA 110.

According to NFPA 110 (2010 and 2016 Edition):

 “Type” refers to the maximum time, in seconds, that the EPSS will permit the
load terminals of the transfer switch to be without adequate electrical power.
 “Class” refers to the minimum time, in hours, for which the EPSS is designed to
operate at its rated load without being refueled.

“Class X” is defined as the time, in hours, as required by the application, code, or user.
In other words, NFPA 110, through its classification structure, creates broad guidelines
concerning how to utilize the EPSS, and the AHJ’s then make the specific calls.

Why do variances exist? Each local AHJ makes a judgment about fuel stored on each
site based on local factors, including the estimated time a facility would have to wait for
fuel delivery, seismic classification, storm history, and general history of power outages.

The need to store substantial quantities of fuel on site for potential long-lasting

emergency creates a problem, the one of dealing with aging fuel. During extended run
times, most EPS fuel system failures are caused by “old” diesel fuel.  We have
addressed this serious issue more than once and described several possible solutions.
You can have too much fuel on hand if it is not being treated and used within an
acceptable time frame.

Although you must check with the local AHJ for their recommendation, we favor having
the equipment, such as boilers, use fuel from the same tank as the EPSS. The fuel in
“dedicated” tanks, especially EPS skid mounted tanks, are normally not used or “turned
over” at the same rate as non-dedicated tanks. In these types of setups, the pickup
tubes for the other equipment are inserted into the tank in such a manner that the EPSS
“dedicated” fuel is not disturbed.
“Fuel polishing” has become the standard way of ensuring fuel meets the
manufacturer’s standards.  It can be accomplished using either a portable or
permanently installed apparatus.  Economics is a concern as well as having a plan to
ensure clean fuel whenever an event will occur.  See “Fuel polishing aids facility in
emergency power readiness” (Health Facilities Management)

WHY AND HOW IS AUTOMATIC

TRANSFER SWITCH TESTING DONE
What is Automatic Transfer Switch?
The Automatic Transfer Switch (ATS) is a critical piece of equipment that alternates
the origin or the source of power, typically between your utility power and
backup/emergency power, ensuring your system’s ability to stay online. It is
inherently important in making sure that this part of your emergency system is
working properly. Also, because this particular part of your system is usually relatively
complicated in nature, they are rarely examined or tested after the ATS has left its
manufacturing facility. This is precisely why Industrial Tests, Inc. should be your first
choice in ATS testing, so that you and your facility can feel safe and confident in its
ability to transfer power, in the event of losing normal power. Automatic Transfer
switch tests, tests utility power or standby generator power—and conducts the power
 to critical loads. The NFPA, Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare
Organizations (JCAHO), and all major ATS manufacturers publish literature calling for
the monthly test of ATSs, yet many facility owners ignore these guidelines and refuse
to perform the tests. There are good reasons for both the monthly-test requirement
and for the reluctance of many operators to comply.
NFPA 110, the standard for emergency and standby power supply systems, states “the
monthly test of a transfer switch shall consist of electrically operating the transfer
switch from the standard position to the alternate position and then a return to the
standard position”. The standard also requires a monthly generator run. The best way
to perform both these tests is by operating the test toggle on the ATS when the
generator isn’t running, and confirming that the ATS properly signals the generator to
start and run before transferring building load.

Why Automatic Transfer Switch Testing is Done?

Many critical electrical systems are not being maintained to the proper standard, and
some are not maintained at all. Why? Maybe it’s because electrical systems and
components are being installed improperly. Maybe it’s because of poor system design
that leaves little access. Or maybe it’s because many facility engineers still regard
maintenance as a necessary evil. In order to evaluate the cost of maintenance, one
must factor in the cost of lost service due to an unplanned failure plus the cost of
replacement.
The automatic transfer switch (ATS) is a critical system component of the emergency
power system, and proper maintenance of an ATS depends on the type of switch and
its position in the critical power infrastructure. It is essential to find out whether your
ATS is within manufacturers specifications during a planned examination, so that you
don’t run the risk of finding this out during an unforeseen outage and you are unable
to switch your system to its secondary power. Intermittent testing of your ATS is the
sure-handed method of guaranteeing that your emergency system is as reliable as it
can be. Our core group of technicians and engineers have been thoroughly educated
and trained on emergency systems, particularly transfer switches. Combining our
staff’s training with their vast experience in the field allows for an undeniable recipe
for success, where our customers always seek out our expertise and services.

The Three Primary Reasons for the Monthly Test

1. A test is an active demonstration that the EPSS is still able to function as intended. If a
switch is going to fail to transfer, it’s better to have the switch fail while connected to a live
normal source during a test than to have it remain connected to a dead normal source during
an actual power outage.
2. An automatic transfer switch is an electromechanical device with moving parts. Like
the pistons and crankshaft in an automotive engine, the moving parts in an ATS can seize if
 they’re left in one position for months or years. Regular exercise will help ensure that moving
parts will continue to operate smoothly.
3. A transfer switch test transfers building load onto the generator for the duration of
the generator test. Most standby power generators of more than 100kW are diesel engine
driven, and all major diesel generator manufacturers recommend a load of at least 50% of
maximum capacity during monthly generator tests. NFPA requires the same thing, for the
simple reason that running under a light load is very bad for a diesel engine.

Running a diesel generator in an unloaded condition—with no ATS transfer, thus with

no building load connected—causes carbon buildup in the cylinders and exhaust
system, a condition known as “wet stacking.” This problem reduces efficiency and
power, and in extreme cases it can cause an exhaust system to catch fire. To reduce a
wet-stack condition once it has developed, some facility owners will rent a resistive
load bank and connect it to the standby generator for a full-load run of sufficient
duration to “burn out” the build-up. The cost for such an exercise is substantial, and
the relief provided is only temporary.

Reasons Behind the Objection to Testing ATS

Some people mistakenly think that monthly tests will shorten the life of a transfer
switch, and are therefore reluctant to conduct them. More often, the reason for
refusing to test properly is a fear of the two brief interruptions in power that an ATS
test entails. There’s no truth to the idea of a regular test shortening the life of an
ATS. Any device to be used as a transfer switch—switching a single electrical load
between two sources of power—must comply with UL standard 1008, the only
standard applicable to this duty.
Any switch that bears a UL 1008 label can transfer a minimum of 3,000 times, with at
least 1,000 of those operations under at least 100% of rated load. (For smaller
ampacity switches 6,000 transfers must be under 100% load or greater). A switch that
transfers back and forth each month will see 12 transfer operations per year,
generally under something less than 100% of rated load. It would take a transfer
switch at least 83 years to reach the same level of full-load use that representative
switches endure in standard UL testing. And, as mentioned above, a switch that
transfers regularly is less prone to seizure than a switch that has remained static for a
long period.
The most-cited reason for failing to test transfer switches is that power interruptions
can cause problems with lighting, transformers, computers, and other sensitive loads.
It’s this fear, primarily, that causes many facility operators to conduct their monthly
generator runs without switching building load onto the generator. While problems of
this nature can be frightening, they should be no more frightening than the prospect
of a transfer switch that fails to operate at a critical time due to lack of testing, or a
generator that fails due to wet-stacking.
 There are several ways of mitigating or eliminating the problems caused by these
power interruptions, both in new construction and in existing facilities:

 For new construction projects the issue of transfer-test-caused interruptions in power

is an easy one to solve. The engineer responsible for specifying the electrical equipment
should specify “closed transition,” or make-before-break, transfer switches. A transfer switch
of this kind transfers when in its test mode, with no interruption in power. Switches of this
kind were once a special product available from only one manufacturer, and they carried a
daunting price premium. Today, however, closed transition transfer switches (CTTS) are
available from several manufacturers, and at a very modest price premium over the old-
fashioned open transition switch.
 For existing facilities, a study should be done to determine which specific transfer
switches feed loads that would actually suffer any negative impact from monthly
interruptions in power. Those loads that are sensitive to interruptions can be protected with
UPS systems, or with a timed pre-signal before transfer, allowing for orderly shutdown of the
loads before power is interrupted. Also, existing open transition switches can be replaced
with CTTS.

Any automatic transfer switch in an emergency or standby power system should be

should be tested monthly in accordance with NFPA 110. That test should consist of an
automatic generator start, initiated by the transfer switch, followed by an automatic
transfer of facility load onto the standby generator. If power interruptions are a
matter of concern, closed transition transfer switches should be used to eliminate the
problem, or other methods should be used to mitigate the effects.

What is Done During an Automatic Transfer Switch Test?

Following steps are performed

1. Simulate loss of normal power.

2. Return to normal power.
3. Simulate loss of emergency power.
4. Simulate all forms of single-phase conditions.

ATS Checks Include

 Check wiring and connections are tight with no discoloration of metal, melted plastic
and odour indicating excessive heat.
 Verify external operating mechanism is clean and re lubricate if found dirty.
 Check for any deterioration of wiring insulation such as cuts and abrasions. Replace or
repair any damaged wiring.
 Check tightness of wiring connections. Retighten to specification if any loose wiring
found.
 Perform insulation resistance tests on all control wiring with respect to ground.
 Perform a contact/pole-resistance test.
 Verify settings and operation of control devices.
 Calibrate and set all relays and timers.
 Verify phase rotation, phasing, and synchronized operation as required by the
application. .
 Check ATS main power switching contacts condition. Clean or replace. Replace
contractor assembly if necessary.
 Exercise the generator set under load.
 Test the transfer switch’s automatic control system.
 Test all indicators (LEDs) and all remote control systems for operation.
 Inspect the outside of the transfer switch for any indication of wear, excessive
vibration, leakage, high temperature, contamination or other deterioration.
 Verify all external components are in place, firm, tightened and not excessively worn.
 Inspect the inside of the transfer switch for any indication of excessive vibration,
leakage, high temperature, contamination or any other deterioration.
 Verify all internal components are in place, firm, tightened and not excessively worn.

Standard for ATS Maintenance and Testing

TRANSFER SWITCH MAINTENANCE NFPA 110, Standard for Emergency and Standby
Power Systems covers performance requirements for power systems providing an
alternate source of electrical power in the event the primary power source fails. This
standard includes power sources, transfer equipment, controls, supervisory
equipment, and accessory equipment. The standard also addresses installation,
maintenance, operation, and testing requirements for these components of the
emergency power supply system.
Transfer switches are installed in the emergency power system to transfer the
electrical load from the normal power source to the emergency power source
(generator) upon failure of normal power. The transfer switch must transfer and
retransfer the load automatically. Maintenance programs for transfer switches include
checking of connections, inspection or testing for evidence of overheating and
excessive contact erosion, removal of dust and dirt, and replacement of contacts
when required. The maintenance procedure and frequency should follow those
recommended by the manufacturer.
In the absence of manufacturer’s recommendations, NFPA 110 suggests visual
inspection and cleaning annually. The 2005 edition of NFPA 110 further recommends
an annual maintenance program including one major maintenance and three quarterly
inspections. The major maintenance includes a thermographic or temperature scan of
the automatic transfer switch. Automatic transfer switches must also be operated
monthly. The monthly test consists of electrically operating the transfer switch from
the standard position to the alternate position and then a return to the standard
position.
 How ATS Testing is Done?
ATS is a pretty simple device. It senses power source and behaves according to how
it’s set up. Generally it defaults to generator, so with no power all 3 contacts, (30
amp) or 4 contacts, (50 amp) should measure closed and electricity will pass from one
contact to the other.

Summarized Procedure for Automatic Transfer Switch Testing and

Maintenance
Based on NETA Acceptance & Maintenance Testing Standards, the process
includes:

 Contact to pole resistance test.

 Settings and operations verification.
 Control device Examinations.
 Manufacturer’s standards and specifications checks.
 Calibration services.
 Tap connections resistance measurements.
 Verifying engine start sequence.
 Time delay and retransfer functions checks.
 Mechanical parts inspections.
 Anchorage and groundings review for impairment or damage.
 Corresponding parts are properly lubricated and clean of debris or contaminants and
more.

Automatic transfers should operate in accordance with manufacturer’s design. For

more detail on these tests, see the ATS functional testing procedure described below.
A general procedure for functional testing of an automatic transfer switch and
standby generator is described below.
Step 1: To begin the test, close the normal source circuit breaker. The switch
controller will illuminate the Utility Available LED (if equipped) when correct voltage
is sensed. If the ATS mechanism is set on Source 1, the Source 1 position LED will also
light. Verify the phase to phase voltages at the utility line terminals.
Step 2: Next, close the Alternate source breaker and start the engine generator. The
S2 (Alternate) Available LED will illuminate when correct voltage and frequency levels
are sensed. After both sources have been verified, shut down the engine generator,
and put the generator’s start control in the automatic position.
Step 3: Simulate a utility outage by opening the Source 1 (normal side) breaker. The
delay to engine start timer begins its timing cycle. After the timer has completed its
timing cycle, the engine start contacts close to start the generator.
Step 4: When generator voltage and frequency reach the preset restore points the
Source 2 Available LED illuminates. Simultaneously, the delay to generator timer
begins its timing cycle. When the time delay is completed the ATS will transfer to
Generator, the S1 position LED goes off, and the S2 position LED illuminates. Systems
shall transfer in no less than 10 seconds where failure of the equipment to perform
could result in loss of human life or serious injuries.
Step 5: Reclose the Source 1 breaker to re transfer to the normal source. The delay
to utility timer begins its timing cycle. When the timer has completed its timing
cycle, the ATS will transfer. The S2 position LED goes off, and the S1 position LED
illuminates.
Step 6: The delay engine stop timer will begin its timing cycle. The generator runs
unloaded for the duration of this timing cycle. When the timer completes its timing
cycle, the generator will stop. The S2 Available LED goes off. A minimum time delay
of 5 minutes should be provided for unloaded running of the EPS prior to shutdown to
allow for engine cool down (NFPA 110). The minimum 5-minute delay is not required
on small air-cooled prime movers 15 kW or less.
Apply a field testing label in accordance with NFPA standards indicating that the
transfer switch is electrically and mechanically sound and suitable for service after
completing all tests.
 
Whether you are looking for routine maintenance, or wanting to troubleshoot ATS
failure or have emergency systems queries, contact Carelabs at 971 4 514
9730 or +971 55 792 1054 (Call or WhatsApp) or email at info@carelabz.com . We
offer monthly, quarterly and semi-annual inspections and testing.

WHAT IS AUTOMATIC TRANSFER

SWITCH TESTING AND HOW IS IT
DONE
A transfer switch’s main job is to redistribute power from a grid to a backup source of
power. The control panel system of a transfer switch is what makes the unit
automatic in nature. Power failures can be detected immediately with the help of
 automatic transfer switch (ATS) and the shift to generator power from utility power is
smooth.
The control panel’s job is to detect a power failure and initiate procedures to start
the new or used generator’s engine. Once the used or new generator reaches the
right frequency or voltage, the control system will signal to change to generator from
the normal source of power.
The Automatic Transfer Switch (ATS) is a critical piece of equipment that alternates
the origin or the source of power, typically between your utility power and backup
power, ensuring your system’s ability to stay online. It is inherently important in
making sure that this part of your emergency system is working properly. Also,
because this part of your system is usually relatively complicated in nature, they are
rarely examined or tested after the ATS has left its manufacturing facility.

Why Testing of Automatic Transfer Switch Important?

It is important to determine if your ATS is within manufacturers terms in the course of
a planned examination, to eliminate the risk of determining this when an unpredicted
outage occurs, and you are incapable to switch your system to its secondary power.
Occasional testing of your ATS guarantees that your emergency system is dependable.
Carelabs is manufacturing facilities, power plants, and industrial businesses first
choice when it comes to the electrical testing of ATS’s. Our technicians and engineers
are skilled on emergency systems, specifically transfer switches. With our staff’s
abundant experience and training in the field contributes as a definite recipe for
success. 

What is Done During Automatic Transfer Switch Testing?

Few of the steps in ATS testing incudes:

 Contact to pole resistance test,

 Settings and operations verifications
 Control device Examinations
 Manufacturer’s standards and specifications checks
 Calibration services
 Tap connections resistance measurements
 Verifying engine start sequence
 Time delay and retransfer functions checks
 Mechanical parts inspections
 Anchorage and groundings review for impairment or damage
 Corresponding parts are properly lubricated and clean of debris or contaminants and
many steps more.
 Automatic Transfer Switch Tests Includes mainly three steps. The visual inspection,
the electrical tests and the operational or functional tests:

Visual and Mechanical Inspection

 Verify mechanical and physical.

 Verify alignment, anchorage, required clearances and grounding.
 Verify the unit is clean.
 Verify appropriate lubrication on moving current-carrying parts and sliding surfaces.
 Verify that manual transfer warnings are attached and visible.
 Perform manual transfer operation.
 Check positive mechanical interlocking amid alternate and normal sources.

Electrical Tests

 With respect to ground execute insulation resistance tests on control wiring entirely.
 Perform a contact/pole-resistance test.
 Verify settings and operation of control devices.
 Calibrate and set all relays and timers.
 Check phasing, phase rotation and synchronized function as needed.
 Perform automatic transfer tests:
 Simulate loss of normal power.
 Return to normal power.
 Simulate loss of emergency power.
 Simulate all forms of single-phase conditions.

Verify correct operation and timing of the following functions

 Normal source voltage-sensing relays.

 Engine start sequence.
 Time delay upon transfer.
 Alternate source voltage-sensing relays.
 Automatic transfer operation.
 Interlocks and limit switch function.
 Time delay and retransfer upon normal power restoration.
 Engine cool down and shutdown feature.
 NFPA 110 has the following rules stated in terms of Automatic Transfer Switch
testing

1. Operational Inspection and Testing.

2. EPSSs, including all components, should be exercised under load at least monthly and
inspected weekly.
3. If the generator set is used for peak load shaving or for standby power, such use
should be recorded and should be allowed to be replaced for scheduled functioning and
testing of the generator set.
4. Transfer switches shall be operated monthly.
5. The periodic test of a transfer switch should constitute of electrically functioning the
transfer switch till the alternate position from the standard position and returning.

 How is Automatic Transfer Switch Testing Performed?

General Inspection

The inspection work should be conducted externally and internally on the transfer
switch.

External Inspection

 The transfer switch should be kept in good condition by performing a weekly overall
examination of the unit. This inspection must consist of inspecting for signs of excessive heat,
vibration damage, any level of deterioration, any leakage or contamination.
 Any accumulations of dirt or dust must be removed. Dirt, dust and any other
contaminants should always be removed from the outside and inside with a vacuum cleaner,
dry cloth or brush. One should not use compressed air to blow away contaminants and dirt.
This can result in debris being lodged in components resulting in damage to the switch.
 If the inspection exposes damaged or loose components contact a trained professional
to perform the repair work.
 Any worn, broken or missing external sections must be substituted with
manufacturer’s recommended components.
 Contact the local authorized distributor or dealer for the specific part number to
order.

Internal Inspection

 All power sources must be turned OFF afore any internal inspection.
 Verify to see if any external glitches found have disturbed internal components, while
opening the switch door.
 A trained service technician must be called to perform any service work. If any of the
following conditions are detected:
1. Dirt, dust, moisture and other contaminants accumulating on the surfaces of the unit
and components
2. Any signs of corrosion
3. Loose, missing or broken components
4. Deterioration of wiring or insulation due to cuts, abrasion or wear
5. Indications of overheating due such as melted plastic, discolored metal or burning odor
6. Any other evidence of damage, wear or malfunction of the transfer switch and its
components

 Only a trained technician must carry out internal service work and inspection on a
standby system that doesn’t permit power interruption in the course of required inspection.

Inspections beyond visual inspections

 When inspections are internal or more than just a visual inspection by the operator,
they should be performed by an authorized distributor or dealer under a scheduled
preventative maintenance agreement.
 Have an approved dealer or distributor replace or repair all damaged internal parts
with the manufacturer’s suggested components.

Disabling the Generator Set

 Accidental starting can lead to severe injury and even death

 Safety measure must be acquired chosen to prevent the generator set starting in the
course of maintenance by a remote start/stop switch, an ATS, or another remote start engine
command.
 Afore operating on the generator set or any of its attached parts, like the transfer
switch, detach the generator set as follows:

1. Move the generator master switch to the OFF-position

2. Disconnect the power to the battery charger
3. Remove battery cables starting with the negative (-) lead first

Transfer Switch Automatic Control System Testing

The transfer switch automatic control system should be tested monthly. The test
should verify the following:

 The necessary sequence of functioning happens when the load shifts to the emergency
source which results in primary source failure
 Verify indicator LEDs on the transfer switch operates properly
 Watch and eavesdrop for any unnecessary vibration or noise in the course of operation
 Finish the test once the switch transfers the load to the standby source and check the
foreseen sequence of operations happening as the transfer switch shifts the load to the
 primary power source and signals the generator set to turn OFF later or after a cool down
period.
 Check if the time delay in the OFF position works while load is transferred to the
standby source and transferred back to the favored source, in the case of systems with
programmed time transitions.

Functional Test

The transfer switch functional tests comprise of electrical and manual tests. A manual
operator handle is provided with the transfer switch for maintenance purposes only.
Before it is operated electrically, manual operation of the switch must be checked.
A usual method of an automatic transfer switch functional test for a standby
generator is explained below:

1. To begin the test, close the normal source circuit breaker. The switch controller will
light up the available LED when right voltage is sensed. If the source 1 stages the automatic
transfer switch mechanism, the LED at source 1 will turn on. Verify the phase to phase
voltages at the utility line terminals.
2. Start the engine generator after closing the alternate source breaker. The S2
(Alternate) Available LED will illuminate when correct voltage and frequency levels are
sensed. Turn OFF the engine generator after both sources have been validated and place the
generator’s start control in the automatic position.
3. Replicate a utility failure by opening the Source 1 i.e. the normal side breaker. The
delay to engine start timer begins its timing cycle. After the timer has completed its timing
cycle, the engine start contacts close to start the generator.
4. When generator frequency and voltage touch the fixed reinstate points the Source 2
available LED lights up. Simultaneously, the delay to generator timer begins its timing cycle.
When the time delay is completed the ATS will transfer to Generator, the S1 position LED
goes off, and the S2 position LED illuminates. Systems shall transfer in no less than 10 seconds
where failure of the equipment to perform could result in loss of human life or serious
injuries.
5. Reclose the Source 1 breaker to re transfer to the normal source. The delay to utility
timer begins its timing cycle. When the timer has completed its timing cycle, the ATS will
transfer. The S2 position LED goes off, and the S1 position LED illuminates.
6. The delay engine stop timer will begin its timing cycle. The generator runs unloaded
for the duration of this timing cycle. The generator will Turn OFF, once the timer finishes its
timing cycle, The S2 Available LED goes off. A minimum time delay of 5 minutes should be
provided for unloaded running of the EPS prior to shutdown to allow for engine cool down
(NFPA 110). The minimum 5-minute delay is not required on small air-cooled prime movers 15
kW or less.

Precautions

 Inspection and Cleaning Before doing any work on the transfer switch, de-energize all
sources of power.
 The switch must be checked for any moisture, dirt or dust and must be vacuumed or
wiped with a soft brush or dry cloth.
 DO NOT use a blower since debris may become lodged in the electrical and mechanical
components and cause damage.
 Any surface deposits must be removed with a clean cloth.

Benefits of Automatic Transfer Switch Testing

 Uninterrupted electrical supply

 Provides efficient switching to generator power
 Ensures safety
 Faster connection

WHAT IS LEAKAGE CURRENT TESTING

AND MEASURING, HOW IS IT DONE

Leakage current is the current that streams from either DC or AC circuit in an

equipment to the ground or framework and can be from the output or input. If the
equipment is not properly grounded, the current flows through other paths such as
the human body. This mighty also occur if the ground is incompetent or
is disrupted unintentionally or intentionally. 
The leakage current in an equipment flows when an unintentional electrical
connection occurs between the ground and an energized part or conductor. The
 ground may be the reference point of zero voltage, or the earth ground. Ideally, the
current leaking from the power supply unit should flow through the ground connection
and into the installations earth ground. 
The inadequacies in the materials that build up the elements like the
capacitors and semiconductors are the main cause of leakage current. These results in
to small current leaking or flowing through the through the dielectric, in the case of a
capacitor. 
This measurement is done during the electrical safety test of a device. The currents
flowing through the protective conductor or metallic parts of the earth are
measured.  

Why is Leakage Current Measurement Important? 

Electrical system usually consists of a grounding technique that offers shield against a
shock hazard if an insulation fault occurs. The grounding system comprises of a
grounding rod that connects the instrument to the earth. If ever a disastrous failure of
insulation between power line and conductive parts occur, the voltage will be pushed
to ground. The current that is created because of this event will flow, causing a
circuit breaker to open or a fuse to blow thus avoiding a shock hazard. 
Clearly, a shock hazard prevails if the earth or ground connection is intruded, either
accidentally or intentionally. The possibility for a shock might be larger than assumed
if there is case of leakage currents. Even in the scenario of no insulation failure,
intrusion of leakage currents streaming through the grounding rod still pose a threat
of electric shock to somebody meeting the ungrounded system and ground at the
same time. 
This is a huge concern when it comes to the field of medical applications, where a
patient might be the receiver of the electric shock. A shock can be even fatal if the
patient is weak or unconscious, or if the current flows to internal organs. The two-
layered insulation offered in non-grounded equipment ensures protection. The
security in this scenario is made sure because both coats of insulation are not likely to
collapse together. Nevertheless, the situations that leads to leakage currents still
exists and must be considered. 
Hence, how can you eradicate or reduce the outcomes of leakage current? Measure
the leakage current and then recognize the cause. Purpose of the Test is to measure
the amount of current that passes through a person when that person touches an
electrical product. 

What is Done During Leakage Current Measurement? 

 Meter particularly designed for determining leakage currents is utilised. 

 The current streaming through the ground rod is quantified by attaching the meter in
series with the earthing connection. 
 The ground connection is unsealed and the current streaming to the neutral side of the
power line is measured, for data processing equipment. 
 The meter may also be connected between the outputs of the power supply and
ground. 
 Test conditions consists of exchanging the neutral connections and ac line and turning
power switches on and off while monitoring the current. 
 The test is done once the system has warmed to typical functioning temperature. 
 The intention is to identify and measure the worst-case leakage current. 
 For very small leakage currents, the meter is substituted with a network comprising of
either a resistor or a resistor and capacitor grouping. 
 The voltage drop throughout the network is then quantified using an ac voltmeter. 
 Double-insulated equipment or ungrounded is verified by attaching the meter amid any
touchable conductive part and earth. 
 A copper foil of a specific dimension is placed on the housing, for a nonconductive
housings, and the current flowing from it to ground is determined. 

Type of Equipment  Maximum Leakage Current 

Class I  0.75mA for hand held devices 

  3.5mA for other devices 

Class II  0.25mA 

Class III  No hazardous voltages 

How is Leakage Current Measurement Performed? 

Direct Measurement 

Direct measurement has precision and a meter especially designed

for determining leakage currents is used. The current flowing in the ground conductor
is measured by connecting the meter in series with the grounding connection of the
device concerned.  
 Leakage current clamp meter is the most popular device used to measure leakage
current. They are like the clamp meters utilized for finding load currents but gives
considerably better results when quantifying currents less than 5mA. Generally, clamp
meters wouldn’t register such small currents. After we position the jaws of a clamp
meter around a conducting rod or wire, the current reading is taken, and the value
depends upon the intensity of the alternating electromagnetic field around the
conductor. The clamp meter will identify the magnetic field around conductors like a
wire armor cable, single core cable, a water pipe etc. The paired neutral and phase
conductors of a single-phase circuit, or all live conductors of a three-phase circuit. 
Testing different kinds of conductors: 

 When testing the grouped live conductors of a circuit, the magnetic fields produced by
the load currents cancel each other out. Any uneven current coming from the conductors to
ground is measured with a leakage clamp meter and must have a reading less than 0.1 mA. 
 If you performed an insulation test on a circuit that was powered down, the result
would be in the range of 50MΩ or further, because the insulation tester utilizes s a dc voltage
for checking, which do not consider the capacitive effect. 
 If you measured the same circuit loaded with office equipment, the result would be
significantly different due to the capacitance of the input filters on these devices. 
 When a lot of parts of equipment are functioning on a circuit, the result will be
collective, that is, the leakage current will be greater and could well be in the range of
milliamps. Adding new pieces of equipment to a circuit protected by a GFCI could trip the
GFCI. And as the value of leakage current differs based on how the equipment is functioning,
the GFCI may trip unintentionally. 
 When telecommunications equipment is present, the value of leakage indicated by a
clamp meter may be considerably more than that resulting from insulation impedance at 60
Hz because, telecommunications system usually consists of filters that generate functional
grounding currents and other gears that generates harmonics, etc. 

Measurement of Leakage Current to Ground 

 When the load is switched on, the leakage current measured includes leakage in load
equipment. If the leakage is adequately small with the load attached, 
 then circuit wiring leakage is even smaller. If circuit wiring leakage alone is required,
disconnect the load. 
 If you test single-phase circuits by clamping the phase and neutral conductor, the
obtained amount will be any current streaming to ground. 
 Test 3 phase circuits by fastening a clamp around all 3 phase conductors. If a neutral is
present, it must be clamped along with the phase conductors and the measured amount will
be any current flowing to ground. 

Measuring leakage current through the ground conductor 

 To quantity the sum of leakage streaming to the proposed earth connection, position
the clamp around the ground rod. 

Measuring leakage current to ground via unintentional paths to ground. 

 Clamping neutral/phase/ground all together recognizes uneven current that means
leakage at a passage or electrical panel via unintended pathways to ground. 
 If a connection to a water pipe or other electrical connections
occur, similar inequality might happen. 

Tracing the source of leakage current 

 This series of measurements identifies the overall leakage and the source. The first
measurement can be made on the main conductor to the panel. 
 Measurements 2 to 5 are made consequently to find out circuits carrying
the bigger amounts of leakage current. 

Leakage Current Measurement in Medical Devices 

The objective of the Leakage Current test is to verify that the electrical insulation
used to protect the user from a Risk of Shock is suitable for the application. Leakage
Current testing is used to verify that the product does not leak excessive current
when contacted by the user. For medical equipment, the current flowing to ground is
measured.

 Excessive leakage current can cause the heart to go into ventricular fibrillation
resulting in cardiac arrest which can lead to death. 
 Leakage current measurement levels depend on the amount of capacitance in the
products’ solid insulating materials. Different types and number of layers of an electrical
insulation results in varying amounts of inherent capacitance through the insulation. This
capacitance causes low amounts of current to “leak” through the insulation. 
 Leakage current levels can be significantly elevated in products that are subject to EMI
requirements (FCC, CE-EMC). These products must incorporate EMI filters on their incoming
mains power to provide clean power to sensitive electronics while also protecting from
radiating emissions back onto the power line. These filters incorporate capacitors to ground,
these capacitors can cause high leakage current when operating normally. If the product is for
professional use only, the standard may permit high leakage current with warning markings
for the user to insure the product is reliably grounded (so the user isn’t subjected to the high
leakage current). Otherwise, an isolation transformer must be added to power the product
thereby isolating the product from ground – which will almost eliminate leakage current to
ground. 

 Hipot Leakage Current Testers 

 The HIPOT test also called Dielectric Withstand Test is a routine test that is performed
in electrical production industry. This is a high voltage test that stresses the insulation of an
electrical product far 80 M.  
 If the insulation of product can withstand a much higher voltage for a given time, then
it can withstand normal voltage for its whole life.  
 The basic function of HIPOT tester is to monitor excessive leakage current to ground.  
 Hipot tester applies a high voltage across the insulation of device that is tested. This
is generally higher 1400 Volts to test a device that is planned to be operated on 220 Volts.  
 Terminals A and B are connected to supply voltage of 220 or 110, terminal C is
grounded, return lead is floating as shown here.  
 The device to be tested should be separated electrically from ground.  
 One lead from winding is connected to HV out probe and return lead to motor body.
This applies high voltage across winding and case.  
 If winding is short or weak at any point a current will stream to return lead and meter
will display that current.  
 All HIPOT testers have an over-current trip to  secure the tester itself. This is vital in
case if device is completely shorted to its body and extreme current flows upon application of
high voltage from HIPOT tester. 

Benefits of Leakage Current Measurement

Advantages of leakage current measurement are: 

 The device under test is not placed into service, and its polarity need not be
reversed  
 No stressing due to high switching current   

Leakage current can be a sign of the inefficiency of insulation on conductors. It is

achievable to trace the cause of leakage current with the help of a low current
leakage current clamp to interpret orderly measurements as needed. If required, this
allows you to re-allocate loads all around the installation in a better unbiased
manner. 

WHAT IS CAPACITOR BANK TESTING

AND WHY IS IT DONE
 Capacitor Bank is a combination of numerous capacitors of similar rating that are
joined in parallel or series with one another to collect electrical energy. The resulting
bank is then used to counteract or correct a power factor lag or phase shift in an AC
power supply. They can also be utilized in a DC power supply to step up the total
amount of stored energy or to step up the ripple current capacity of the power
supply.
Capacitor banks are generally used to 

 Power Factor Correction

 Reactive Power Compensation

Capacitors have the opposite effect to the inductive motors where it cancels out a
large current flow and thereby, this capacitor bank reduces your electricity bill. 

Why is Capacitor Bank Testing Done?

 Capacitors banks are an important aspect of your power system that provides correct
power factor correction. Power Factor Correction unit have various functioning
settings depending upon on the position they are installed. Moisture, time, harmonics
and temperature changes the power factor correction of capacitor banks. Already
installed capacitor banks, if not tested or unmaintained within specific time, becomes
incapable of functioning at their finest levels. With time, the operation of capacitors
can weaken, decreasing the power factor of your power system, resulting in power
factor loss.

What are Done During Capacitor Bank Testing?

For checking a capacitor bank, IEEE or ANSI standard is utilized. There are 3 types of
test done on capacitor banks. They are

 Design Tests or Type Tests

 Production Test or Routine Tests
 Field Tests or Pre-commissioning Tests

Design Tests or Type Tests of Capacitor Bank

When a new design of power capacitor is launched by a manufacturer, it to be tested
whether the new batch of capacitor comply the standard or not. Type tests or Design
tests aren’t done on single capacitor instead they are done on some casually chosen
capacitors to make sure accordance of the standard.
During launching of new design, once these design tests are performed, there is no
need of repeating these tests for any further batch of production until the design is
changed. Design tests or type tests are usually expensive or destructive.
The type tests Performed on Capacitor Bank are –

 High Voltage Impulse Withstand Test.

 Bushing Test.
 Thermal Stability Test.
 Radio Influence Voltage (RIV) Test.
 Voltage Decay Test.
 Short Circuit Discharge Test.

Routine Test of Capacitor Bank

Routine test is also referred as production tests. These tests should be performed on
each capacitor unit of a production batch to ensure performance parameter of
individual.
Short Time Over Voltage Test

In this test, a direct voltage of 4.3 times of rated rms voltage or alternating voltage of
2 times of rated rms voltage is applied to the bushing stands of capacitor unit. The
capacitor range must withstand any of these voltages for at least ten seconds. The
temperature of the unit during test should be maintained at 25 ± 5 Degree. In case of
three phase capacitor unit, if the three phase capacitor elements are connected in
star with neutral connected through a fourth bushing or through casing, the voltage
applied between phase terminals, would be √3 times of above mentioned voltages.
Same voltage as above would be applied across phase terminal and neutral terminal.

Terminal to Case Voltage Test

This test is only applicable where internal capacitor elements of a unit are isolated
from its casing. This makes sure the withstand capacity of over voltage of the
insulation offered between capacitor elements and metal casing. The test voltage is
applied between casing and bushing stand for 10 seconds. For the capacitor unit
having bushings of different BIL, this test is done based on lower BIL bushing.

Capacitance Test

This test is done to ensure that each of the capacitor unit in a batch or lot should give
not more than 110 % of its rated VAR during normal functioning within possible
temperature limit which is considered as ˚C. If the measurement is done at any
temperature other than 25˚C, then the meandered result should be calculated
according to 25˚C.

Leakage Test of Capacitor Units

This test is done to ensure that the limit is free from any leakage. In this test the test
unit is heated by an external oven, to force the insulating liquid to come out from the
casing if there is any leakage point. This test makes sure that all joints are tightened
and sealed correctly.

Discharge Resistor Test

This test is done on each capacitor unit to ensure that internal discharge device or
resistor is capable enough to discharge the capacitor unit from its initial residual
voltage to 50 V or less with in specified time limit. Initial residual voltage may be √2
times of rated rms voltage of the capacitor.
Loss Determination Test

This test is performed on each capacitor unit to demonstrate, the loss occurs in the
unit during operation is less than the maximum allowable loss of the unit.

Fuse Capability Test of Internal Fused Capacitor Unit

In this test the capacitor unit is first charged with direct voltage (DC) up to 1.7 times
of the rated rms voltage of the capacitor unit. Then this unit can discharge through a
gap situated as closely as possible without any additional impedance to the discharge
circuit. The capacitance of capacitor should be measured before application of
charging voltage and after discharging the unit. The variance of these 2
measurements should be smaller than the variance of capacitance when an internal
fuse element is activated.

Pre-commissioning or Installation Test of Capacitor Bank

When a capacitor bank is practically installed at site, there must be some specific
tests to be performed to ensure the connection of each unit and the bank are in order
and as per specifications.

Capacitance Measurement

To determine the capacitance of the bank as whole, a sensitive capacitance meter is

used, to make sure the connection of the bank is as per requirement. If the measured
value is not as calculated, there must be some wrong connection in the bank which to
be rectified. We should apply full rated voltage for determining capacitance of a
bank, instead of that only ten percent of rated voltage to find out the capacitance of
the unit. The formula of capacitance is Where, V is the applied voltage to the bank, I
is the supply current and ω = 377.7 which is a constant quality.

High Voltage Insulation Test

This test is done according to NBMA CP-1.

How is Capacitor Bank Testing Done?

 Carry Out an On-Site Risk Assessment

 Before doing this task any threats at the site should be assessed and identified with
proper control measures.
 If any hazards cannot be decreased or managed to a suitable limit, don’t continue with
the task and ask for assistance from your Supervisor.

All Work to be Done with Capacitor Bank De-energized

 All the tests should be carried out with the capacitor bank de-energized and
appropriate control measures in place to prevent inadvertent contact with adjacent live plant
or breaching exclusion zones.
 Issue a Test Permit and follow the requirements of P53 Operate the Network Process.
According to Substation Primary Plant and Secondary Systems Field Testing, safety risks
applicable to capacitors include:

1. Contact with high voltage at capacitor bank primary connections

2. Extreme fault current
3. Stored energy in charged capacitors

Carry Out Secondary Isolation

 Assess the necessities to perform secondary isolation of the protection systems.

 Consideration should be granted to the sensitivity of capacitor bank protection while
making this evaluation and the potential for a capacitor under test to inadvertently discharge
stored energy into a protection system.
 For majority of cases secondary isolation of the protection system would be necessary.

Record Plant Details

Record identification details of each capacitor unit

 Manufacturer’s name
 Manufacturer’s type description
 Manufacturer’s serial number
 Year of Manufacture
 Measured capacitance and rated Capacitance Cn as marked on the nameplate
 Serial number of each capacitor can
 Rated Output Qn
 Rated Voltage Un
 Rated Current In
 Temperature Category
 Visual Inspection of Capacitor Bank Condition

 Inspect the external surfaces and ensure the capacitor units and reactors are clean
and dry.
 Check that primary connections are correct.
 Check earthing to capacitor bank mounting frames and enclosure.

Measure Insulation Resistance

 Insulation resistance tests as listed below are to be applied for one-minute duration
each.
 Safety CTs/VTs attached to the bank star point must be detached for these tests.
 Where several components are connected in parallel, for example capacitor cans, it is
not necessary to obtain a separate insulation resistance measurement of each component.
 To make sure that capacitors being assessed have altered adequately to allocate
precise IR measurement make sure that the capacitor has been charged by the megger such
that there is less than a 5 % change in IR over a 1-minute period.

Measure Capacitance

 Measure the capacitance of each individual capacitor unit using a capacitance bridge.
The use of any test equipment is to be performed in accordance with the operating
instructions specific to the equipment being used.
 Note that tong type capacitance bridges can normally be used without disconnecting
the capacitor units from the bank.
 It is favored not to dettach the capacitor units for measurement to evade unintended
harm to the capacitor unit bushings.
 Note that the bushings have strictly specified maximum torque limits which must not
be exceeded during tightening of connections.
 On the other hand, an AC current source must be attached to insert into a capacitor
unit in series.
 The voltage measured across each unit from which the capacitance can be calculated
according to the formula:
C = I / (2 x Pi x f x V)
Where C = capacitance in farads. V = induced voltage in volts. I = injected current in amps. f
= frequency of injected current.
 The capacitance calculation must be done at a period when the temperature is steady
across the bank.
 Measure Reactance

 Where inrush limiting reactors or tuning reactors are fitted, measure the reactance of
the reactors.
 The favored technique is to insert a huge alternating current and determine the
voltage induced across the reactor, from which the reactance can be calculated according to
the formula:
Z=V/I
Where Z = reactance in ohms. V = induced voltage in volts. I = injected current in amps.
 This formula ignores the resistive component of the impedance, which is a valid
simplification for typical reactors (the Q of a typical air cored reactor exceeds 40.

Carry Out High Voltage Test

 High voltage AC and DC testing of capacitors is only necessary if demanded by the

owner and is usually only asked if there are manufacturing or batch issues to be solved.
 Alternatively, it may be required at the discretion of the commissioning engineer when
a de-commissioned bank is being returned to service. A capacitor shall withstand a DC Test
voltage applied for 10 seconds between the primary terminals.
 The voltage level to be applied is:
Utest = Un x 4.3 x 0.75
Where Utest = applied test voltage. Un = capacitor rated voltage.
 The capacitor shall also withstand a 1-minute power frequency withstand test of a test
voltage applied between the capacitor terminals and earth.

Check Balancing of Each Bank

 Perform checking of the balance of every bank by inserting the measured capacitance
amount into a proper balancing program.
 Where necessary swap cans to achieve acceptable balancing of the bank.

Carry Out Primary Injection

 Primary injection might be performed to verify functioning bank unit protection

schemes by bridging out the bank capacitor cans and using a low voltage current source to
inject through appropriate CTs.
 If primary injection is required to confirm that the capacitor bank balance is correct,
it should be carried out at a time when the temperature is relatively stable and uniform
across the bank.
 Employ a balanced three phase source into the input terminals of the bank and
determine:
o The voltage applied to each phase (phase to phase and phase to neutral).
o Each phase line current.
o The voltage of the capacitor bank star points relative to neutral.
o The voltage/current measured at the out of balance protection.
o The secondary current from each metering/protection CT core.
 Confirm that any out of balance current/voltage, when scaled from the primary
injection test voltage to actual rated voltage, is below the threshold required for an out of
balance alarm or trip to occur.

Complete Pre-commissioning Checklist

A capacitor bank being placed in service for the first time requires that the following
items are checked (if applicable) prior to energization:

 Check sheet metal work is free from transport damage and assembled correctly.
 Check that all permanently fixed panels are properly bolted in position.
 Check all door fittings are tight.
 Check door locks operate properly.
 Check overall appearance and paintwork is clean and free from scratch marks.
 Check all control cable terminations are correct and tight.
 Check capacitors are neat and free from breaks or leaks.
 Check that busbar connections have been torqued correctly.
 Check that capacitor bushing connections have been torqued correctly.
 Check earth switch operation.
 Check isolator operation.
 Check operation of discharge timers and electrical interlocking with control systems
and HV circuit breakers and switches capable of energizing the bank.
 Check operation of point on wave relays, including adaptive capability of the POW
relays.
 Ensure interlock system keys are provided.
 Check cubicle lighting operation.
 Check the heater operation.
 Check all fuses/links are in place.
 Check all CT secondary links are closed.
 Check external fences and gates.
 Check that all labels and nameplates are in position.
 Record asset management plant details for SAP/MIMS.
 Check operation of all control and protection functions.

Energize and Carry Out on Load Tests

 After energization save secondary currents and voltages on all protection and metering
secondary circuits, including residual, phase and out of balance measurements.
 Prove and record correct operation and adaptivity of point on wave switching devices.
Several test energizing may be necessary.
 Benefits of Capacitor Bank Testing

 Reduce line current of the system

 Improves voltage level of the load
 Reduce system Losses
 Improves power factor of the source current
 Reduce load of the alternator
 Reduce capital investment per megawatt of the Load.
 Reduce electricity bill

WHAT IS GROUND FAULT TESTING,

WHY IS IT IMPORTANT

A ground fault is any short circuit that outcomes in an unintentional connection amid
a ground and energized ungrounded phase conductor and ground. Ground faults are
the most common type of fault on power distribution systems. They are due to the
insulation failure or accidental grounding of an ungrounded phase conductor that
 causes the ungrounded phase conductor to meet ground. Unintentional grounding of a
phase conductor can occur when a small animal enters a piece of equipment and
contacts both an ungrounded phase conductor and the grounded enclosure. They
monitor that the current going out any one phase is coming back on another phase or
neutral. If current is going out on a phase but is coming back on the ground path a
ground fault has occurred. All systems with ground fault protection include:

 Current transformers to identify ground fault current(GFC)

 A relay or logic box to determine tripping current value and time
 An operating mechanism to trip the breaker or switch

Certain systems have a monitor panel indicating system status and a test panel for
generating a ground fault signal to test the breaker.

Why Testing Ground Fault Systems is Important?

According to National Electrical Code (NEC) sections 230-95 and 517-17 performance
testing is required. Around 16% of ground fault protection systems tested by NETA
comprises of components which are not installed properly, damaged components or
does not operate properly. Arcing ground faults can seriously damage distribution
equipment, causing fires, which damage facilities and endanger personnel. They also
cause extended downtime during system repair. Ground fault protection is the initial
step of shield. Once installed, ground fault protection systems stand by until needed
to protect services and feeders. However, if these systems malfunction when a ground
fault occurs, the distribution system and facility will be as damaged as if no systems
were installed. Ground fault systems must be fitted correctly and maintained and
tested periodically. An arcing ground fault of even small values spoil switchgear
before the main service overcurrent protection gets time to operate. A 480V solidly
grounded system possess enough voltage to support an arc between 1 phase and a
ground, but not adequate current to cause big main breaker or fuse to eradicate the
fault rapidly. The result of this is an arc that is like an electric weld, munching huge
values of metal during the time the breaker or fuse functions. A correctly installed
and functioning ground fault protection system will identify and eradicate the fault in
milliseconds, speedy enough to regulate damage to satisfactory levels.

Few Points to Remember

 Complete field acceptance testing as required by the NEC

 Inspect neutral main bonding connection
 Verify proper installation of sensor(s) and grounding connections
 Inject current through the current sensor and verify pickup and timing characteristics
of the relay
 Test operation with control voltage supply decreased to 277V as an alternative of 480V
 Verify functioning of exclusive features like zone interlocks

NEC Article 100 defines ground fault protection of equipment as, “A system
envisioned to give safety of equipment from harming line to ground fault currents by
functioning to bring about a detaching means to open whole ungrounded conductors
of the faulted circuit. This protection is offered at current levels smaller than those
needed to shield conductors from harm through the functioning of a supply circuit
overcurrent device.” Ground-Fault Sensing and Relaying Equipment requires that
manufacturers provide information sheets describing system testing instructions. As a
minimum, UL requires the following performance testing for manufacturers’ test
requirements:

 Have a trained personal examine the ground fault protection system to safeguard that
it was fixed properly according to manufacturer’s recommendations. – Verify that the location
of sensors and the polarity of their connections are correct.
 Detect system grounding points to ensure that no ground paths occur that would
sidestep the sensors.
 Test the ground fault protection system using either a simulated or actual controlled
ground fault to determine that the system settings are correct and that the system is
operating as intended.
 Record the results of the performance testing on the manufacturer-provided test
form.

In addition, NEMA Publication PB 2.2 requires the following for performance testing:

 Manufacturer’s installation and instruction literature should be reviewed and

understood prior to performance testing.
 Performance testing should follow manufacturer’s recommendations.
 Performance testing must be regulated to those tests that find out that the ground
fault system has been fixed properly and is functional.

What is Done During Testing of Ground Fault System?

There are two test methods for evaluating ground fault protection systems by using
simulated fault current or by high-current primary injection. These methods can be
applied to ground-fault relay systems, but to test a system with integral ground-fault
trip circuit breakers, only the high-current primary injection method can be utilized.
If the high-current test does not create necessary tripping, verify control power at
fuses, transformers and at relays. The ground fault relay systems can be tested by the
simulated fault current testing method plus a detailed visual inspection, if it is
suitable to the local inspection agencies. Or else, it will be essential to utilize the
high current primary injection test method.
 Simulated Fault Current Method

 A simulated fault current is created by a coil round a window type sensor or with the
help of a distinct test winding in the sensor.
 A secondary current in the sensor is created, when the monitor panel sends a small
current through the test winding, which the relay act in response to as if it were created by a
primary current of thousand six hundred amperes.
 In a similar method which can be utilized with any window type sensor providing a
ground fault relay, number of twists of wire are covered round the sensor core, like twenty
turns of #14 wire.
 A current is passed through the wire to simulate the ground-fault current, which is
approximately 125 percent of the pickup setting of the relay divided by the number of turns
 Testing with simulated fault current offers a way of explaining the functioning of the
relay, sensor and shunt trip and the sufficiency of the control power supply.
 GFP system must be checked to confirm. that neutral ground points are placed
properly with regard to sensors, that sensor polarities are correct when several are connected
in parallel, and that conductors which pass through a sensor window all run in the same
direction.
 The significance of adding simulated fault current testing with sufficient inspection is
highlighted when 1 understands that the first 5 items on the Checklist are problems that
cannot be identified by just simulated fault current testing only.

High-Current Primary Injection Method

 The high-current injection test method might be used to test ground fault protection
systems with integral ground fault trips on circuit breakers or ground fault relays.
 It is an alternative to simulated fault current testing along with inspection in the case
of relays.
 Integral ground fault protection in circuit breakers can be system tested only with the
help of high-current injection test method.
 No. TAK-TS2, which is utilized along with AKR-SST/ECS trips can be used to determine
the internal electronics of these breakers.
 High-current testing of ground fault protection systems comprises of injecting full-
scale current into the equipment phase and neutral conductors to replicate the ground fault
current flow under various states.
 The testing gear needed consists of a high-current supply sufficient enough to deliver
up to thousands of amperes or more at 2.5V, or similar.
 With the help of smaller ground fault current pickup settings on relays and breakers or
switches, the current necessary to trip can be maintained to a minimum, such as 400 or 300
amperes or less.
 If inspection experts needs tests at complete ground fault protection setting, a current
supply sufficient enough to deliver thousand two hundred amperes or more may be necessary.
 Connect the current supply and jumpers between the points indicated in the tables
accompanying the diagrams.
 Ground fault protection can be supplied for three wires and four wire gear supplied
from a solidly grounded four wire supply.
 This is necessary to offer a low-impedance ground fault current return path to the
neutral to make sure functioning of the overcurrent device is correct.

  How is Ground Fault Test Performed?

Visual and Mechanical Inspection

 Compare nameplate data of equipment with specifications and drawings.

 Inspect the components for damage and errors in polarity or conductor routing:
 Verify that ground connection is made ahead of the neutral disconnect link and on the
line side of any ground fault sensor.
 Verify that the neutral sensors relate to correct polarity on both primary and
secondary.
 Verify that all phase conductors and the neutral pass through the sensor in the same
direction for zero sequence systems.
 Check that grounding conductor does not pass through the 0 sequence sensors.
 Verify that the grounded conductor is solidly grounded.
 Inspect bolted electrical connections for high resistance using one of the following
methods:
 Use of low-resistance ohmmeter in accordance with Section 7.14.2.
 Check stiffness of reachable bolted electrical connections by calibrated torque wrench
method according to manufacturer’s published data.
 Perform thermographic survey.
 Verify correct operation of all functions of the self-test panel.
 Verify that the control power transformer has adequate capacity for the system.
 Set time-delay and pickup settings according to the settings given in the owner’s
specifications. As asked by NFPA, record suitable functional and test sequences.

Electrical Tests

 Perform resistance measurements through bolted connections with a low-resistance

ohmmeter, if applicable.
 Measure the system neutral-to-ground insulation resistance with the neutral
disconnect link temporarily removed. Replace neutral disconnect link after testing.
 Execute insulation resistance test on whole control wiring in connection with ground.
Employed potential should be 500 V dc for 300V rated cable and 1000V dc for 600V rated
cable. Test duration shall be one minute. Follow manufacturer’s recommendation, for units
that cannot tolerate the applied voltage or units with solid state components.
 Perform the following pickup tests using primary injection:
1. Verify that the relay does not operate at 90 percent of the pickup setting.
2. Verify pickup is less than 125 percent of setting or 1200 amperes, whichever is
smaller.

 Verify right polarities by employing current to each phase neutral current transformer
pair, for summation type systems, utilizing phase and neutral current transformers.

This test also applies to molded-case breakers utilizing an external neutral current
transformer.

 Relay must function when current direction is constant relative to polarity marks in
the 2 current transformers.
 Relay should not function when current course is contrasting to polarity marks in the 2
current transformers.
 Quantify relay time-delay at 140% or greater of pickup.
 Check decreased control voltage tripping ability is 81 percent for dc systems and 56
percent for ac systems.
 Verify blocking capability of zone interlock systems.

Test Values

 Match up bolted connection resistances to values of same connections.

 Bolt-torque levels should be in accordance with Table 100.12 unless otherwise
specified by manufacturer.
 Millivolt drop values or Microhm should not cross the high-level limit of the normal
range as stated in the manufacturer’s published data. Investigate any values which stray from
similar connections by more than fifty percent of the lowest value, if manufacturer’s data is
not accessible,
 System neutral to ground insulation should be at least 1.0 megohm.
 Insulation-resistance values for control wiring shall be a minimum of 2.0 megohms.
 Relay timing should be matching with manufacturer’s specifications but must be
slower than 1 second at three thousand amperes.

WHAT IS CIRCUIT BREAKER TESTING

AND HOW IS IT DONE
 Circuit Breaker Testing is utilised to test the operation of each switching systems and
the programming of the entire tripping structure. Circuit Breaker Testing is essential
to ensure the safe and reliable performance of this key link in the power asset chain.
Circuit breakers perform three main tasks:

 They should conduct the current as efficiently as achievable, when closed.

 When open, they must insulate the contacts from one another as effectively as
possible.
 In the event of a malfunction, they must disconnect the fault current as quickly and
reliably as possible, thereby protecting all subsequent equipment.

Performing circuit breaker testing is more challenging with comparison to other

electrical components like transformer as the short circuit current is greater.  In the
US market and regions of frequent earthquakes, the most popular high-voltage circuit
breakers are “dead tank” units, whereas in central Europe “live tank” breakers are
standard. Elsewhere both circuit breaker types are obtainable.

Why is Testing Circuit Breaker Important?

A circuit breaker might stay idle years, but if a malfunction occurs it has to detach
fault currents of huge kiloamps gradually within a few milliseconds. Major errors that
happen on circuit breakers are incorrect behavior, short circuits in the coils,
damage/wear to the mechanical connections or the insulation material. Therefore,
 circuit breakers need to be regularly and carefully tested. Circuit breakers perform a
vital role in protecting expensive equipment from damage through faults i.e.
connecting and disconnecting the electrical power in a reliable way; this requires
proving their reliability with on field tests during installation and with regular
maintenance tests during its lifetime to prevent costly failures and problems that
could even compromising the safety of the substation. Testing the performance of
your circuit breakers regularly is therefore an essential and cost-effective part of any
maintenance strategy. Circuit breaker testing particularly concentrates on obtaining
motion and time values on the units. However, our testing solutions have
revolutionized circuit breaker testing. Performing the tests without use of the station
battery greatly increases safety throughout the testing process.  

What are the Steps in Circuit Breaker Testing?

Type Tests of circuit breaker

Type tests are organised with the aim of proving the abilities and making sure the
rated characteristic of the circuit breaker are exact. Such tests are conducted in the
specially built testing laboratory.

1. Mechanical Test– It is mechanical ability type test involving the repeated opening and
closing of the breaker. A circuit breaker must close and open at proper speed and do its
allocated job and function without any failure.
2. Thermal Test– Thermal tests are carried out to check the thermal behavior of the
circuit breakers. Due to the streaming of rated current through its pole in a rated condition,
the breaker under test undergoes steady-state temperature rises. The temperature rise for
rated current should not exceed 40° for current less than 800A normal current and 50° for
normal value of current 800A and above.
3. Dielectric Test– These tests are performed to check power frequency and impulse
voltage withstand capacity. Power frequency tests are kept on a new circuit breaker; the test
voltage changes with a circuit breaker rated voltage. In impulse tests, impulse voltage of
particular value is employed to the breaker. For outdoor circuit dry and wet tests are
conducted.
4. Short -Circuit Test– Circuit breakers are subjected to sudden short-circuits in short-
circuit test laboratories, and oscillograms are taken to know the behaviour of the circuit
breakers at the time of switching in, during contact breaking and after the arc extinction.
The oscillograms are studied with particular reference to the making and breaking currents,
both symmetrical and asymmetrical restriking voltages, and switchgear is sometimes tested at
rated conditions.

 Routine Tests of a Circuit Breaker

Routine tests are done as per references of standards of Indian Engineering Service
and Indian Standards. These tests are performed on the manufacturers’ premises.
Routine tests confirm the proper functioning of the circuit breaker. The routine tests
confirm the proper functioning of the circuit breaker. Routine testing doesn’t
necessarily include complex gear in order to ensure that a circuit breaker is
functional.  Some guidelines and recommendations for these tests include routine
maintenance and verifying that that circuit breaker performance is in line with
manufacture’s calibration curves.  It is crucial that these tests are performed under
stable conditions at suitable temperature so that there are no variations in the data. 
Some of the tests are listed below.

Preventative Maintenance of Circuit Breaker, Inspection, and Testing

Preventative maintenance depend operating conditions for circuit breakers.  Primary

inspections of CB (circuit breakers) will look at particulate matter that’s
contaminating the inner workings of the CB.  Accumulation of particulates can
generally be disposed of by flipping the lathe on the breaker “Off” and “On” switch to
clear away the accumulated dust

Circuit Breaker Trip Test

By analysing the current consumed by the trip coil during the circuit breaker’s
operation, it is possible to determine whether there are mechanical or electrical
issues present. In many cases, such issues can be localised to aid in finding the root
cause. Optionally, monitoring the tripping supply’s voltage during the operation can
detect issues arising with tripping batteries.

Insulation Resistance Test

For individual breaker resistance testing, load and line conductors should be
preferably disconnected. If not detached the test values will also involve the
characteristics of the connected circuit.  Resistance testing is crucial for verifying
that the insulating material which makes up the molded cases breakers are
performing correctly.  In order to test for insulation resistance, an instrument known
as a megger is used. A megger instrument applies a known DC voltage to a given wire
for a given period of time in order to test the resistance within the insulation on that
particular wire or winding.  It is vital that voltage is employed as the resistance
checked with an ohmmeter may differ when there are no report of potential
differences.  It should also be noted that if you apply a voltage that is too high for
that insulation to withstand, then you could potentially damage the insulation.
Connection Tests

Connection testing is important to make sure that an appropriate electrical

connection is available and to recognise traces of overheating denoted by colour
difference.  It is important that electrical connections are properly installed to the CB
to prevent and reduce overheating.

Contact Resistance Test

Normal wear and tear of contacts within the CB emerges after extended usage.  An
easy method to identify traces of weakening within the circuit breaker is to quantify
the resistance across every pole of the breaker. Indications of abnormal conditions
within the CB such as erosion and contamination of contacts are evident if there are
excessive millivolt drops across the breaker.  The contact resistance test is important
in finding out if or not a circuit breaker is still apt for functioning.

Overload Tripping Test

Overload tripping components of CBs can be tested by inputting 300% of the breaker
rating into each pole of the circuit breaker to determine that it will open
automatically.  The motive of this is to make sure that the circuit breaker will
operate or not.  Refer to NETA standards for trip times that are acceptable for the
overload tripping test.  When trying to find out tripping characteristics, it is advisable
to consult with manufacturer’s manuals.

Instantaneous Magnetic Tripping

In routine tests, it is relevant to find out that the magnetic feature is functional and
will trip the circuit breaker instead of finding the precise value at which the
instantaneous magnetic feature functions.

How Testing of Circuit Breaker is Performed?

Different circuit breaker test equipment are used to check the operation and
condition of circuit breakers on the power systems. How to test a circuit breaker
involves many different test techniques and type of testers. This will define how to
test a circuit breaker through different testing tools to be applied to check the
equipment under a range of conditions or operation types. Discover how to test a
circuit breaker with the different test sets that you can need.
 Testing with Different Equipment:

To consider how to test a circuit breaker, it is required a deep knowledge of the

breaker itself:

 How it works
 Its tolerances,
 Reference values of previous tests,
 Initial values with which to compare the actual results, sometimes defined by a rated
timing graph,
 Established settings or initial features given by manufacturer

In this sense, how to test a circuit breaker becomes a trending analysis since test
results are not always definitive but have meaning just when compared to previous
data or results.

Testing with Circuit Breaker Analyzer

The timing tests of the different open and close operations of the breaker is an
efficient way of how to test a circuit breaker, analyzing not only the trip times but
also the essential synchronism of the poles in the different operations. This define
how to test a circuit breaker through different simulations of its operation, which can
be directly commanded from the circuit breaker analyzer, or initiated by an external
signal, checking the opening or closing time of each pole, in single or combined
operations, and checking the possible difference between poles or mismatch time
which may lead to a dangerous lack of synchronism. How to test a circuit breaker with
a circuit breaker analyzer depends also on the type of possible problems to be
confirmed, which leads to check other features such as the possible bouncing, the
proper performance of the pre-insertion resistances, the coils condition, and the
mechanical analysis through contact travel speed and acceleration data with the use
of the appropriate transducers.

Testing with a Micro-ohmmeter

Circuit breakers generally bear a huge value of current. Greater contact resistance
cause greater losses, low current carrying capability and threatening hot spots in the
breaker, so that the resistance testing with micro-ohmmeters are other way of how to
test a circuit breaker for identifying and avoiding upcoming issues. How to test a
circuit breaker with a micro-ohmmeter requires also reliable measurements and a
wide injection range with high power that enables for longer test leads, less
connections problems, and more accurate measurements.
 Testing with a High Current Primary Injection Tester

The analysis of the tripping time characteristics of LV circuit breakers and molded-
case circuit breakers is performed using high current injection, as the way to check
the entire functionality. How to test a circuit breaker of this type depends on its
maximum rated current, the trip protection settings and the inverse curve types
which will define the overload and short-circuit trip pickup levels and time delays; all
these features must be checked with the appropriate primary injection test set with
the capacity to simulate the corresponding high current faults required and capture
the answer of the breaker. A system which be easily upgraded in power capacity
enables how to test a circuit breaker in the different possible situations and range of
breakers; how to test a circuit breaker of this kind also needs a bendable design of
the test set to fruitfully attain the certain large current job, and a design that create
possible to position it nearer to the breaker, and so decreasing the power needed
with smaller test leads; this is the case of the Raptor System, a modular and flexible
primary injection system which easily and quickly adapts its power capacity to the
several high currents ratings of the different circuit breakers.

Benefits of Circuit Breaker Testing

 Quick and easy to perform on site

 Circuits can be tested on or off load
 Tests performance of whole tripping cycle
 Tests overall timing of tripping system
 Identifies need for maintenance
 Part of a comprehensive diagnostic maintenance program
 Find early indications of possible problems
 Avoid issues other than pick up pieces
 Build up a test record database for trending
 Pick out the bad actors

WHAT IS SOIL RESISTIVITY TEST AND

HOW IS THE TESTING DONE
The resistance of an earth electrode is related to the resistivity of the soil in which it
is placed and driven, and thus soil resistivity calculations and measurements is a
crucial aspect when designing earthing installations.
The property of resistivity can be defined for any material and is done so by the
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), which publishes standards for
testing and measurement. When applied to soil, resistivity is an indication of a given
soil’s ability to carry electric current.
The flow of electricity in the soil is largely electrolytic, determined by the transport
of ions dissolved in moisture. An awareness of soil resistivity at the determined
location and how it varies with various factors such as temperature, depth, moisture
content etc. gives us an understanding of how the wanted earth resistance value
should be obtained and retained over the lifespan of the installation with least cost
and trouble.

Why Testing the Soil Resistivity Important?

A major aim of grounding system is to set up a shared reference potential for the
building structure, power supply system, electrical conduits, plant steelwork, and the
instrumentation system. To achieve this objective, a suitable low resistance
 connection to earth is desirable. However, this is often difficult to achieve and
depends on a number of factors:

 Soil resistivity
 Stratification
 Size and type of electrode used
 Deepness to which the electrode is covered
 Dampness and chemical composition of the soil

The purposes of soil resistivity testing is:

 To obtain a set of measurements which may be interpreted to yield an equivalent

model for the electrical performance of the earth, as seen by the particular earthing system.
 Geophysical surveys are performed using these values as an assistance in finding depth
to bedrock, core locations and other geological phenomena.
 The degree of corrosion in underground pipelines is determined. A drop in resistivity is
proportional to an indent in corrosion in subversive pipelines.

Soil resistivity influences the plan of an earthing system absolutely and is the major
factor that decides the resistance to earth of a grounding system. Thus before
designing and installing a new grounding system, the determined location should be
tested to find out the soil’s resistivity.

Type of Soil or Water Typical Resistivity Ωm Usual Limit Ωm

Sea water 2 0.1 to 10

Clay 40 8 to 70

Ground well & spring water 50 10 to 150

Clay & sand mixtures 100 4 to 300

Shale, slates, sandstone etc. 120 10 to 100

Peat, loam & mud 150 5 to 250

Lake & brook water 250 100 to 400

 Sand 2000 200 to 3000

Moraine gravel 3000 40 to 10000

Ridge gravel 15000 3000 to 30000

Solid granite 25000 10000 to 50000

Ice 100000 10000 to 100000

What is Done During the Testing of Soil Resistivity?

Soil Resistivity varies widely with following factors:

 Type of earth
 Stratification
 Moisture content; resistivity may fall rapidly as the moisture content is increased
 Temperature
 Chemical composition and concentration of dissolved salt.
 Presence of metal and concrete pipes, tanks, large slabs.
 Topography

The results, if adequate investigation is not made prior to the test, or the test is not
correctly undertaken, may be incorrect or misleading. To overcome these problems,
the following data gathering and testing guidelines are suggested:

 An initial research phase is required to provide adequate background, upon which to

determine the testing program, and against which the results may be interpreted.
 Data related to nearby metallic structures, as well as the geological, geographical and
meteorological nature of the area is very useful. For instance the geological data regarding
strata types and thicknesses will give an indication of the water retention properties of the
upper layers and also the variation in resistivity to be expected due to water content.
 By matching new rainfall data with seasonal average, minimum and maximum for the
location it can be determined whether the results are accurate or not.
 Test Method Factors such as maximum probe depths, lengths of cables required,
efficiency of the measuring technique, cost and ease of interpretation of the data need to be
considered, when selecting the test type.

Note: Temperature and moisture content both become more stable as distance below
the surface of the earth increases. So, to be operative through the entire year, a
grounding system should be fixed as deep as possible.
 Following are the steps usually performed during soil resistivity testing:
Test Method
Factors such as maximum probe depths, lengths of cables required, efficiency of the
measuring technique, cost (determined by the time and the size of the survey crew)
and ease of interpretation of the data need to be considered, when selecting the test
type. Three common test types are

 Wenner Array: The Wenner array is the least efficient from an operational
perspective. It requires the longest cable layout, largest electrode spreads and for large
spacings one person per electrode is necessary to complete the survey in a reasonable time.
As all 4 electrodes are shifted after every analysis, the Wenner Array is most vulnerable to
lateral variations.
 Schlumberger Array: Manpower is hugely utilised with the Schlumberger array as for
each move of the inner electrodes, the outer electrodes are moved four or five times. The
decrease in the number of electrode shifts also decreases the consequence of lateral
variation on end outcomes. Considerable time saving can be achieved by using the reciprocity
theorem with the Schlumberger array when contact resistance is a problem.
 Driven Rod Method: The driven rod method (or Three Pin or Fall-of-Potential Method)
is normally suitable for use in circumstances such as transmission line structure earths, or
areas of difficult terrain, because of: the shallow penetration that can be achieved in
practical situations, the very localised measurement area, and the inaccuracies encountered
in two layer soil conditions.

Traverse Locations.
Soil resistivity can differ considerably both from 1 location to another and depth at a
site, and single soil resistivity quantity is generally insufficient. To get an improved
image of soil resistivity difference, it is sensible to perform a thorough survey. A Line
Traverse survey is inexpensive and easy to find differences in soil resistivity at a
location and can give considerable money savings, in terms of labour and material,
when trying to obtain the necessary resistance value.
Spacing Range.
The limit of spacing determined involves précises close probe spacings i.e. less than
1m, which are necessary to find out the upper layer resistivity, utilised in quantifying
the touch and step voltages. Bigger spacings are utilised in quantification of grid
impedance and remote voltage gradients. Calculations at huge spacings usually
provide significant problems and they are vital if the bottom layer is of bigger
resistivity, i.e. ρ2 > ρ1. In such cases considerable error is introduced if a realistic
value of ρ2 is not measured due to insufficient spacing.

Practical Testing Recommendations.

 It has been found that special care is required when testing to:
 Eliminate mutual coupling or interference due to leads parallel to power lines.
 Ensure the instrumentation and set up is adequate
 Undertake operational checks for accuracy
 Reduce contact resistance
 Instruct staff to use finer test spacing in areas showing sharp changes
 Plot test results immediately during testing to identify such problem areas

How is Soil Resistivity Testing Performed?

This test requires the user to place four equally spaced auxiliary probes into the earth
to determine the actual soil resistance, traditionally in ohms-cm or ohm-m. This test
must take place around the entire area to determine the soil value at all locations.
This test is done at different spacing, 5 to 40 feet, to determine the resistance value
at various depths. This knowledge will aid in the design and implementation of the
correct ground system to meet the particular site requirements. Following are the
steps done in measuring soil resistivity:

 4 test rods are evenly placed apart in a straight line and are hammered into the
ground to be reviewed to a deepness of not greater than one by twentieth of the distance
between the neighbouring rods.
 An earth resistance tester is connected to these four stakes.
 The DC test option on the tester is then selected and performed, and the resistance
figure R recorded.
 The soil resistivity level r in ohms/cm is then found out using the formula:
o r = 2 ρaR
o where: R = the resistance figure (in ohms), a = the separation of the test
stakes, in metres.

WHAT IS ELECTRIC MOTOR TESTING

AND WHY IS IT DONE
Electrical maintenance programs are designed to increase equipment promptness and
uptime while decreasing capital operating cost. Electric Motor Testing is usually the
first thing to be sacrificed when cutting back on operational expenses. But smart
companies, understands that without proper maintenance programs, there is billions
of dollars of lost revenue through increased motor repair costs, downtime, and waste
in industrial and commercial companies.

Why is Electric Motor Testing Done?

After bearing failure, electrical faults are the most common mode of motor failure, so
in addition, a properly planned electrical testing scheme is important for making sure
of the plant reliability. The Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) conducted a
survey which brought into the light that, 48% of motor failures are because of
electrical failures. The 48% can be again divided into rotor problems (12%) and
winding problems (36%). The other 52% of failures are mechanical faults.
Many diagnostic tools, such as clamp-on ammeters, temperature sensors, a Megger or
oscilloscope, can help illuminate these issues.
 Winding defects occurs due to contamination, ageing of insulation, thermal overload,
power surges, damaged wire/materials, and other causes. They start as energy
crossing an insulation fault like moisture, which sets apart at least one turn. This
creates extra stress and increase in temperature across the fault, which increases
until the winding fails.

Some of the winding faults are:

 Between turns in a coil

 Between coils in a phase
 Between coils in different phases
 Between a coil or phase and ground

Fault finding of at least one of the above can save your facility countless hours of shut
down and numerous dollars in savings.

What is Done During Electric Motor Testing?

There are various kinds of testing done on motor. They are: 

Electric Motor Impulse Testing

Electric Motor impulse testing is an integral part of predictive maintenance of
electrical motors. Below are few questions that helps in explaining the influence of
extensive impulse testing on a motor.

 Can impulse testing damage healthy or deteriorated insulation?

 Can DC Resistance, Inductance, Megger or HiPot tests diagnose weak turn-to-turn
insulation?
 After failing an impulse test, are motor with weak insulation able to operate?
 Are motors with a turn-turn short able to perform continued function?

This was accomplished by putting a low voltage motor through extensive testing
rigors, until inducing a failure. Following the failure, additional testing investigated
the possible deteriorating effects on turn-turn insulation due to impulse testing
beyond the motor’s dielectric breakdown. NOTE: This paper was edited from the
original version of the IEEE paper published in 2003.
Electric Motor Rotation Testing
Check for fan or pump motor rotation when testing offline with the MCE. Fans may
continue to slowly rotate due to drafting in the Plenum. Pumps that are attached to a
shared header might remain rotating if other pumps attached to the header are
functioning. This will adversely affect the Standard Test results, possibly creating
higher than normal resistive and inductive imbalances.
Wound Rotor Electric Motor Testing
Wound rotor motors have a three-phase winding wound on the rotor which is
connected to three phases of start-up resistors to provide current and speed control
on start-up. Failed components in the resistor bank are common and often overlooked
when troubleshooting. These damages can have major influence on the complete
functioning of the motor and must be provided significant attention when
troubleshooting these motors.
Electric Motor Insulation Resistance Testing
Electric motor insulation exhibits a negative temperature coefficient, meaning as
temperature increases, resistance decreases. This will make you certain that
insulation resistance of a de-energized motor will reduce after commencing the
motor. However, most often the resistance will initially increase after running due to
moisture being evaporated by the increasing temperature of the windings. The
standard IEEE43 on insulation resistance testing needs a temperature rectification to
forty degrees Celsius, which could instantly turn suitable measured resistance
readings into disappointingly low rectified resistance readings. Before sending a motor
to be renovated, consider space heaters.
Meg-ohm Test
The meg-ohm test has long been the tool of choice for most engineers, and this
simple test is often the only electrical test performed on a motor. However, while the
meg-ohm test has a valid role to play, it is simply not capable of detecting all the
likely faults within a motor’s winding.
PC tests
 Modern test equipment utilises PC control to provide automatic testing and fault
diagnosis, thus removing the responsibility on the operator to interpret the results.
The equipment can detect micro arcs, and to stop the test automatically. Database
software permits resources to be saved with all test outputs, so that a practise can be
built up with time, preferably from the inauguration of first-hand motor. Automated
testing also helps remove operator error, inconsistency created by different operators
applying different parameters and the possibility of the operator applying over-
voltage to the motor. The latest testers combine all static electrical tests within one
portable device, which also can create professional test reports.
Static or Insulation Testing
It is performed with the motor disconnected from the power supply. It is particularly
done from the motor control cabinet and must be performed in a predetermined test
sequence.
Winding Resistance Test
It will highlight dead shorts, loose connections and open circuits. Such tests must be
performed with accurate equipment, which can measure down to 0.001 ohm. It is
extremely important to correct the resistance values to a constant temperature,
typically 20 degrees Celsius. The motor temperature should be quantified as precisely
as achievable, and the copper temperature should be utilised wherever possible. A
motor that has been recently operating is very unlikely to be at ambient temperature,
 so the use of ambient temperatures should be avoided. Upon conclusion of the test,
the one imbalance between the phase-to-phase readings are quantified.
DC Step Voltage Test
It is typically performed at twice line voltage plus 1000 volts. The voltage is increased
in a series of steps, and the leakage current is plotted. Effective insulation to earth
will denote a linear plot, whereas a non-linear plot will indicate an insulation
deterioration at that voltage where the leakage current instantly amplified. The step
voltage test provides a great deal more information than the basic DC hipot test.
DC Hipot Test
Simply applies a voltage, measures leakage current and calculates meg-ohms. If the
meg-ohms are greater than the acknowledged smallest estimate, the motor passes.
Even if there is an area of damaged insulation which causes a lower reading of meg-
ohms, if that value is higher than the minimum accepted value, it will still pass.
Surge Test
This test is used to verify the turn-to-turn, coil-to-coil and phase-to- phase insulation
condition and is typically performed at twice line voltage plus 1000 volts. It can
identify dead shorts, frail insulation, unbalances and loose connections caused by
incorrect winding. It works by injecting high voltage pulses into each phase, creating
a potential difference between one turn and the next. The resulting sine waves from
every phase must equal 1 another.
The above-mentioned tests are offline tests.
Dynamic Motor Testing or online Testing
A more recent addition to electrical testing technologies, this involves measuring the
voltage and current of the motor’s three phases, while the motor is functioning in its
usual setting, and quantifying a host of data related to, the motor, the power supply
and the load. Both electrical and mechanical issues can be identified.
Power quality values, including voltage level, unbalance and distortion are
determined and compared to industry standards. Bad power quality can point to rise
in temperature within motors, and as heat is the greatest enemy of insulation power
quality problems must be determined and rectified where possible.

The Recommended Off-line in-Service Electric Motor Tests are

 Stator winding resistive imbalance

 Stator winding insulation resistance (Meg-Ohm checks)
 Polarization Index (PI)
 Step Voltage test
 Surge test
 The Recommended Spare Electric Motor Tests are

 Stator winding resistive imbalance

 Stator winding insulation resistance (Meg-Ohm checks)
 Polarization Index (PI)
 Step Voltage test
 Surge test

The Recommended New/Refurbished Electric Motor Tests are

 Stator winding resistive imbalance

 Stator winding insulation resistance (Meg-Ohm checks)
 Polarization Index (PI)
 Step Voltage test
 Surge test

How is Motor Testing Done?

Three Phase

 Make sure the link for power supply is in decent state. Verify the connection bar for
terminal (U, V, W). Connection type – STAR OR DELTA.
 Confirm the power supply VOLTAGE for electric motor. 230/400.
 With the help of multimeter, verify the continuity of winding from phase-to-phase (U
to V, V to W, W to U). Every phase-to-phase should have a steadiness if winding is OK.
 Verify the motor winding reading in ohms utilising ohmmeter or multimeter for phase-
to-phase terminal (U to V, V to W, W to U). The ohms reading for each winding must be the
same (or nearly the same).
 Insulation resistance of motor winding using Insulation tester meter set to the 500 Volt
scale (1000v DC)

1. Verify from phase-to-phase (U to V, V to W, W to U) and

2. Check from phase to earthing (U to E, V to E, W to E). Minimum test value of the
electric motor is 1 Meg Ohm (1 MΩ).

 With the motor running, check the running amps of the motor using Clamp on meter.
 Match up to the full load current on the name plate of motor.
 After the completion of every step choose the condition of electrical motor either
NEED TO REPAIRE or OK
 Single Phase

 Utilising ohmmeter or multimeter, verify the motor winding readings in ohms. (C to S,

C to R, S to R). The reading for start to run should be equal to C to S + C to R.
 Correct electrical terminal identification: There are three terminal connections on a
hermetically sealed motor compressor and are as follows:

1. Common (C)
2. Start (S)
3. Run (R)

 To determine the proper terminal, link these processes applies:

 The highest resistance reading is between the start and run terminals
 The middle resistance reading is between the start and common terminals.
 The lowest resistance reading is between the run and common terminals.
 Utilising Insulation tester meter set to the 500 Volt scale insulation resistance of motor
winding can be found. Check from windings to earth (C to E, S to E, R to E). Minimum test
value of the electric motor is 1 Meg Ohm (1 MΩ).
 Keeping the motor running, verify the running amps of the motor utilising a Clamp on
meter.
 Compare to the FLA on the name plate of motor.
 If every step is completed – decide the condition of the electrical motor: OK or NEED
TO REPAIR.

All Types

 Check the appearance of the motor. Verify for body deterioration or damage to the
cooling fan blade or shaft.
 Manually rotate the shaft to check the bearing condition. Check for free & smooth
rotation.
 Note the motor data from the motor NAME PLATE.
 Earth Continuity: Use your ohmmeter to verify the resistance between earth and
motor frame is less than 0.5 Ω.
 Power supply, 415 v between Ll to L2, L3 to L1 and L2 to L3.

Benefits of Motor Testing

 Increase up-time
 Save money
 Conserve energy
 Improve safety
 WHAT IS GROUNDING SYSTEM DESIGN
AND PLANNING, HOW IS IT DONE

Grounding System Design and Planning starts with a site analysis, collection of
geographic data, and soil resistance of the area. Generally, the site engineer or
equipment manufacturers specify a resistance to ground number. The National
Electric Code states that the resistance to ground shall not exceed 25 ohms for a
single electrode. However, great technology manufacturers will often state 3 or 5
ohms, depending upon the requirements of their equipment. For sensitive equipment
and under extreme circumstances, a one ohm specification may sometimes be
needed. When designing a ground system, the risk and cost increase exponentially as
the target resistance to ground approaches the unobtainable goal of zero ohms.

Grounding System Data Collection

Once a need established, data collection begins. Soil resistivity testing, geographical
analysis and test borings would support grounding design. Soil resistivity test using
the Wenner 4-point method  suggested due to its accuracy. This method will discuss
later in this chapter. Additional data  always helpful and can collect from existing
ground systems placed at the site. For example, driven rods at the place can test
using the 3-point fall-of-potential method or an induced frequency test using a clamp-
on ground resistance meter.

Grounding System Data Analysis

With all available data, smooth computer programs begin to give a soil model
exhibiting the soil resistivity in ohm-meters and at various layer depths. Knowing at
what depth the most conductive soil located for the site would allow the design
engineer to design a system to meet essentials of application.
Grounding System Design
Soil resistivity is the important factor that regulates the resistance or execution of an
electrical grounding system. It is the starting point of any electrical grounding design.

Noise Discharge Path for Grounding System

This based on extensive belief that ground systems are a kind of “cesspool” into which
unwanted electrical noises safely disposed. An approach defines that noise may
“accumulate” if a big discharge path is not given. This is a false concept that is not
based on sound electrical principles. Literally, noise or any unwanted signal will
always take the path of lowest burden, a path which at high frequencies above 1 MHz
is not the SRG but other nearby cables. The concept of the SRG as a noise discharge
path based on fundamental misinterpretation of grounding principles.

Electrostatic Discharge (ESD) Protection Using Grounding System

Electrostatic discharge should concern to any data centre operator due to the risk of
damage to equipment. The reason of data centres are usually maintained at high
humidity such as 40% relative humidity is to obstruct formation of static charges.
Floors in data centres should have static discharge treatment which may include the
use of special fixed or raised floor tiles. Some data centres restrict the allowable
footwear to prevent group from being efficient static generators. However, the SRG
has no proper role in preventing creation of static charges or protecting equipment
from these charges. The SRG cannot stop group from accumulating static charge. If an
operator carries a static charge, the SRG cannot stop this charge from discharged into
equipment.

Human Safety by Proper Grounding System

Another generally held belief is that the SRG gives safety benefits relating to
grounding and prevention of electric shock. It is genuine that proper grounding of
electrical equipment is important to decrease the risk of electrical shock. It is true in
1970-1980 time periods some hard wired IT equipment in data centres was purposely
wired without  safety ground,  to decrease noise interference. However, it is
negligence of electrical codes to wire equipment without safety grounds and all
pluggable equipment uses power cord that includes safety ground. Therefore, the
determined ungrounding of equipment in data centres is non-existent in today’s data
centre.
In a properly grounded data centre there is no problem with safety grounding that
solved by the SRG. The SRG potentially give redundant safety ground, but this is not
necessary or required. If unnecessary grounding system desired, it can effectively get
by bonding the racks in a row to each other and running a ground wire back from the
rack cabinets to the local PDU ground. Rack grounding in this way considered as “best
practice” and effectively gets the same further safety benefits that SRG would give.
The SRG, when properly deployed, is an unnecessary grounding system. Unnecessary
grounding systems not need in the modern data centre, but even if desired there are
more effective and less expensive ways to get unnecessary grounding system.

WHAT IS PROTECTIVE DEVICE

TESTING AND HOW IS IT DONE

Equipment applied to electric power systems to detect abnormal and intolerable

conditions and to initiate appropriate corrective actions. These devices include
lightning arresters, surge protectors, fuses, and relays with associated circuit
breakers, reclosers, and so forth.
From time to time, disturbances in the normal operation of a power system occur.
These may be caused by natural phenomena, such as lightning, wind, or snow; by
falling objects such as trees; by animal contacts or chewing; by accidental means
traceable to reckless drivers, inadvertent acts by plant maintenance personnel, or
other acts of humans; or by conditions produced in the system itself, such as
switching surges, load swings, or equipment failures. Protective devices must
therefore be installed on power systems to ensure continuity of electrical service, to
limit injury to people, and to limit damage to equipment when problem situations
develop. Protective devices are applied commensurately with the degree of
protection desired or felt necessary for the particular system.

Why Protective Device Testing is Done?

Protection systems play a key role for the safe and reliable operation of today’s
electricity power systems. Properly working protection devices help to maintain the
safety of the system and to safeguard assets from damage. In order to ensure reliable
operation, protective relays as well as recloser controls must be tested throughout
their life-cycle, from their initial development through production and commissioning
to periodical maintenance during operation. Our test equipment is ideal for each of
these life-cycle phases and for any environment. As a reliable long-term partner, we
offer state-of-the-art testing solutions which are continuously being developed and
maintained to help you to keep pace with the increasingly complex requirements of
your systems.

What is Done During Protective Device Testing?

Lightning protection is a means to protect equipment, facilities and people from the
effects of nearby or direct lightning events. Whereas, surge protection provides
protection to equipment from the effects of more distant lightning events or power
system anomalies. Five basic procedures are employed to test protection devices.
Clamping Voltage Tests
When a transient occurs, the SPD resistance changes from a very high stand-by value
to a very low conduction value. The transient is absorbed and clamped at a defined
level, protecting sensitive electronic circuits and diverting the transient energy to
ground. A normalised current impulse of 8/20us is defined in the standards IEC 61643-
1 and IEC61180-1. –
Surge Withstand Tests
Surge withstand tests are intended to assess the maximum peak current carrying
capability of varistors. The surge withstand capability is approximately proportional
to the varistor disk size (diameter). Energy levels are much higher than for the
clamping voltage tests with impulse levels in the tens of kilo amps range. –
Energy Absorption Tests
High energy surges are usually generated by inductive discharges of motors and
transformers. Energy absorption in an SPD is the integral current flow through and the
voltage across an SPD. Surge currents of relatively long duration are required for
testing maximum energy absorption capacity of an SPD. A rectangular wave of 2ms
duration is sometimes used instead of the double exponential waveforms. –
Combination Wave Tests
Surge events can be generated by lightning phenomena, switching transients or the
activation of protection devices in the power distribution system. A surge itself is
influenced by the propagation path taken so that impulses from the same event may
have different forms depending upon where a measurement is taken. Combination
Wave Generators (CWG) simulate a surge event in power lines close to or within
building.
Duty Cycle (Flammability) Tests
A series of pulses is applied to the varistor to assess maximum rated dissipation.
Exceeding the maximum rated dissipation will cause the protection device to be
destroyed. A flammability risk could occur. The 8/20us current impulse is
superimposed on the mains power supply

How do We Conduct Protective Device Testing?

Basic devices have the ability to recognize and define fuses, protective relays,
breaker trip devices, and surge suppressors and to understand their differences and
uses. A common mistake for relay testers is to use spare outputs, displays, and/or
LEDs for their pickup and timing tests and ignore the in-service output logic, believing
that they are using the same elements in their test equations as the final logic.

Depending on the protective device the tests varies accordingly:

Low-voltage breakers
They conduct the flow of current as long as a nominal value of current is flowing
through the circuit to the load attached to it. Even at the slightest contact, current
conduction occurs. But as soon as the breaker senses an excessively large amount
which does not lie in its operating range (which can be checked through the ratings of
the circuit breaker), the trip unit actuates the bimetallic strip and the contact breaks
and immediately further flow of current is stopped. In addition to the safety
operation, it also provides a kind of voltage insulation to the circuit and retains the
flow after the current retains its appropriate value.
The field-testing and calibration of solid-state trip units can be performed by either
primary current injection method or secondary current injection method. A
coordination study is an organized effort to achieve optimum electrical distribution
system protection by determining the appropriate frame sizes, ampere ratings and
settings of overcurrent protective devices. When an overcurrent occurs in a properly
coordinated distribution system, only the protective device nearest the fault will
open. The secondary injection test is performed using a specially designed power
supply unit. It should be noted that the secondary injection method only tests the
solid-state trip unit logic and does not test the current sensors, wiring, or the breaker
current handling components. Most solid-state trip units have terminal blocks that are
equipped with test plug terminals for making the calibration test. The test set allows
checking of the solid state trip unit operation without using primary current. The test
set will pass enough current to check any desired calibration point. The breaker must
be de-energized before checking the operation of the solid-state trip units. If the test
set shows that the solid-state trip unit is not functioning properly, the trip unit should
be replaced.
The primary current injection method is usually preferred because this method
verifies the sensors and wiring, as well as the conduction path in the breaker. It is
recommended that the primary injection test be performed simultaneously on all
three phases when testing breakers with solid-state trip units. If three phase primary
injection testing is not practical, then it is recommended that the sensors and wiring
should be tested separately. This testing should be performed per NETA and the
National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) procedures, and in accordance
with manufacturer recommendations. Coordination Time-current curves are used to
show the amount of time required for a circuit breaker to trip at a given overcurrent
level.
Relays
A relay is an automatic device which senses an abnormal condition of electrical circuit
and closes its contacts.
The first electrical test made on the relay should be a pickup test. Pickup is defined
as that value of current or voltage which will just close the relay contacts from the
0.5 time-dial position. Allowing for meter differences, interpretation of readings,
etc., this value should be within ±5% of previous data. Generally, one or two points on
the time-current curve are sufficient for maintenance purposes. Reset the relay to
the original time-dial setting and two points that could be checked and 3 and 5 times
pickup. Of course, other points could be used, but the important thing is to always
use the same point(s). The instantaneous unit should be checked for pickup using
gradually applied current for reasons previously discussed. Wherever possible, current
should be applied only to the instantaneous unit (to avoid over-heating the time unit).
There are different types of relays:
Current Relays
Relays can include phase overcurrent, current balance, negative sequence, zero
sequence, thermal, and ground fault.
This is the first generation oldest relaying system and they have been in use for many
years. They have earned a well-deserved reputation for accuracy, dependability, and
reliability.
Contact function – Manually close (or open) contacts and observe that they perform
their required function, i.e. trip, reclose, block, etc.
Pickup – Gradually apply current or voltage to see that pickup is within limits. Since
preventive maintenance is the guide post, gradually applied current or voltage will
yield data which can be compared with previous or future data and not be clouded by
such effects as transient overreach, etc.
Dropout or reset – Reduce the current until the relay drops out or fully resets. This
test will indicate excess friction. Should the relay be sluggish in resetting or fail to
reset completely, then the jewel bearing and pivot should be examined. A 4X eye
loupe is adequate for examining the pivot, and the jewel bearing can be examined
with the aid of a needle which will reveal any cracks in the jewel. Should dirt be the
problem, the jewel can be cleaned with an orange stick while the pivot can be wiped
clean with a soft, lint free cloth. No lubricant should be used on either the jewel or
pivot.
Test should be made to check that the overcurrent unit operates only when the
directional unit contacts are closed.
Directional and Power Relays
Directional overcurrent relaying refers to relaying that can use the phase relationship
of voltage and current to determine direction to a fault.
Power Directional Relays provides protection against excess power flow in a
predetermined direction. And are used for anti-motoring protect on of AC generators.
The simplest pickup test for a directional unit is an in-phase test – i.e. current and
voltage in phase. This test will eliminate the need for a three-phase supply, phase
shifter, and phase-angle meter. However, it must be kept in mind that such a test is
usually far from the angle of maximum torque (usually 60° lag for ground relays) and
thus, small changes in components can yield large variations in in-phase pickup. As
long as this fact is recognized and the pickup value is within limits, an angle of
maximum torque check would not be necessary. Clutch pressure must always be
measured in the same manner. For example, some instruction books express clutch
settings in both grams and current/voltage levels. Portable pre-calibrated reactance-
resistance test boxes are available for many of these tests. The use of such
equipment, properly applied, will yield results which will exceed in accuracy those
obtained with conventional phase-angle meters, ammeters, voltmeters, etc. In
addition to the tests previously described for the overcurrent relay, the directional
unit should be tested for minimum pickup, angle of maximum torque, contact gap,
and clutch pressure. Further, a test should be made to check that the overcurrent
unit operates only when the directional unit contacts are closed. . Either test is valid,
but to have comparative data, the same method, either grams or electrical quantities
should be employed each time
 Voltage RelaysSecondary Injection Test
Measure the relay auxiliary supply to ensure it is within the nameplate rating
allowable range.
Creep or Pickup Test

 Connect the voltage injector’s output.

 Adjust relay’s set points to the plant / substation recommended settings, if necessary.
 Set Red phase of voltage injector to 120% of relay setting. Note: Set Yellow and Blue
phase to zero.
 Inject and reduce slowly the Red phase injector’s voltage in order to monitor and
record the relay’s pickup voltage.
 Repeat step 2.3 and 2.4 for other settings, if any.

Trip Time Test

 Set Red phase of injector’s voltage to 80% of relay setting. Note: Set Yellow and Blue
phase to zero.
 Inject Red phase voltage through the relay in order to record the tripping time. Check
test results against the tripping curve characteristics of the relay.

Differential Relays
A test of minimum pickup should be performed. The differential characteristic (slope)
should be checked and where applicable the harmonic restraint should be tested.
Generally, differential relays are extremely sensitive devices and require some special
consideration. For example, those relays employing ultra-sensitive polarized units as
sensing devices are slightly affected by previous his-tory such as heavy internal or
external fault currents. To eliminate previous history and truly perform a
maintenance test, it is the usual practice to disregard the first pickup reading and use
the second reading for comparison with previous and future data. By “disregard” it is
not meant to imply that the initial reading be forgotten; rather it is meant that this
reading not be used for comparison purpose.
Fuses
The fuse is a reliable overcurrent protective device, primarily used as a circuit
protection device for over currents, overloads and short-circuits.
A time-current characteristic curve, for any specified fuse, is displayed as a
continuous line representing the average melting time in seconds for a range of
overcurrent conditions.
NFPA 70B recommends checking fuse continuity during scheduled maintenance, but
testing to assure proper operation and protection against overcurrent conditions is not
required. Fusible switches and fuse blocks require maintenance, such as tightening of
connections and checking for signs of overheating as recommended per NFPA 70B.
In all cases, though, the idea is to send a small current through the fuse; if it passes
through the fuse the fuse is good. If it does not the fuse is blown and needs
 replacement. This means that a battery is necessary to provide that small current and
every fuse tester will have a battery in it.If a tester shows that a fuse is blown, the
next step is to check the tester. This is accomplished by touching the test leads
together or, in the case of testers without leads, to put a piece of metal (wire, coin,
dinner spoon, anything metal) across the probes. If it does not indicate “good” the
battery probably needs replacing.

 Using a Continuity Tester

Continuity testers will have two test leads and a small light that will light up if the leads are
touched together. To test a fuse simply touch one lead to each of the electrical contacts on
the fuse; if the light bulb lights up the fuse is good.
 Testing a Fuse with a Multimeter
A multimeter again has two leads just like a continuity tester. However, there are many
settings on a multimeter to measure amperage, voltage and resistance in several different
ranges. Some multimeters are auto ranging (no need to choose a range), some are digital and
some are analog meters with a needle to indicate the reading. With all multimeters the first
step is to set it to measure resistance, or Ω. If different ranges are available, choose the
lowest range (K means thousand on the dial, so 2K equals 2000) – usually around 200. Like a
continuity tester, touch one probe to each contact on a fuse and observe the reading. A very
low w reading of 1 ohm or less means the fuse is good; if it is blown the reading will be
infinite, or the maximum the meter will display. An intermediate reading of several ohms
probably means you aren’t making good contact; wriggle the probes on the fuse contacts or
clean them and try again.

Motor Management Systems

Microprocessor-Based Motor Protection Takes Protecting and Monitoring Electric
Motors into the Digital Age
Before microprocessor relays, electromechanical and solid state relays were tested on
an element by element basis. This was a coherent approach, allowing individual parts
of the relay to be calibrated and proven. When microprocessor relays arrived, many
continued this approach and tested individual elements within the relay, while others
found alternative methods to test. Developing automated testing procedures for
microprocessor relays can be classified into three categories:

 Element testing,
 Functional testing, and
 Black box testing.

The black box testing method, is adequate in terms of NERC compliance.

Whether functional or black box testing, the use of dynamic testing software is the
logical choice to perform the testing. Dynamic tests drive relaying test sets to run in a
series of defined sequences called states-such as pre-fault, fault and post-fault..
The use of element testing for microprocessor relays is likely to decline because, in
part, to its noted shortcomings. The choice of functional vs. black box testing is less
clear because both have their advantages and disadvantages. One thing is clear,
 however, regardless of the testing method employed-documentation of testing is
critical, especially if the relay application is under the NERC umbrella. Tracking of
testing intervals, previous test dates and last test dates are all part of the data
required to be submitted during an audit. A detailed account of the testing on a
subset of the full listing will often be requested. Maintaining this data by paper copy
can result in much time spent tracking dates and data gathering. The larger the
number of relays to track, the more daunting this task can be. Storage of all this data
into a centralized database, with the ability to extract data and run audit reports, is
quickly becoming a necessity to prepare for NERC audits. These reports can prevent a
last minute crisis of discovering relays that were missed by tracking testing dates on a
continual basis-and also provide the data needed for audit submissions. There are
many different relay database programs, some home grown, others commercial.
Regardless of NERC regulations, the reliance on these databases will only grow.
Resetting Overcurrent Protective Devices
Circuit breakers are sometimes selected over fuses because circuit breakers can be
reset where fuses have to be replaced. The most time consuming activity that results
from the operation of the overcurrent protective device is typically investigating the
cause of the overcurrent condition.
A known overload condition is the only situation that permits the immediate resetting
or replacement of overcurrent protective devices per OSHA. If the cause for the
operation of an overcurrent protective device is not known, the cause must be
investigated.
Thus, having a device that can be easily reset, such as a circuit breaker, possibly into
a fault condition, could be a safety hazard and a violation of OSHA regulations.
Because a fuse requires replacement by a qualified person, it is less likely to violate
OSHA. Also, when an opened fuse is replaced with a new fuse in the circuit, the
circuit is protected by a new factory calibrated device.
Generally, overload conditions occur on branch-circuit devices. Typically this is on
lighting and appliance circuits feed from circuit breaker panel boards, where
resetting of circuit breakers may be possible. Motor circuits also are subject to
overload considerations.
However, typically the device that operates is the overload relay, which can be easily
reset after an overload situation. The motor branch-circuit device (fuse or circuit
breaker) operates, as indicated in NEC® 430.52, for protection of short-circuits and
ground-fault conditions. Thus, if this device opens, it should not be reset or replaced
without investigating the circuit since it most likely was a short-circuit condition.
User Benefits
The technical excellence and many unique features of the Protection Device Testers
translate directly into benefits for the user: –

 optimum return on investment

 Standard control unit, reduces user training
 Impulse reproducibility
 Accurate measurement system delivers information about the SPD
 Integration into existing test facilities saves engineering costs
 Pass / Fail indication for individual samples, speeds up production
 High degree of automation, reduces operator workload
 Save operator time with the automated test routines and test report facility
 Easy integration into a full test suite
 Unparalleled reliability and system up-time

LEARN ABOUT RESIDUAL CURRENT

DEVICE TESTING AND SAFETY

Residual Current Device offer a level of personal protection that ordinary fuses and

circuit-breakers cannot provide. Residual Current Devices, or RCDs. are safety
switches that prevent people from getting electrocuted in homes and businesses. The
device monitors the flow of electricity as it enters a property from the main
distribution panel. A surge of electricity, or an imbalance of electrical power, can
cause injury or death. If an imbalance in electricity is detected, the switch
automatically cuts off the electricity. The installation of at least two RCD Safety
Switches in a building allows the electrical circuits to be evenly divided. That
increases safety two-fold by preventing electrocution, and allowing some lights and
power to remain on in the building. 
Residual Current Devices are designed to protect against the risks of electrocution
and fire caused by earth faults.  For example, if you cut through the cable when
mowing the lawn and accidentally touched the exposed live wires or a faulty
appliance overheats causing electric current to flow to earth. RCD’s are very sensitive
and will activate within 10 to 30 milliseconds stopping the flow of electricity. 

Types of Residual Current Device 

There are various types of RCDs that can be used to make sure you are always as safe
as possible. 

Fixed RCDs

These are installed in the consumer unit (fuse box) and can provide protection to
individual or groups of circuits. A fixed RCD provides the highest level of protection as
it protects all the wiring and the sockets on a circuit, and any connected appliances. 

Socket-Outlet RCDs 

These are special socket-outlets with an RCD built into them which can be used in
place of a standard socket-outlet. This type of RCD provides protection only to the
person in contact with equipment, including its lead, plugged into the special socket-
outlet.  

Portable RCDs 

These plug into any standard socket-outlet. An appliance can then be plugged into the
RCD. They are useful when neither fixed nor socket-outlet RCDs are available but, as
with socket-outlet RCDs, they provide protection only to the person in contact with
the equipment, including its lead, plugged into the portable RCD. Portable RCDs are
plugged into a fixed socket and are suitable for monitoring appliances in high-risk
areas such as workshops, outdoor areas or damp locations. They should be used where
RCD protection is not already provided or is unknown. 

What RCD Testing Regulations Apply? 

RCD Regulations UAE indicate that the company must have at least two residual
current devices connected to the main switchboard. However, compliance regulations
could vary based on the size of the building and the current flowing to each section of
it. If regulations aren’t followed, the company could incur a fine of a decent amount. 

Are Residual Current Devices Reliable? 

We’ve found that fixed RCDs are about 97% reliable. This improves if they are tested
regularly. If you have fixed RCD protection, it will reduce the risk of electric shock to
you and your family. It can also protect your home against the risk of fire caused by
faulty wiring or appliances. 
Remember – Although RCD protection reduces the risk of death or injury from electric
shock it does not reduce the need to be careful. Have your wiring checked at least
once every 10 years to ensure the safety of you, your family and your home. If you
find a fault with your wiring, or an appliance, stop using it immediately and contact
a registered electrician. 
Don’t forget to test – You should test all fixed and socket RCDs about every three
months. Manufacturers recommend that portable RCDs are tested every time you use
them. 

How Often Should RCD Testing Occur? 

RCD testing has to be completed every three months, and documented, to remain in
compliance. There is a test button on the device that has to be pressed to determine
if the switch is working correctly. It is working properly if the power goes off. If the
power does not go off, an electrician has to be called to re-test the switch, repair it,
or replace it. It is strongly recommended that all homeowners, even those not selling
the property have the devices installed for safety. The cost of installing residual
current devices is nominal, especially compared to the safety of family members. In
order to remain compliant to the standard, you will need to comply with the above
test intervals in the section above. 
One of the most common problems that we see in our country is that everyone is busy
and it’s very easy to miss these dates and not be compliant with the standards. We
can help you by taking care of this responsibility for you. The Carelabs team will send
reminders of your RCD renewal coming due, several weeks before the renewal is due,
to ensure you are always compliant at your premises.

How Much will RCD Protection Cost? 

 A plug-in RCD can cost as little as $30 . A fixed RCD will cost more, but will provide a
greater degree of protection to help keep your family and working environment safe.
Installation costs will vary, so we recommend getting several quotes before
proceeding. 

Why Test Residual Current Devices? 

Some electrical appliances and old wiring may have a normal small amount of earth
leakage which can trip a RCD. Earth leakage increases with each additional electrical
appliance that is plugged in, and if RCD keeps tripping out it may be an overloaded
circuit. Any faults we recommend that you have your wiring and appliances checked
by an electrician to ascertain the fault if a RCD keeps tripping. 
The majority of electrical fatalities could have been prevented by the use of a
properly installed RCD, and regular testing to ensure they are working
correctly. RCD’s also protect against fire caused by faults in appliance, tools and
wiring. If these faults go undetected they could cause a fire or personal injury. RCD’s
provide a means of early fault detection. 
Thermal Scanners is able to carry out all your RCD Testing requirements and upon
completion, issues you with a Comprehensive Report and Compliance Certificate. If
maintained correctly an RCD can not only help to prevent fire due to appliance or
wiring faults, they save lives. Thermal Scanners help clients to ensure their RCD’s are
compliant and tested in line with the UAE Standards. 

What is Done During Testing of RCD? 

RCDs must be tested. The requirements are stated in the following Regulations:  

 The effectiveness of the RCD must be verified by a test simulating an appropriate fault
condition and independent of any test facility, or test button, incorporated in the device
(Regulation 713-13-01) 
 Where an RCD of 30mA provides supplementary protection the operating time must
not exceed 40 ms at a residual current of 5 I∆n. (Regulation 412-06-02 refers)

Tests are made on the load side of the RCD between the phase conductor of the
protected circuit and the associated cpc. Any load or appliances should be
disconnected prior to testing. RCD test instruments require a few milliamperes to
operate; this is normally obtained from the phase and neutral of the circuit under
test. When testing a three-phase RCD protecting a three-wire circuit, the
instrument’s neutral is required to be connected to earth. This means that the test
current will be increased by the instrument supply current and will cause some
devices to operate during the 50% test, possibly indicating an incorrect operating
time. Under this circumstance it is necessary to check the operating parameters of
the RCD with the manufacturer before failing the RCD. 
The RCD Testing Requirements indicate that a manager is required to test each device
every three months. To conduct these tests, they must present the test button found
on the residual current device. The RCD Testing results determine if the device is
worked correctly. After each test, the manager must reset the device by pressing the
appropriate button. 
If at any time the test indicates that it isn’t operating properly, the manager must
order a new device and shut down power to the location. They must tag and lock the
device in the location in which it is used. This notifies workers of an existing issue and
prevents them from using any connections running to it. 

How are Residual Current Devices Tested? 

The wiring regulations require the residual device providing additional protection to
disconnect within 40 milliseconds when tested at 5 times the current they are
designed to operate within normal circumstances. This is something electricians test
using calibrated equipment and not something the homeowner can do. It is one of the
tests carried out during an electrical inspection and confirms if the RCD would
disconnect in the necessary time to prevent shock. Other tests confirm the device(s)
are not oversensitive that would leave you without power unnecessarily. If you are
not sure when the rcds within your installation have been tested, get in touch to
make an appointment for me to test them for you. When RCD tests are carried out, it
will trip the RCD and disconnect the circuit that it protects, so any electrical
equipment will need to be turned off prior to RCD Testing being carried out. 
Each RCD Test only takes approximately 5 minutes for each RCD. We suggest that RCD
Testing is carried out after hours, before the office opens, or you will need to advise
your staff that the power will be disrupted for each circuit, and that there computers
will need to be turned off. 
All electrical equipment needs to be turned off when RCD Testing is carried out. 

Operating Time Test 

Performed by an electrician, this test measures how long the RCD takes to trip,
indicating whether it is fast enough be effective. 

Push-button Test on RCDs 

The push-button test is to ensure that the RCD will trip when there is an earth
leakage, and break the electrical circuit protecting the individual from suffering an
electric shock, or electrocution. When you press the test button, and the RCD has
detected an imbalance, the on/off switch will jump to the “off” position. The test
button will only test the RCD if an electricity supply is connected. This test should be
 performed daily or before each time you use the RCD – whichever is the longer.
However it is not particularly accurate and should never be relied on as a reliable
assessment of the RCD working correctly. The “trip time” test using the “applied
current” method is a far more accurate means of testing RCDs and is a required test
under AS/NZS 3760.  

Trip time test 

It measures the actual trip time and must be performed with equipment able to
measure this to within +/- 8 ms (0.008 of a second).This is a simple test that can be
performed by the user, to determine that the RCD’s tripping mechanism is working. 

Portable RCDs 

Portable RCDs requires the use of an isolation transformer to carry out operating time
test. 
Follow these simple steps to ensure your RCDs are operating correctly: 

 Plug a small lamp into a power point and make sure it works. Leave it turned on. 
 Make sure that electricity is connected to the property and the main switch is in the
“on” position. The lamp should be on. 
 Turn off all electronic equipment (computers and televisions) etc. 
 Push the test button on each RCD. Do not hold your finger on the test button. The RCD
should operate (turn off). If it does not operate, it must be checked by an electrical
contractor. 
 After pushing the test button and the RCDs have turned off check that the small lamp
is now off. Also check that all the lights and power points do not operate. To do this, plug the
small lamp into all the power points and turn the power point on. If the lamp turns on, a
licensed electrical contractor must be engaged to correct the wiring. 
 When finished testing, turn the RCDs back on and check that the lamp works when
plugged into a power point.  

Who can Carry out the Testing of an Residual Current Device?  

Clause 62C of the OHS Amendment (RCD) Regulation 2011 requires that RCDs are push
button test that can be carried out by a person that has been instructed on how to
use the built-in test push button and second test involves testing the operational
performance of the RCD that measures the tripping time and tripping current. This
type of testing needs to be carried out by a person who is trained in the use of an RCD
tester. This could be a person that has been trained to use an RCD tester or an
electrically qualified person such as an electrician. For some test activities where it
may be necessary to access the supply distribution switchboard the testing could only
be carried out by a licensed electrician. Further guidance on RCD testing methods can
 be found in the Standard AS/NZS 3760 In-service inspection and testing of electrical
equipment. 

Recording the Results of Residual Current Device Testing 

The owner of the RCD must keep records of RCD testing, except for the daily push
button testing of portable RCDs. The OHS Regulation requires that a record is made
and kept of all inspections, tests and maintenance carried out on
electrical equipment. The employer is to ensure that the following information is
recorded in relation to RCD testing, 

 The name of the person who carried out the RCD test 

 The date on which or the dates over which, the RCD test was carried out 
 The result or outcome of the RCD test, and 
 The date by which the next RCD test must be carried out  

Records can consist of documents, logbooks, asset registers or a computerised

database. They should be located conveniently so that managers, employees and
employee representatives can access the information. Carelabs inspectors have the
right to examine the records of employers, which are required to be kept by the OHS
Regulation.  

Benefits of Residual Current Device Testing 

A tested RCD can help put your mind at ease when it comes to the safety of your
workers. RCD testing performed by a qualified professional can ensure that your RCDs
have no faults in them and can be relied upon to function when needed. Some other
benefits of RCD testing are: 

 Compliance with safety standards 

 Cost savings 
 Early detection of faults 

WHAT IS MEGGER TEST AND HOW IS IT

PERFORMED
The device is being used since 1889, popularity raised during 1920s, since long back
devise is same in its uses and purpose of testing, few real improvement appeared in
recent years with its design and quality of tester. Now high quality option are
available which are easy to use and quite safe. The Megger test is a method
of testing making use of an insulation tester resistance meter that will help to verify
the condition of electrical insulation. 
Insulation resistance quality of an electrical system degrades with time, environment
condition i.e. temperature, humidity, moisture and dust particles. It also get
impacted negatively due to the presence of electrical and mechanical stress, so it’s
become very necessary to check the IR (Insulation resistance) of equipment at a
constant regular interval to avoid any measure fatal or electrical shock. 
The IR gives a measure of the enduring power of an insulator to bear the service
voltage without any current leakage path. It gives an idea of an insulator’s
condition. It is measured using an instrument named Megger capable of
impressing D.C. voltage between its two probes, automatically calculating and then
displaying the IR value. 
Megger being so popular that “Insulation Resistance” and “Megger” are synonymously
used. 
Why Megger Testing is Done? 
Insulation resistance quality of an electrical system degrades with time, environment
condition i.e. temperature, humidity, moisture and dust particles. It also get
impacted negatively due to the presence of electrical and mechanical stress, so it’s
become very necessary to check the IR (Insulation resistance) of equipment at a
constant regular interval to avoid any measure fatal or electrical shock. 
Another scenario is if your home has just experienced a fire and the fire department
has left the scene. The Electric Company has turned off your gas and electric and you
are in the dark. By the grace of God all that is damaged is your home and you need to
start the rebuilding process. Your Insurance Company tells you that local jurisdiction,
or the Insurance Company themselves, require a “Megger Test” to verify the integrity
of the wiring system in your home. 
When a fire or other high heat event (lightning, explosion, etc.) occurs, wiring and its
corresponding elements (insulation, etc.) are subjected to high levels of heat. All
metals and physical compounds have a melting point. In the course of some fire
events this melting point is reached and the current carrying integrity of the wiring is
compromised. The insulation may have melted internally or both the wire and
insulation may have been melted. When this occurs you have a pocket of resistance
that forms as the electrical current tries to flow across that melted area. As current
flow increases, to try to traverse the pocket, it creates heat. That heat may create
enough temperature to actually cause another fire. Just what you don’t need!  The
scary part about these compromised wires is you may have no idea that this has
occurred since the wire may be compromised behind the walls or in your attic  
Megger testing does not cause any damage, making it a good option when someone
does not want to put holes in walls to test electrical insulation for any problems
or issues. The testing device only goes between 500 and 1,000 volts, which is
relatively low. Due to the low voltage, some punctures in insulation go undetected. It
generally provides information about the leakage current and whether insulation
areas have excessive dirt or moisture as well as the amount of moisture, deterioration
and winding faults. 

What is Done During Megger Testing? 

We can test your circuits for the existing connections and melted fault areas that may
have occurred during a fire event. These results are then analysed and specific
circuits can be isolated and replaced to insure that there are no further problems on
your affected circuits. If you have had a fire talk to your Adjuster and see if megger
testing is required. It is normally covered by Insurance since the last thing they want
to do is pay another claim a month after you are able to reclaim your domicile. 
Carelabs has the equipment on hand and the expertise to perform your Megger
Testing and get those results logged and filed with your insurance carrier as well as
 the Local Building Department. We are here to help you make sure your existing
wiring is safe, and of course, to install new wiring as needed as well. We are here for
all of your electrical needs. 

How Megger Testing is Performed? 

A multimeter is used as an insulation tester in some conditions and mostly a
continuity test only is performed. But for detecting and testing for a leakage current
during a normal or overloaded condition, a special instrument known as the Insulation
tester is used. 
We measure electrical leakage in wire and results are very reliable as we shall be
passing electric current through device while we are testing. We verify the electrical
insulation level of any device such as motor, cable, generator winding, or general
electrical installation. This is a very poplar test being carried out since very long
back. Not necessary it shows us exact area of electrical puncture but shows the
amount of leakage current and level of moisture within
electrical equipment/winding/system. 
The procedure of insulation resistance test or megger test are given below:

 First we will disconnect all the line and neutral terminals of the transformer. 
 Megger leads are connected to LV and HV bushing studs to measure Insulation
Resistance IR value in between the LV and HV windings.  
 Megger leads are connected to HV bushing studs and transformer tank earth
point to measure Insulation Resistance IR value in between the HV windings and earth.  
 Megger leads are connected to LV bushing studs and transformer tank earth
point to measure Insulation Resistance IR value in between the LV windings and earth. 

The empirical relation as below gives the recommended minimum value for IR, its unit
being mega ohm (MΩ). . The value measures gives us the idea about the insulation
strength of the cable and whether it is deteriorated or not. 
IRmin (in MΩ) = kV + 1 
Where kV = rated service voltage in kV 
There are instances when the measured IR is almost 10 to 100 times more than the
IRmin found from above equation. 
General measurement procedure consists of measuring IR between the three phases
and also between individual phase and earth. IR is also measured for equipment body.
The procedure varying from equipment to equipment. There are different voltage
levels which are applied to cable based on their rating and size. For doing a Megger of
a 33kV HT cable. The voltage level applied is of 5000V and the value of IR can
be anywhere between 1GigaOhm to 200GigaOhm. 
 When we are using a multimeter, we are measuring a resistance, voltage, and
current.  Based on this, I hope we are familiar with the term Insulation. This means
that a current cannot pass or leak through a certain conducting wire when it is
properly insulated or protected. These wires may be inside a building, appliances or
an electric motor. 
You are basically testing the resistance on a wire. For instance if you want to see if a
motor is bad, you will “megger” it, testing each of the three phases of motor to
ground and to each other to see if it is shorted to either ground or itself. 

Working Principle of Megger 

 Voltage for testing produced by hand operated megger by rotation of crank in

case of hand operated type, a battery is used for electronic tester. 
 500 Volt DC is sufficient for performing test on equipment range up to 440
Volts. 
 1000 V to 5000 V is used for testing for high voltage electrical systems. 
 Deflecting coil or current coil connected in series and allows flowing the
electric current taken by the circuit being tested. 
 The control coil also known as pressure coil is connected across the circuit. 
 Current limiting resistor (CCR and PCR) connected in series with control and
deflecting coil to protect damage in case of very low resistance in external circuit. 
 In hand operated megger electromagnetic induction effect is used to produce
the test voltage i.e. armature arranges to move in permanent magnetic field or vice
versa. 
 Where as in electronic type megger battery are used to produce the testing
voltage. 
 As the voltage increases in external circuit the deflection of pointer increases
and deflection of pointer decreases with an increases of current. 
 Hence, resultant torque is directly proportional to voltage and inversely
proportional to current. 
 When electrical circuit being tested is open, torque due to voltage coil will be
maximum and pointer shows ‘infinity’ means no shorting throughout the circuit and has
maximum resistance within the circuit under test. 
 If there is short circuit pointer shows ‘zero’, which means ‘NO’ resistance
within circuit being tested.

Types of Megger 
This can be separated into mainly two categories:

1. Electronic Type (Battery Operated) 

2. Manual Type (Hand Operated) 
 Advantages of Electronic Type Megger 

 Level of accuracy is very high. 

 IR value is digital type, easy to read. 
 One person can operate very easily. 
 Works perfectly even at very congested space. 
 Very handy and safe to use. 

Advantages of Hand Operated Megger 

 Still keeps important in such high-tech world as it’s an oldest method for IR
value determination. 
 No external source required to operate. 
 Cheaper available in market. 

But there are another types of megger which is motor operated type which does not
use battery to produce voltage it requires external source to rotate an electrical
motor which in turn rotates the generator of the megger.  
Insulation Resistance or IR Test is carried out by maintenance engineers to ensure the
healthiness of overall insulation system of an electrical power transformer. It reflects
the presence or absence of harmful contamination, dirt, moisture and gross
degradation. IR will be usually high (several hundred Mega ohms) for a dry insulation
system. Maintenance engineers use this parameter as an index of dryness of the
insulation system.  
This test is performed at or above rated voltage to determine if there are low
resistance paths to ground or between winding to winding as a result of winding
insulation deterioration. The test measurement values are affected by variables such
as temperature, humidity, test voltage, and size of transformer.  
This test should be conducted before and after repair or when maintenance is
performed. The test data should be recorded for future comparative purposes. The
test values should be normalized to 20°C for comparison purposes.  
The general rule of thumb that is used for acceptable values for safe energisation is 1
MΩ per 1000 V of applied test voltage plus 1 MΩ.

Megger Safety Precautions 

While using a megger, you could be injured or damage equipment you are working
on if the following MINIMUM safety precautions are not observed.  
 Use megger on high-resistance measurements only, such as insulation
measurements or to check two separate conductors on a cable.  
 Never touch the test leads while the handle is being cranked.  
 De-energize and discharge the circuit completely before connecting a megger. 
 Disconnect the item being checked from other circuitry, if possible, before
using a megger. 

Benefits of Megger Testing

 Proactive Equipment Condition Analysis 

 Reduced Risk of Emergency Power System Failure 
 Insured Availability 
 Predictive Repairs 
 Asset Management 
 Predictive Equipment Life Expectancy 

LEARN ABOUT CONTINUITY TESTING

AND HOW TO DO IT
A continuity test verifies that current will flow in an electrical circuit (i.e. that the
circuit is continuous). The test is performed by placing a small voltage between 2 or
more endpoints of the circuit. The flow of current can be verified qualitatively, by
observing a light or buzzer in series with the circuit actuates or quantitatively, using a
multimeter to measure the resistance between the endpoint.
In continuity testing the resistance between two points is measured. Low resistance
means that the circuit is closed and there is electrical continuity. High resistance
means that the circuit is open and continuity is lacking. Continuity testing can also
help determine if two points are connected that should not be.

Why Continuity Testing is Done? 

Regulation 610.1 of BS 7671:2008 IEE Wiring Regulations Seventeenth Edition requires
that every installation shall, during erection and on completion before being put into
service, be inspected and tested to verify that the requirements of the Regulations
have been met. The purpose of this test is to verify that the CPC forms a continuous
path around the circuit under test. 
A continuity test is an important test in determining the damaged components or
broken conductors in a circuit. It can also help in determining if the soldering is good,
if the resistance is too high for flow of current or if the electrical wire is broken
between two points. A continuity test can also help in verifying or reverse-engineering
an electrical circuit or connection.  
Continuity testing can be used to detect cold solder connections and problems with
wire and cable products. In field applications, handheld multimeters with dual probes
are used. In addition, this form of electrical testing can be used to check connections
between the pads and traces on printed circuit boards (PCBs).

What is Done During Continuity Testing? 

The most common and basic way of performing a continuity test is with the help of a
resistance tester (any simple Multimeter with this function will do). This is because
the resistance of conductors between the two ends is usually very small (less than 100
ohm). 
Continuity tester has two leads connected to a small battery, and when you touch the
leads together to complete the circuit, the meter should register 0 resistance or if
you have a dedicated continuity tester, the light should come on. If you’re using a
digital multimeter, the device may also beep. 
Continuity of protective conductors including main and supplementary equipotential
bonding. Every protective conductor, including circuit protective conductors, the
earthing conductor, main and supplementary bonding conductors should be tested to
verify that all bonding conductors are connected to the supply earth. Tests are made
between the main earthing terminal (this may be the earth bar in the consumer unit
where there is no distribution board present) and the ends of each bonding conductor.

How to do Continuity Testing? 

Measuring Continuity in an Electrical Device: 
This method is used for testing continuity is an easy and reliable way to determine
whether a switch or outlet has internal damage. If you’re using a multimeter, set it to
the “Continuity” function, or select a midrange resistance setting, in ohms. 
Step 1: Turn Off the Breaker That Controls the Circuit 
The power needs to be off when testing continuity. Verify that no electricity is
flowing by using a noncontact circuit tester. 
Step 2: Check the Tester 
Check the tester by putting the leads together and ensuring that the device lights up,
beeps or registers 0 ohms of resistance. 
Step 3: Touch Lead to Terminal 
 Touch one lead on one of the hot terminals of the device, identified by a brass
screw. 
Step 4: Touch Other Lead to Terminal 
Place the other lead on any other terminal except the green ground terminal. If the
tester lights up, beeps or shows 0 resistance, it means that electricity can flow freely
between those terminals, and in most cases, that means that the device is good. If
the device is a switch, the tester should go off and on when you flip the switch. 
You can use this technique to check appliance switches, thermostats and fuses. Be
sure the power is off, then touch the leads to the terminals of the device in question.

Continuity of Circuit Protective Conductors (CPC) 

The test is carried out as follows:  

1. Temporarily link the line conductor to the CPC in the Consumer Unit.
2. Test between the line and the CPC at each accessory point e.g. a ceiling rose,
switch or socket outlet. The reading obtained at each accessory point should be a low
resistance value. The resistance measured at the extremity of the circuit is the sum of
the resistances of the line conductor and protective conductor (R1 + R2).

When we talk about Continuity Testing within the Inspection and Testing
Procedure then we apply the same principle, but with a bit more detail. 
Step 1: Select the circuit to be tested in the distribution board and remove the Line
conductor from the MCB 
Step 2: Connect the Line conductor to the Earth conductor (for simplicity, connect it
to one of the spare terminals on the Earth bar). This way you will form a circuit which
is half made up of the Line conductor and half made of the Earth conductor (provided
that the terminations within the electrical accessories such as wall sockets are
correct). 
Step 3: Select the correct test function on the test equipment, which is the low
reading ohm meter function (Megger 1553). 
Step 4:. Do not forget to null the test instrument if required (you can do this by
connecting the two test leads together and pressing the TEST button until the
measured value on the display becomes zero ohm`s) 
Step 5: Measure between Line and Earth terminals at each outlet in the circuit. The
highest reading should be recorded on the Schedule of Test Results as the value of
(R1+R2). 
Step 6:.Return the Line conductor back in to the MCB 
 Continuity Testing Overview

 Continuity is the presence of a complete path for current flow. A circuit is

complete when its switch is closed. 
 A digital multimeter’s Continuity Test mode can be used to test switches,
fuses, electrical connections, conductors and other components. A good fuse, for
example, should have continuity. 
 A DMM emits an audible response (a beep) when it detects a complete path. 
 The beep, an audible indicator, permits technicians to focus on testing
procedures without looking at the multimeter display. 
 When testing for continuity, a multimeter beeps based on the resistance of the
component being tested. That resistance is determined by the range setting of
the multimeter. Examples: 
 If the range is set to 400.0 Ω, a multimeter typically beeps if the component
has a resistance of 40 Ω or less. 
 If the range is set 4.000 kΩ, a multimeter typically beeps if the component has
a resistance of 200 Ω or less. 
 The lowest range setting should be used when testing circuit components that
should have low-resistance value such as electrical connections or switch contacts. 

Important Things to Remember 

 Do not forget that with the lighting circuits the intermediate switch should be
switched to all available positions so that all the conductors could be tested for
continuity. 
 Do not forget to link out the dimmer switch on the other lighting circuit,
otherwise you will get wrong test results. 
 Remember, that by doing these steps you will also confirm the correct polarity
of the conductors, so there is no need to do polarity dead tests again. 
 Remember to constantly inspect the installation for faults and signs of
damages. 

Multimeters and ohmmeters are normally used for continuity tests. Specialized
continuity testers are also available which are more basic in nature, inexpensive and
have a light bulb which glows in the case of current flow. The continuity test is
performed on an electrical circuit when it is not powered and with help of the testing
device. 
Can an electronic circuit which is passing currents be tested by a multi-meter’s
continuity test? Would it be meaningful or harmful? Why? 
A continuity test is like a simplified resistance/ohms measurement. A basic method is
to apply a voltage across the resistor and measure the current OR apply a current and
measure the voltage. Then through R = V/I you can calculate the resistance. 
 Imagine you applied 100 V DC but your meter can only handle 10 V when in the
continuity test mode. Such a test is completely meaningless, and potentially
damaging to the meter. If you want to test continuity or resistance, remove all
sources of power, and discharge any stored energy sources. 
The meter is sourcing a (usually low) test voltage. If you connect it to something that
is already powered, you are connecting the two sources together, and the meter isn’t
designed to handle external sources in continuity or resistance (or capacitance, or
inductance, or any other passive) mode.. 

Risks of Introducing a Voltage Through the Multimeter Leads 

 There is a risk of certain parts being damaged, especially parts that cannot
tolerate the 1 to 9 volts that a multimeter might deliver across the probes in continuity
mode. 
 The above is especially true when the component (or other components on
connected traces, which will also be affected) is not powered. Many parts can tolerate
voltages when powered but not otherwise. 
 To minimize the voltage, an option is to use the multimeter in resistance
mode, at the lowest resistance setting – The higher resistance scales work on higher
probe voltage, going by a quick check on a couple of multimeters at my desk. 
 Note that basic multimeters often combine continuity and diode testing modes,
so the voltage is at minimum sufficient to forward bias silicon diodes and perhaps LEDs.
This means a voltage of 2 to 3 volts. 

Benefits of Continuity Testing

 Return of that investment is a long-term one and it will also save time. 
 Tests can be done 24/7.
 Fewer human resources are required.
 Reusability: The scripts are reusable. You don’t need new scripts all the time. 
 Reliability: It is more reliable and quicker way when running boring repetitive
standardized tests which cannot be skipped. 
 It not only checks for continuity but also for shorts. 

WHAT IS EARTH GROUNDING

 IEEE defines earth as a conducting connection, whether intentional or accidental, by
which an electric circuit or equipment is connected to the Earth, or to some
conducting body of relatively large extent that serves in place of the earth. The
connection(s) to Earth are done by an assortment of metallic means intended to be
employed as a designated grounding electrode. A designated grounding electrode is
the device that is intended to establish the direct electrical connection to the earth
rod.  The designated grounding electrode might be a water pipe, steel columns of a
building or structure, concrete encased steel reinforcement rods, buried copper bus,
copper tubing, galvanized steel rods, or semi conductive neoprene rubber blankets. 
Gas pipes and aluminium rods cannot be employed as grounding
electrode The grounding electrode conductor is the designed conductor that is
employed to connect A common designated grounding electrode is often a copper clad
or copper flashed steel the grounding electrode(s) to other equipment grounding
conductors, grounded conductor, and structure.  

Purpose of Earth Grounding 

 Limit potential difference of neutral for system stability. 

 Allow for operation of relays and system protections devices. 
 Personnel safety. 

Practical Ground Resistance rods have much less than 160 Ω. Typical rod resistances
will be less than 25 Ω in most soils because of the existence of proximate utility
ground references 
Low ground resistance (< 10 Ω ) can be achieved with: 

 Multiple Rods bonded together 

 Counterpoise system 
 Coupled rods 

Grounding is thought by many to be synonymous with electrical safety. “If equipment

is grounded then it is electrically safe” gives a false sense of security. The process
that many consider to be “grounding” can and may minimize the severity of electrical
 faults when performed with an understanding of what happens during an electrical
fault. “Grounding” is very specific; it means a connection to the earth (ground). With
respect to systems, such as transformers, generators, or batteries, “grounding”
generally means providing a connection from one conductor of the system to an
electrode that is buried in the earth. However, not all systems are grounded nor is the
electrode always in the earth. When referring to equipment, the term “grounding”
can have various meanings. It may mean bonding or it may mean a direct connection
to the earth. The term “bonding” sometimes may mean “grounding,” and sometimes,
it may mean a short or a long connection. 

Earth Bonding 
“Bonding” is a method by which all electrically conductive materials and metallic
surfaces of equipment and structures, not normally intended to be energized, are
effectively interconnected together via a low impedance conductive means and path
in order to avoid any appreciable potential difference between any separate points.   
The bonded interconnections of any specific electrically conductive materials,
metallic surfaces of enclosures, electrical equipment, pipes, tubes, or structures via a
low impedance path are completely independent and unrelated to any intended
contact or connection to the Earth.   
The common mean to effectively bond different metallic surfaces of enclosures,
electrical equipment, pipes, tubes or structures together is with a copper conductor,
rated lugs, and the appropriate bolts, fasteners, or screws.  Other effectively bonding
means between different metallic parts and pieces might employ brackets, clamps,
exothermic bonds, or welds to make an effectively connections. 
In addition to preventing potential differences that may result in hazards, effectively
bonded equipment can also be employed to adequately and safely conduct phase-to-
ground fault current, induced currents, surge currents, lightning currents, or transient
currents during such abnormal conditions.
The principle purposes for an “effectively bonded grounding system via a low
impedance path to earth” are intended to provide for the following. 

 Provide for an applicable reference to earth to stabilize the system voltage of a

power distribution system during normal operations. 
 Create a very low impedance path for ground fault current to flow in
a relatively controlled path. 
 Create a very low impedance path for ground fault current to flow in order for
overcurrent protective devices and any ground fault protection systems to operate
effectively as designed and intended. 
 Limit differences of potential, potential rise, or step gradients between
equipment and personnel, personnel and earth, equipment and earth, or equipment to
equipment. 
 Limit voltage rise or potential differences imposed on a power distribution
system from lightning, a surge event, any phase-to-ground fault conditions, or the
inadvertent commingling of or the unintentional contact with different voltage system.

WHAT IS POLARITY TEST AND WHY

CONDUCT POLARITY TEST

Polarity in electrical terms refers to the positive or negative conductors within a dc

circuit, or to the Line and Neutral conductor within an ac circuit. Electrical
polarity (positive and negative) is the direction of current flow in an electrical
circuit. Current flows from the positive pole (terminal) to the negative
pole. Electrons flow from negative to positive. In a direct current (DC) circuit, current
flows in one direction only, and one pole is always negative and the other pole is
always positive. In an alternating current (AC) circuit the two poles alternate between
negative and positive and the direction of the current (electron flow) reverses
periodically. 
Most multimeters, including digital multimeters, can do this. Regarding alternating
current in the context of an ac supply, a polarity test is done to ensure that the line
and neutral conductors are connected the correct way around at, for example,
electrical sockets, Edison-screw lamp holders, etc. 
 In the context of electricity installations, a polarity test is used to confirm the correct
connection of the line and neutral conductors. For example, for an Edison-screw lamp
holder, it is important that the line conductor is connected to the centre terminal and
the neutral conductor is connected to the outer conductor. Similarly, it’s important
to confirm that switches are located in the line conductor not the neutral conductor.  

Why do a Polarity Test? 

The purpose of a polarity test to ensure that all single pole devices (fuses, switches
and circuit breakers) are connected in the phase conductor only. We cannot simply
trust that the electricians have connected things up the right way; everyone makes
mistakes, even if it’s your own work. Since ac installations consist of a Live and a
Neutral conductor, it is extremely important that these conductors are connected the
right way around, within all electrical accessories such as wall sockets or plugs. To
ensure this, polarity test is done at each relevant point. This simple test is just as
important as all the others, and many serious injuries and electrocutions could have
been prevented if only polarity checks had been carried out. 
There are 4 different scenarios that require a polarity test, these are:  

1. All single pole devices (fuses, switches and circuit breakers) are connected in
the phase conductor only. 
2. The phase conductor must be connected to the centre terminal of an Edison screw
lamp holder (with the exception of E14 & E27 lamp holders, these are European and
occasionally crop up in the exam).  
3. All polarities of socket outlets (ring & radial) must be verified.  
4. The polarity of the mains supply must be correct, using an approved voltage tester.
(This is done with the supply connected, therefore carried out at a different stage then the
above three). 

 What is Polarity Testing? 

 A test that creates a circuit using the phase conductor and the single pole device in
question, breaking the circuit when operating the device, means that the reading on
the instrument will change, and thus confirming that that device must be connected
in the phase conductor. 
This test will verify that all the switches installed in the system are connected in
current carrying conductor and not in neutral. For example, if you isolate or switch
the neutral of a circuit via a single-pole circuit breaker or switch, it would appear
that the circuit is dead where in fact it is still live. 
If polarity is not correctly determined there may be a risk of electric shock during
maintenance procedures. 
There are 2 methods that can be adopted when conducting a polarity test. These
are described below.

Method 1 for Polarity Test 

This method is exactly the same as test method one for ‘Continuity Of Protective
Conductors’ if we take a lighting circuit, by putting a temporary link between phase
and circuit protective conductors (cpc), at the consumers unit and our instrument at
lamp holders themselves, we are creating a circuit. When we operate the light
switch, the instrument changes, and then changes back to the original reading on
operation of the switch again. If the reading did not change, then the switch is likely
to be connected in the Neutral. (Not good!) With a little foresight this could be
carried out at the same time as the continuity test. The only difference being, for
radial circuits every point must be tested. The main benefit with this is it allows you
to conduct 2 tests at the same time, polarity and R1 + R2.  

Method 2 for Polarity Test 

This method, like wise is similar to test 2 of the continuity test, we simply use
a wander lead as the return lead. There is little use for this method, within the
polarity test. Method 1 is less clumsy, and is far more flexible and useful.  
A Note on radial socket outlets: We have covered ring final circuits, but radial
final circuits involving sockets can prove to be little more involved. Why?  
Well simply because doing a polarity check using method 1, will not uncover a phase
to cpc reversal. If the phase and cpc were reversed at the socket, the instrument will
still provide a reading. It will however tell you if you have a phase to neutral reversal
(you wouldn’t have a reading at the socket). So what can we do to expose a
phase? We can simply link the phase and neutral together at the board, and put our
instrument across phase and neutral at the socket, if the cpc and phase have been
reversed, then no reading will be recorded on the instrument.  

How is Polarity Test Done?  

We perform following steps for polarity testing 

Step 1:  Polarity by Visual Inspection 

By using your knowledge and sight, correct termination of cables relating to

core colours can be established. It is essential that polarity is checked visually during
 the process of installation, especially in cases where checking by testing is
impractical. 

Step 2: Polarity by Continuity Testing 

If visual inspection is not possible, you will need to use a low-resistance ohmmeter for
this test. When you continuity test radial and ring final circuits, part of the process is
to test and visually inspect the polarity of fixed equipment and socket outlets. 
Steps:  

1. Switch off the circuit breaker supplying the circuit. 

2. From the specific circuit, put a temporary link that will connect the line conductor
and the CPC or any equipotential bonding conductors. It will serve as a testing point for
convenience.
3. Conduct continuity testing by placing the test leads across the line conductor and
the nearest CPC or any exposed conductive parts of the circuit. 
4. If the instrument shows zero reading (with continuity sound) then the switch is
connected properly to the line conductor. 
5. If the instrument shows some significant ohmic value then the switch is not connected
to the line conductor. Interchange the connections to fix the problem.

Step 3: Live Testing for Polarity 

If the two methods are not possible due to urgency we can perform live polarity
testing by using the approved voltage GS38. 
Steps: 

1. Test between LINE and NEUTRAL terminals. 

2. Test between LINE and EARTH terminals. 
3. Test between NEUTRAL and EARTH terminals. 

The test instrument should indicate full voltage (230V) between Line-Neutral and Line-
Earth conductors. No voltage should be detected between Neutral-Earth. 
The requirements for polarity test are: 

 All fuses and single pole switches are in the phase conductor. 

 The centre contact of equipment like lamp holder is connected to the phase
conductor. 
 All socket outlets and similar accessories are correctly wired. 

 Although polarity is towards the end of the recommended test sequence, it

is sensible, on lighting circuits, for example, to conduct this test at the same time as
that for continuity of CPCs. (When recording R1+R2). Polarity on ring final circuit
conductors, is achieved simply by conducting the ring circuit test.  
Reading across L&N should be  
(r1+rn)/4 +/- 0.05 Ohms 
And for across L&CPC  
(r1+r2)/4 +/- 0.05 Ohms. 
For radial socket outlet circuits, however, this is a little more difficult. The continuity
of the CPC will have already been proved by linking phase and CPC and measuring
between the same terminals at each socket. Whilst a phase-CPC reversal would not
have shown, a phase-neutral reversal would, as there would have been no reading at
the socket in question. This would have been remedied, and so only phase-CPC
reversals need to be checked. This can be done by linking together phase and
neutral at the origin and testing between the same terminals at each. 
A phase-CPC reversal will result in no reading at the socket in question. When the
supply is connected, it is important to check that the incoming supply is correct. This
is done using an approved voltage indicator at the intake position or close to it. 

Testing Polarity in Lightning Circuit and Transformer 

Test of Polarity of Lighting Circuits 

This test must be done with the supply disconnected and may be carried out as
follows:  
Remove circuit FUSE or open MCB. Remove all lamps from relevant circuit. Connect
one end of the long trailing lead to the outgoing terminal of the circuit MCB. Using
the other end in conjunction with the test meter leads, take readings from the phase
terminal at all the points around the circuit e.g. switches and ES lamp holders.
Continuity (approx. resistance of conductor involved) at each point ensures that
polarity is correct. 
If the supply is disconnected from the installation the long trailing lead may be
connected to the phase busbar and the MCB should then be left in the “on” position. 

 Test of Polarity of Transformers

In situations where the secondary bushing identification is not available or when a

transformer has been rewound, it may be necessary to determine the transformer
polarity by test. The following procedure can be used. 
The left-hand primary bushing and the left-hand secondary bushing are temporarily
jumpered together and a test voltage is applied to the transformer primary. The
resultant voltage is measured between the right-hand bushings. If the measured
voltage is greater than the applied voltage, the transformer is Additive Polarity
because the polarity is such that the secondary voltage is being added to the applied
primary voltage. If, however, the measured voltage across the right-hand bushings is
less than the applied primary voltage, the transformer is Subtractive Polarity.

WHAT & WHY OF PFC AND PSC TEST

Prospective Short Circuit (PSC) and Prospective Fault Current (PFC) are both designed

to calculate the maximum current that will flow within a fault loop path during the
event of an electrical fault as required by regulations. 
The Prospective Short Circuit Current is the maximum current that could flow between
Line and Neutral conductors on a single phase supply or between Line conductors on a
three phase supply. A PSC test calculates the current that will flow in the event of a
short circuit fault between the live conductors. That is, Line and Neutral on a single
phase installation or Line to Line/ Line to Neutral on a three phase installation. A PFC
test calculates the maximum current that will flow in the event of an earth fault;
i.e., Line to Earth. 
The test result can be determined by calculation, ascertained by enquiry to the
relevant electricity board, or measured using a Loop Tester. If you are using a Loop
Tester, you would measure both PSC and PFC values and record the highest value.
Due to the nature of different supply types, you would expect to find a PSC value
higher than a PFC value on both TT and TN-S systems, however on a TNC-S system
both the PFC and PSC value should be identical. 

Why PSC and PFC are Done? 
It is important that we conduct the tests to make sure that the protective devices
installed within a circuit are rated at the correct breaking capacity. Within a
domestic installation, it is common to find 6000A (6kA) rated MCB’s installed within a
circuit. If a domestic premises is situated particularly close to a supply sub-station
and the measured external impedance (Ze) of the property was 0.03 Ohms, Ohm’s law
calculates that 7,666A may flow in the event of a fault on a 230V supply. This may
cause concern if the switch gear is only rated at 6000A. 

What is done During PFC and PSC Tests? 

PSC is determined by the voltage and impedance of the supply system. It is of
the order of a few thousand amperes for a standard domestic mains electrical
installation, but may be as low as a few milliamperes in a separated extra-low
voltage (SELV) system or as high as hundreds of thousands of amps in large industrial
power systems. 
Protective devices such as circuit breakers and fuses must be selected with
an interrupting rating that exceeds the prospective short-circuit current, if they are to
safely protect the circuit from a fault. When a large electric current is interrupted
an arc forms, and if the breaking capacity of a fuse or circuit breaker is exceeded, it
will not extinguish the arc. Current will continue, resulting in damage to equipment,
fire or explosion. 
PFC is conducted at the origin of the installation, such as at the main switch or at
other switchgear connected directly to the tail from the electricity distributor’s
metering equipment. Where a measurement is made at a point in the installation
other than the origin, such as an item of switchgear fed by a distribution circuit, it
would not be the maximum value for the installation.  
Particular care should be exercised during the testing process, as fault conditions are
most severe at the origin of an installation, where this test is performed. The earthing
conductor, main protective bonding conductors and circuit protective
conductors should all be connected as for normal operation during these tests,
because the presence of these and any other parallel paths to earth may reduce the
impedance of the earth fault loop and so increase the level of prospective fault
current. 
PSC will be higher than the PFC. Prospective fault current and short circuit current of
a circuit is automatically calculated when making a loop impedance test. The
calculation uses a nominal circuit voltage, not the actual circuit voltage.
How is PSC and PFC Performed? 
The nominal supply voltage used in the calculation is automatically selected
depending on the actual circuit voltage. The instrument uses the following voltage
values: 

Actual measured voltage  Nominal voltage 

< 75 V  55 V 

≥= 75 V and <150 V  110 V 

≥= 150 V and <300 V  230 V 

≥=300 V  400 V 

The Prospective Short Circuit Current Test Sequence  

Step 1:
Prospective Fault Current tester or the PFC function of a multifunctional tester such
as the Megger 1553 is selected, and we make sure that the supply is ON, but the Main
Switch is in OFF position.
Step 2:
The test leads are connected on the incoming side of the Main Switch, one test lead
on Line and another on the Neutral terminals of the Main Switch. 
Step 3:
TEST switch is pressed and a note of the value (kA) is made. 
For three phase installations each phase is tested separately and the measured
reading (test between Line 1 and Neutral, then Line 2 and Neutral and last Line 3
and Neutral) is doubled. 
Some test meters require that the third (usually green) lead to be connected on the
Neutral during this test. Please refer to the test meter manufacturer’s instruction. 
There are two methods for measuring the value of PSC, but these can only be used
when the supply has already been connected. By then, the fuses and circuit breakers
will already be installed. 
 The first method is to measure the impedance of the supply by determining its
voltage regulation, that is, the amount by which the voltage falls with an increase in
current. For example, consider an installation with a no-load terminal voltage of 240 V.
If, when a current of 40 A flows, the voltage falls to 238 V, the volt drop will be due to
the impedance of the supply. 
 A second measurement method is to use a loop impedance tester see
connected to phase and neutral (instead of phase and earth) to measure supply
impedance. This can then be used with the supply voltage as above to calculate PSC.
Some manufacturers modify their earth-loop testers so that this connection is made by
selecting ‘PSC’ with a switch. The instrument measures supply voltage, and calculates,
then displays, PSC. 

A possible difficulty in measuring PSC, and thus being able to use fuses or circuit
breakers with a lower breaking capacity than that suggested by the Supply Company,
is that the supply may be reinforced. More load may result in extra or different
transformers and cables being installed, which may reduce supply impedance and
increase PSC. 
In terms of PFC, there is no such thing as acceptable PFC. It is what it is. When
testing on 3-phase supplies the simplest and quickest way is to take the highest PFC
reading off the single phase and double the value. Use Ohms Law to check. Fault
current readings should be very high. Anyway its result must be lower than breaking
capacity of the protective device. For example, a BS 1361 type 1 cartridge fuse has a
rating of approximately 16.5KA. The result must be lower than this at the origin of
installation. 

Benefits of PSC and PFC tests

 They give accurate results as its live testing.  

 The testing is simple and not much calculations are needed. 
 Increased safety for employees and third parties. 
 Reduced Insurance Premiums. 
 Asset Data management and tracking systems. 
 Minor repairs of equipment made onsite to minimise down time. 
 LEARN WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF
LIGHTNING ARRESTER AND WHY IS
TESTING NECESSARY

A Lightning Arrester, Surge arrester or Line arrester is a device used on electrical

power systems and telecommunications systems to protect the insulation and
conductors of the system from the damaging effects of lightning. The typical
Lightning Arrester has a high-voltage terminal and a ground terminal. When a
lightning surge (or switching surge) travels along the power line to the Arrester, the
current from the surge is diverted through the Arrestor, in most cases to the earth. 
Without good earth connections, even the most sophisticated of building lightning
protection installations will be ineffective. However, the only way to ensure that the
earth connections really are good is to test them. If protection fails or is absent,
lightning that strikes the electrical system introduces thousands of kilo Volts that may
damage the transmission lines, and can also cause severe damage to transformers and
other electrical or electronic devices. 

What is a Lightning Arrester/Surge Arrester? 

Surge arresters are devices that help prevent damage to apparatus due to high
voltages. The arrester provides a low-impedance path to ground for the current from
 a lightning strike or transient voltage and then restores to a normal operating
conditions. A surge arrester may be compared to a relief valve on a boiler or hot
water heater. It will release high pressure until a normal operating condition is
reached. When the pressure is returned to normal, the safety valve is ready for the
next operation. When a high voltage (greater than the normal line voltage) exists on
the line, the arrester immediately furnishes a path to ground and thus limits and
drains off the excess voltage. The arrester must provide this relief and then prevent
any further flow of current to ground. The arrester has two functions, it must provide
a point in the circuit at which an over-voltage pulse can pass to ground and second, to
prevent any follow-up current from flowing to ground. 
Various types of surge voltages can occur in electrical and electronic systems. They
differ mainly with respect to their duration and amplitude. Depending on the cause, a
surge voltage can last a few hundred microseconds, hours or even days. The
amplitude can range from a few millivolts to some ten thousand volts. Lightning
strikes are a special cause of surge voltages. Direct and indirect strikes can result not
only in high surge voltage amplitudes, but also particularly high and sometimes long
current flows, which then have very serious effects 

Types of Lightning Arrester

 Rod gap arrester 

 Sphere gap arrester 
 Horn gap arrester 
 Multi gap arrester 
 Electrolyte type arrester 
 Metal-oxide lightning arrester 

Maintenance of Lightning Arrester

 Cleaning the outside of the arrester housing. 

 The line should be de-energized before handling the arrester. 
 The earth connection should be checked periodically. 
 To record the readings of the surge counter. 
 The line lead is securely fastened to the line conductor and arrester. 
 The ground lead is securely fastened to the arrester terminal and ground. 

Why Lightning Arrester Testing is Done? 

If protection fails or is absent, lightning that strikes the electrical system
introduces 1000 of kilo Volts that may damage the transmission lines, and can also
 cause severe damage to transformers and other electrical or electronic
devices. Lightning-produced extreme voltage spikes in incoming power lines can also
damage electrical home appliances that’s why it is damn crucial to check the integrity
of Lightning Arrester. 

A direct lightning strike in the building can cause following damages: 

 Impact on health or loss of life. 

 Loss of technical services for the public. 
 Loss of irreplaceable objects of cultural significance. 
 Financial losses.

Lightning arrester testing should be scheduled as follows: 

 Explosion-protected, physical structures should undergo a visual check every

6 months. 
 The electrical test of the installations should be carried out once a year. •  
 For systems with strict requirements in terms of safety technology, for example, the
legislator can prescribe a comprehensive check. This can be necessary if there has been a
lightning strike within a certain radius of the respective system. 

Comprehensive testing in critical situations relates to physical structures that contain

sensitive systems or systems with a large number of persons.  
Lightning protective devices are developed, tested, and classified according to their
own international series of product standards and they have defined protection
functions and performance parameters to make them suitable for use in
corresponding protection concepts.  
Thus to achieve high system availability, system operators must regularly inspect and
maintain their electrical system. This is stipulated by legislators, supervisory
authorities or professional associations based on the respective system type. Regular
testing and maintenance of lightning protection systems (external and internal
lightning protection) is also required according to lightning protection standard
IEC 62305-3.  
Specialist knowledge is required in order to carry out professional testing of lightning
protection systems. For this reason, this test must be carried out by a lightning
protection expert, like Carelabs.  
Inspecting the SPDs (Surge Protective Devices) is also part of this. The standard also
demands that maintenance is properly documented. 

New Developments in Lightning Arrester Testing Field 

 New developments, presently achieved for distribution range, foresee the
replacement of the conventional porcelain housing with a polymeric one, allowing to
improve the mechanical characteristics and the failure mode behaviour. Furthermore
special applications for surge arresters, such as protection of gas insulated substations
and prevention of lightning faults in transmissions lines, are now taken into
consideration by several utilities. The evolution of surge arrester construction
technologies and application requires a continuous revision of relevant standards and
testing techniques. CESI has been actively involved in testing surge arresters since the
1960s, through the development and setting up of testing facilities and the
participation to the major technical and standardization bodies. The paper analyses
the most important aspects relevant to surge arrester testing, based on the most
recent experience developed in CESI. Particular attention is focused on the short
circuit test techniques to address the failure mode and on the ageing test procedures
to investigate the long term performance of surge arresters. 

What is Done During Lightning Arrester Testing? 

Protective measures against lightning strike events are stipulated in lightning
protection standard IEC 62305. Other standards in the series are IEC 61643-11, BS6651,
IEC 61643-21 and IEC 61643-31. Over twelve years, the protection system will test
under all seasonal conditions – these can significantly affect performance due to
changes in resistance and other characteristics. Following tests can be conducted: 

 Resistance testing 
 Continuity testing 
 Ground or soil resistivity testing 
 Visual inspection 

How do We Conduct Lightning Arrester Testing? 

Various tests carried out for surge arrestor testing are following: 

Visual Inspection of Lightning Arrester  

Visual inspection an installation should take into account the following key points and
observations recorded in the detailed inspection report: 

 Inspections should repeat at fixed intervals, not exceeding 12 months. If the intervals
fixed at 11 months, the system will inspect throughout every season of the year over 11
years. 
 The mechanical condition of all conductors, bonds, joints and earth electrodes should
check and any observations noted. 
 If a part is unable to inspect, this should note. 
 The bonding of any recently installed/added services should check. 

Thermal Image Testing (Infrared Testing) of lightning Arrester

The reason thermal imaging can assess the health of a surge arrester is because these
components dissipate very little energy during steady state operation and seldom
exhibit a temperatures much above ambient. Even the largest MOV arresters, e.g. 4 to
5 meters in height, dissipate less than 50 watts. With an arrester of that length, this
does not create a visible temperature rise and makes any effort to measure
temperature gradient above ambient a challenge. 
The benefits of thermal imaging are significant: 

 Speed of data collection. Indeed, there is no faster way at present to tell if an

arrester is near end-of-life than a scan of its temperature.  
 Accuracy from a distance is also excellent, especially if using a long-range camera
lens.  

The risk that an arrester is in the process of failing without also generating some heat
is very low. At the same time, if an arrester is damaged by lightning strike or
switching surge only days after its last thermal scan, it may well fail before the next
scheduled scan. This potential for failure between successive scans is perhaps the
only major negative of thermal imaging.   

Power Factor Testing of Lightning Arrestor

Power factor testing is extremely sensitive to weather conditions. Tests is conducted
in favourable conditions whenever possible. Measurements on surge arresters are
always performed at the same or recommended test voltage since nonlinear elements
may be built into an arrester.  
Except for the specific purpose of investigation surface leakage, the exposed
insulation surface of an arrester is kept clean and dry to prevent leakage from
influencing the measurements. Extreme care is taken when handling arresters
suspected of being damaged, since dangerously high gas pressures can build up within
a sealed unit. The test mode and the number of tests performed will depend on the
number of arresters in the stack. After performing tests, the test results are recorded
on a test form. 
For all power factor testing, the more information recorded at the time of testing will
ensure the best comparison of results at the next routine test. Test data should be
compared to factory or nameplate data if available. If no data is available, compare
the test results to prior tests on the same arrester and results of similar tests
on similar arresters. The following additional information should be recorded on the
test form.  
1. Record all the nameplate information of the arrester.  
2. Identify each set of readings with the arrester serial number.  
3. Note any special or unusual test connections or conditions.  
4. Record actual test voltage, current, watts, power factor and capacitance. Correct the
current and watts to a standard test voltage 2.5kV or 10kV.  
5. Surge arresters are often rated on the basis of watts loss. To obtain the equivalent 10
kV watts loss from a measurement of capacitance and power factor, perform the following
calculations if the test set does not display the results.  

Watts loss = CpF x %DF x 377 x 10-6 (for 60 Hz) 

Watts loss = CpF x %DF x 314 x 10-6 (for 50 Hz) 
Where: CpF = capacitance in picofarads %DF = percent dissipation (power factor)
ß Record ambient temperature and relative humidity and a general indication of
weather conditions at the time of the test. 

 Fall of Potential Testing Method of Lightning Arrester 

Fall of Potential method involves the electrode under test; two reference electrodes,
a set of leads and four-pole test meter. 
This method, however, is only practical if the electrode to test is located near to
virgin ground where test electrodes can drive. In reality, in town and city centres,
this is very often not the case. Presence of buried services and pipes may also
influence the test current and the last test value may be corrupted as a result of
these external influences. Reference electrodes is set away from such potential
disturbances. Where practical conditions dictate that the ‘Fall of Potential’ method
cannot be used, the ‘Dead/Known Earth’ method is really the only practical
alternative.  

Dead Earth Testing Method of Lighting Arrester 

The ‘dead earth’ could be any low-resistance earth not directly
or unexpectedly connected to the earth under test. A connection made from a
suitable earth to the test meter, which is in turn connected to the electrode under
test will show the lightning protection system acting as the known ‘dead/known’
earth. 
A reading is then taken and the ohmic value achieved is effectively the series
resistance of the electrode under test and the dead earth. 

Leakage Electricity of Lightning Arrester

 The Leakage Electricity Monitors are used to measure the Leakage Current of Surge
Arrester, and in case of high leakage current Surge Arrester is replaced. 
The power loss can be checked by several methods given below: 

 Using a voltage signal as reference. 

 Compensating the capacitive element by using a voltage signal. 
 Capacitive compensation by combining the leakage current of the three phases. 
 Third order harmonic analysis. 
 Direct determination of the power losses. 
 Third order harmonic analysis with compensation for harmonics in the voltage. 

Other usual tests carried out on Lightning arrestors are harmonic tests, hipot test
and insulation resistance test

Benefits of Lightning Arrester Testing 

 Lightning protection testing would make sure that all structures, key electrical and
electronic installations are safe from the effect of lightning strike. 
 The financial benefits are determined as follows: how does the total annual cost for a
lightning protection system compare to the costs of potential damage without a protection
system? The cost evaluation is based on the expenditures for the planning, assembly, and
maintenance of the lightning protection system. 

Statistics show the UK alone  subjected to around two million strikes per year and, to
make sure your lightning protection system is functional when called upon, bearing in
mind you have no way of determining when that any maintenance work should be
carried out with suitable expediency. 
In the hands of experienced engineers, proper testing and maintenance of lightning
protection systems can become a routine, but very necessary, part of a
comprehensive safety programme. At the very least the consequences of not taking a
thorough approach could incur unnecessary costs but, given the destructive potential
of a lightning strike, those consequences could be much worse. 
All lightning protection systems and static earthen systems must inspect and test by
skilled person using calibrated test equipment. Complete lightning protection testing
would make sure that all structures, key electrical and electronic installations are
safe from the effect of lightning strike. 
 LEARN HOW INSULATION RESISTANCE
TEST IS DONE

Developed early in the 20th century, the insulation resistance (IR) test is the oldest
and most widely used test for assessing the quality of insulation. The Insulation
Resistance Test is the second test required by the electrical safety testing
standards. The Insulation Resistance Test consists in measuring the Insulation
resistance of a device under test, while phase and neutral are short circuited
together. The measured resistance has to be higher than the indicated limit from the
international standards. A megohmmeter (also called insulation resistance tester,
teraohmmeter) is used to measure the ohmic value of an insulator under a direct
voltage of great stability. 
Insulation cannot be perfect in the same way that something cannot be frictionless.
This means that there will always be a little bit of current travelling through. This is
known as “leakage current”. It’s acceptable with good insulation, but if the insulation
deteriorates, leakage can start causing trouble. So what makes “good” insulation?
Well, it needs a high resistance to current, and it needs to be able to sustain high
resistance for a long time 

Why Insulation Resistance Test is Done? 

Insulation starts to age as soon as it’s made. As it ages, its insulating performance
deteriorates. Any harsh installation environments, especially those with temperature
extremes and/or chemical contamination, accelerates this process. Stresses due to
different factors like: 
 Electrical stresses: Mainly linked to overvoltage and undervoltage.  
 Mechanical stresses: Frequent start-up and shutdown sequences can cause mechanical
stresses.  
 Balancing problems on rotating machinery and any direct stress to the cables and the
installations in general.  
 Chemical stresses: The proximity of chemicals, oils, corrosive vapours and dust, in
general, affects the insulation performance of the materials. 
 Stresses linked to temperature variations: When combined with the mechanical
stresses caused by the start-up and shutdown sequences, expansion and contraction stresses
affect the properties of the insulating materials. Operation at extreme temperatures also
leads to aging of the materials.  
 Environmental contamination causes aging acceleration of insulation. 

This wear and tear can reduce the electrical resistivity of the insulating materials,
thus increasing leakage currents that lead to incidents which may be serious in terms
of both safety (people and property) and the costs of production stoppages. Thus it’s
important to identify this deterioration quickly so that corrective steps can be
taken. In addition to the measurements carried out on new and reconditioned
equipment during commissioning, regular insulation testing on installations and
equipment helps to avoid such incidents through preventive maintenance. These tests
detect ageing and premature deterioration of the insulating properties before they
reach a level likely to cause the incidents described above. 
This test is often used as a customer acceptance test, with minimum insulation
resistance per unit length often specified by the customer. The results obtained from
IR Test are not intended to be useful in finding localized defects in the insulation as in
a true HIPOT test, but rather give information on the quality of the bulk material used
as the insulation. 
Wire and cable manufacturers use the insulation resistance test to track their
insulation manufacturing processes, and spot developing problems before process
variables drift outside of allowed limit. 

What is Done During Insulation Resistance Measurement? 

The measurement of insulation resistance is a common routine test performed on all
types of electrical wires and cables. Its objective is to measure the ohmmic value of
the insulation under a direct voltage of great stability, generally 50, 100, 250, 500, or
1000 VDC. The ohmmic value of the insulation resistance is expressed in megohms
(MΩ). To conform to specific standards, the insulation resistance test can be
performed under voltages up to 1500VDC. Due to the stability of the voltage source, it
is possible to adjust the test voltage by steps of 1 volt. 
The stability of the voltage is critical; a non-regulated voltage will drop sharply in
presence of a bad insulation which will cause an erroneous measurement. 
After the required connections are made, you apply the test voltage for a period of
one min. During this interval, the resistance should drop or remain relatively steady.
Larger insulation systems will show a steady decrease, while smaller systems will
remain steady because the capacitive and absorption currents drop to zero faster on
smaller insulation systems. After one min, read and record the resistance value 
Selection of IR Testers (Megger):

Voltage Level  IR Tester 

650V  500V DC 

1.1KV  1KV DC 

3.3KV  2.5KV DC 

66Kv and Above  5KV DC 

How Insulation Resistance is Measured? 

Insulation resistance measurement is done using an IR tester. This is a portable tool
that is more or less an ohmmeter with a built in generator that’s used to produce a
high DC voltage. The voltage usually measures at least 500V, and causes a current to
flow around the surface of the insulation. This gives a reading of the IR in ohms. 
Insulation resistance measurement is based on Ohm’s Law. (R=V/I). By injecting a
known DC voltage lower than the voltage for dielectric testing and then measuring the
current flowing, it is very simple to determine the value of the resistance. In
principle, the value of the insulation resistance is very high but not infinite, so by
measuring the low current flowing, the megohmmeter indicates the insulation
resistance value, providing a result in kW, MW, GW and also TW (on some models).
This resistance characterizes the quality of the insulation between two conductors
and gives a good indication of the risks of leakage currents flowing.  
Well, if you are looking at a high number of IR, you have some good insulation. If it is
relatively low, on the other hand, the insulation is poor. 
However, this is not everything – a variety of factors can affect the IR, including
temperature and humidity. You will have to do a number of tests over time to make
sure the IR value stays more or less the same. Value of insulation resistance is often
expressed in gigaohms [GΩ]. 
Good Insulation is when megger reading increases first then remain constant. Bad
Insulation is when megger reading increases first and then decreases.  
Expected IR value gets on Temp. 20 to 30 decree centigrade. If this temperature
reduces by 10 degree centigrade, IR values will increased by two times. If above
temperature increased by 70 degree centigrade IR values decreases by 700 times. 
In order to measure big electrical resistance, measurement voltage has to be far
higher than it is in case of standard resistance measurements. This voltage is often
within the range from 100 VDC to 1000 VDC and it cannot be used for measuring
resistance of electronic components because they could be damaged. 

High Value Resistance 

To measure a high value resistance, techniques for measuring a low value current are
used. A constant voltage source is applied to the resistance to be measured and the
resulting current is read on a highly sensitive ammeter circuit that can display the
resistance value. 
Two types of ammeter circuits are used on our range of insulation resistance tester,
each circuit being chosen depending on the resistance values to be measured. 

Shunt Ammeter Circuit

The voltmeter input, associated to a resistance, forms the shunt ammeter circuit.
This setting allows measuring any value of I, many combinations of sensitivity and
values of RI. This circuit is used for current measurement of high values which
correspond to resistance measurement of low values. 

Feedback Ammeter Circuit

 This circuit is the one mostly used on our instruments. It covers the resistance
measurement of high values. 
 Indeed the value of a high resistance depends of the voltage applied to it. Other
factors intervene in the high value resistance measurement. Temperature and relative
humidity are two important parameters which influence the resistance value of an
insulator.  

Difference Between Dielectric Strength Test and IR Test 

Dielectric strength testing, also called “breakdown testing”, measures an insulation’s
ability to withstand a medium-duration voltage surge without sparkover occurring. In
reality, this voltage surge may be due to lightning or the induction caused by a fault
on a power transmission line. The main purpose of this test is to ensure that the
construction rules concerning leakage paths and clearances have been followed. This
 test is often performed by applying an AC voltage but can also be done with a DC
voltage. This type of measurement requires a hipot tester. The result obtained is a
voltage value usually expressed in kilovolts (kV). Dielectric testing may be destructive
in the event of a fault, depending on the test levels and the available energy in the
instrument. For this reason, it is reserved for type tests on new or reconditioned
equipment.  
Insulation resistance measurement, however, is non-destructive under normal test
conditions. Carried out by applying a DC voltage with a smaller amplitude than for
dielectric testing, it yields a result expressed in kW, MW, GW or TW. This resistance
indicates the quality of the insulation between two conductors. Because it is non-
destructive, it is particularly useful for monitoring insulation aging during the
operating life of electrical equipment or installations. This measurement is performed
using an insulation tester, also called a megohmmeter 

Factors affecting values of insulation resistance: 

 Capacitance Charging Current: Current that starts out high and drops after the
insulation has been charged to full voltage (much like water flow in a garden hose when you
first turn on the spigot).  
 Absorption Current: Also an initially high current which then drops (for reasons
discussed under the section Time-Resistance Method).  
 Conduction or Leakage Current A small essentially steady current both through and
over the insulation. 

Safety Requirements for Insulation Resistance Measurement 

 All equipment under test must be disconnected and isolated. 

 Equipment should be discharged (shunted or shorted out) for at least as long as the
test voltage was applied in order to be absolutely safe for the person conducting the test. 
 Never use Megger in an explosive atmosphere. 
 Make sure all switches are blocked out and cable ends marked properly for safety. 
 Make sure when testing for earth, that the far end of the conductor is not touching,
otherwise the test will show faulty insulation when such is not actually the case. 
 Make sure that all connections in the test circuit are tight.  
 Cable ends to be isolated shall be disconnected from the supply and protected from
contact to supply, or ground, or accidental contact. 
 Erection of safety barriers with warning signs, and an open communication channel
between testing personnel. 

 About Megger: 

A megohmmeter usually is equipped with three terminals.  

1. The “LINE” (or “L”) terminal is the so-called “hot” terminal and is connected to the
conductor whose insulation resistance you are measuring. Remember: These tests are
performed with the circuit deenergised. 
2. The “EARTH” (or “E”) terminal is connected to the other side of the insulation, the
ground conductor. 
3. The “GUARD” (or “G”) terminal provides a return circuit that bypasses the meter. For
example, if you are measuring a circuit having a current that you do not want to include, you
connect that part of the circuit to the “GUARD” terminal. This is the simplest of the tests.  

Why is a Multimeter not Used for Measuring Insulation Resistance? 

A multimeter is able measure different magnitudes, including electrical resistance,
whose unit is given in ohms. Its operation, particularly to measure resistance, is given
by the action of an internal battery (low voltage) that circulates a small current
through the resistance being measured or, failing that, the conductor or winding. The
value in ohm obtained belongs to the electrical resistance, which causes the current
to pass through the conductor and is incremented according to its longitude and
section. 
On the other hand, a megohmeter, also known as Megger, is often used to measure
the insulation resistance of an insulated body. For its operation, it uses a DC
generator or a battery, are able generate output voltage values of up to 5000V. The
results obtained in the ohm test are related to the insulation resistance, which has an
insulated element relating to an active element or a conductor. 
Although there is a degree of similarity between both tools, the insulation resistance
is mandatorily measured using a Megger (or a similar device), because it’s able to
generate a high voltage that creates a moment of stress in the insulation. 
Insulation resistance is calculated usually in Mega- or Tera-ohms, inclusive 
In conclusion, a multimeter measures the electrical resistance of a conductor (coil),
while a Megger measures the insulation resistance of an isolated group (two coils
relative to mass), something that a multimeter is unable to do. 

Types of Insulation Resistance Tests  

Short-Time or Spot-Reading Test
In this method, you simply connect the Megger instrument across the insulation to be
tested and operate it for a short, specific time period you have simply picked a point
on a curve of increasing resistance values; quite often the value would be less for 30
seconds, more for 60 seconds. Bear in mind also that temperature and humidity, as
well as condition of your insulation affect your reading. 
If the apparatus you are testing has very small capacitance, such as a short run of
house wiring, the spot reading test is all that is necessary. For many years,
maintenance professionals have used the one-megohm rule to establish the allowable
lower limit for insulation resistance. The rule may be stated: Insulation resistance
should be approximately one megohm for each 1,000 volts of operating voltage, with
a minimum value of one megohm. 
Time-Resistance Method 
This method is fairly independent of temperature and often can give you conclusive
information without records of past tests. It is based on the absorption effect of good
insulation compared to that of moist or contaminated insulation. Tests by this method
are sometimes referred to as absorption tests. 
This test is of value also because it is independent of equipment size. The increase in
resistance for clean and dry insulation occurs in the same manner whether a motor is
large or small. You can, therefore, compare several motors and establish standards
for new ones, regardless of their horsepower ratings. 
Insulation Resistance should be done to prevent hazards such as electric shock and
short-circuits caused when the insulation in electrical devices, parts, and equipment
used in industrial plants, buildings, and other settings degrades over long periods of
use. 

HOW AND WHY DO WE NEED TO

CONDUCT ELECTRICAL SAFETY
TESTING
 Making a product “safe” requires an understanding of the “hazards” that exist in each
electrical product. Certain potential hazards are inborn in all electrical products
because of the manner in which they are powered and how they perform their
intended functions. Even though a product requires an electrical power source and
uses electrical or electronic components, it should not present an electrical shock
hazard to the user.  
Four fundamental hazards must be evaluated as part of any product safety
evaluation:  

 Electrical shock 
 Mechanical/physical injury  
 Low voltage/high energy  
 Fire  

Although additional safety requirements are also included in most safety standards,
these four hazards are the foundation upon which all safety standards are based.
Electrical shock and its effects can be caused and influenced by several factors. The
primary effect is the result of electrical current passing through the human body.
Severity of the injury to the human body is directly affected by such variables as: the
nature of the electrical voltage (AC vs. DC); the pathway through the human body;
conductivity of the contact (wet or dry); the size and shape of the individual
involved i.e., the person’s impedance), duration of the contact, and the size of the
contact area. All these affect the magnitude of current that flows through the
person’s body. 
Most safety standards address the shock issue by incorporating requirements that
instructs appropriate product enclosures: connectors that do not allow direct user
access, good dielectric or insulating barriers, as well as very low leakage current. Not
all voltage potentials, however, are considered hazardous. Some are considered safe
for user contact because of the low levels at which they operate. Since the standards
are very specific about these limits, manufacturers must be careful to test their
products against the right product standard to be sure that the products are safe. 

Why Electrical Safety Testing is Done? 

Testing electrical and electronic products for electrical safety is intended to identify
the potential risk of electrical shock to users. It is a statutory obligation in most
cases. If your premises are open to the public, i.e. pubs, schools, cinemas, clubs,
churches, dentists, doctors etc. then you most likely need to be inspected yearly. If
you are a private dwelling then you should be tested at least every 10 years.  
Electrical testing is often overlooked by ignorance, many companies now delegate the
responsibility to dedicated companies. Carelabs keeps a data base of all tests and the
results, when they are performed. This way there will be clarity. 

Electrical Testing is Important!!  

Carelabs conducts electrical testing of the fixed equipment (cables, sockets, lights,
etc.) and PAT (Portable Appliance Testing) simply put if it has a plug on it, it will and
has to be tested. This is a requirement for all types of installation, Industrial,
Commercial and Domestic. Home-owners wishing to sell their dwelling can use our
same service to make the test results available to potential purchase. 
Electrical safety is mandatory for legal access to every major country in the world. It
can help prevent unsafe products from reaching the market, reducing the number of
deaths and injuries, as well as costly product recalls and potential litigation.
Manufacturers whose products that have been tested and certified to applicable
electrical safety standards send a clear signal to buyers and the general public of
their commitment to user safety. This question is many manufacturers want to ask,
surely the general answer is “because it is regulated in safety standard”. 
Both Producer and designer should do their duty to protect consumer safety on
safety protection of special product. Passing safety verification doesn’t mean the
danger won’t occur. The designers should browse safety related information on usual
 days, new standard announcement and new test method will effect on test basis of
related product. 
Electric shock:
Electrical shock is caused by flow of current through human body. This kind of
electrical shock has direct effect on human body, the seriousness of injuries depends
on degree of electrical energy, humidity, and time duration of the conduction. Shock
hazards vary in severity and range from a tingling sensation to a lethal jolt.
Identifying, correcting, and eliminating shock hazards are the primary reasons for
electrical safety testing. 
 
Electrical shock includes the following four kinds of test: 

1. Dielectric Withstand / Hipot Test: Withstand test apply high voltage on power
and ground terminal circuit of product to measure its collapse status.  
2. Isolation Resistance Test: Measure product electrical isolation status.  
3. Leakage Current Test: Inspects whether leakage current of AC/DC power flows
to ground terminal is over standard.  
4. Protective Ground: Inspect whether metal mechanics of accessible part surely
grounding. 

These tests will be discussed in detail in the following content.

Consider your laptop. Most of the time it presents no shock hazard to you. However,
when you plug it into the charger and connect the charger to a wall outlet, you now
have a possibility for a shock hazard. If the insulation between the charger and your
laptop were to fail, the primary voltage applied to the charger could be present on
conductive surfaces to which you have access. 
We perform the following equipment checks during visual and physical inspection
of all equipment: 

1. Check for obvious damage or defects in the accessories, connectors, plugs or

extension outlet sockets; and for discoloration that may indicate exposure to heat,
chemicals or moisture. 
Note: For low-voltage portable equipment and cord extension sets fitted with AS/NZS
3112 type (flat pin) plugs and extension sockets, the use of clear backed or integrally
moulded (non re-wireable) plugs, and cord extension sockets is recommended. Clear
backed plugs and sockets facilitate the easy inspection of the effectiveness of the
sheath grip. 
2.  Check that flexible cords are effectively anchored to equipment, plugs and
cord extension sockets.
Note: This inspection, including flexing and straining at points of entry and clamping
points by the application of reasonable combination of push/pull and rotary movements,
may detect broken strands or loose connections.  
3. Check for damage to flexible cords that: 
o The inner cores of flexible supply cords are not exposed or twisted. 
o The external sheaths are not cut, abraded, twisted, or damaged to such
an extent that the insulation of the inner cores is visible. 
o Unprotected conductors or the use of banding insulation tape are not in
evidence.
Note: Carefully running the supply cord through the hand will often detect internal
damage such as twisted conductors or broken core filling. Connecting the plugs/sockets
of extension leads together helps to confirm that the terminals have not spread. 
o For portable outlet devices (power boards), check that the warning
indicating the maximum load to be connected to the device is intact and legible. 
4. Check that any operating controls are in good working order – that they are
secure, aligned and appropriately identified. 
5. Check that covers, guards, and the like are secured in the manner intended by
the manufacturer or supplier. 
6. Check that ventilation inlets and exhausts are unobstructed. 

How do We Conduct Electrical Safety Testing? 

IEC 60335 is the most widely applied standard for electrical safety testing, especially
for domestic appliances. Many safety testing standards in the world have been based
on it. Electric safety testing will help  

 Find any potential electric shock risks and fire hazards.  

 Identify any defective electrical work.  
 Highlight any lack of earthing or bonding.  
 Tests are also carried out on wiring and fixed electrical equipment to check
that they are safe.

Following are the basic tests we conduct during electrical safety testing: 

High Voltage Test (HiPot test/Dielectric voltage-withstand test)

High voltage test also known as HiPot test or dielectric voltage-withstand test is
a non-destructive test that determines the adequacy of electrical insulation for the
normally occurring over voltage transient. This is a high-voltage test that is applied to
all devices for a specific time in order to ensure that the insulation is not marginal.
Hipot tests are helpful in finding nicked or crushed insulation, stray wire strands or
braided shielding, conductive or corrosive contaminants around the conductors,
terminal spacing problems, and tolerance errors in cables. It guarantees no current
flows from one point to another point. 
 HiPot test is opposite of continuity test. Continuity Test checks surety of current
flows easily from one point to another point while Hipot Test checks surety of current
 would not flow from one point to another point (and turn up the voltage really high
just to make sure no current will flow). 
Hipot testers usually connect one side of the supply to safety. The other side of the
supply is connected to the conductor being tested. With the supply connected like
this there are two places a given conductor can be connected: high voltage or ground.
When you have more than two contacts to be hipot tested you connect one contact to
high voltage and connect all other contacts to ground.  
Testing a contact in this fashion makes sure it is isolated from all other contacts. If
the insulation between the two is adequate, then the application of a large voltage
difference between the two conductors separated by the insulator would result in the
flow of a very small current. Although this small current is acceptable, no breakdown
of either the air insulation or the solid insulation should take place. Therefore, the
current of interest is the current that is the result of a partial discharge or
breakdown, rather than the current due to capacitive coupling 
Steps to be followed during HiPot tests are: 

 Only electrically qualified workers may perform this testing. 

 Open circuit breakers or switches to isolate the circuit or Cable that will be hi-
pot tested. 
 Confirm that all equipment or Cable that is not to be tested is isolated from
the circuit under test. 
 The limited approach boundary for this hi-pot procedure at 1000 volts is 5 ft.
(1.53m) so place barriers around the terminations of cables and equipment under test
to prevent unqualified persons from crossing this boundary. 
 Connect the ground lead of the HIPOT Tester to a suitable building ground or
grounding electrode conductor. Attach the high voltage lead to one of the isolated
circuit phase conductors. 
 Switch on the HIPOT Tester. Set the meter to 1000 Volts or pre decide DC
Voltage. Push the “Test” button on the meter and after one minute observe the
resistance reading.  Record the reading for reference. 
 At the end of one minute test, switch the HIPOT Tester from the high potential
test mode to the voltage measuring mode to confirm that the circuit phase conductor
and voltage of HIPOT Tester are now reading zero volts. 
 Repeat this test procedure for all circuit phase conductors testing each phase
to ground and each phase to each phase. 
 When testing is completed disconnect the HIPOT Tester from the circuits under
test and confirm that the circuits are clear to be re-connected and re-energized. 
 To PASS the unit or Cable under Test must be exposed to a minimum Stress of
pre decide Voltage for 1 minute without any Indication of Breakdown. For Equipment
with total area less than 0.1 m2, the insulation resistance shall not be less than 400 MΩ.
For Equipment with total area larger than 0.1 m2 the measured insulation resistance
times the area of the module shall not be less than 40 MΩ⋅m2. 
 Ground Protection Test 
Ground protection consists of two kinds of test method:  

 Ground Continuity test (GC) and  

 Ground Bond test (GB) 

The purpose of ground protection test is for protecting users from electrical hazards
from touching equipment when unsuitable current is created and flows to the earth.
The test method of ground continuity is inputting 1 ampere DC current to power
terminal for confirming the resistance value between two ends is lower than 1Ω.
Ground bond test is to inputting 25A or 1.5 times rated current to power terminal and
check resistance values are lower than 100mΩ.  
This test will ascertain whether the earth continuity between the earth supply to the
equipment and the internal component earth connections and the metal casing of the
equipment are earthed correctly. 

 Electrically isolate power supply at fused spur switch and remove fuse. (Always
ensure the boiler is fused at 3 amps on completion of work).
 Set Multimeter on ohms scale for resistance readings. 
 First put black lead from Multimeter to the retaining screws of the fused socket
connection and then the red lead from the multi meter to the boiler casing. 

The resistance reading must be no more than 1 ohm and whenever the resistance
reading proves to be more than 1 ohm, there is a fault present and must be traced
and rectified before proceeding any further. Check all the earth wires for continuity
and check all connections are secure. 
Poor grounding not only increases the risk of equipment failure; it is dangerous.
Facilities need to have adequately grounded electrical systems so in the event of a
lightning strike, or utility overvoltage, current will find a safe path to earth. 
Simple grounding systems consist of a single ground electrode driven into the ground.
The use of a single ground electrode is the most common form of grounding and can
be found outside your home or place of business. Complex grounding systems consist
of multiple ground rods; connected mesh or grid networks; ground plates; and ground
loops. These systems are typically installed at power generating substations, central
offices, and cell tower sites.  
Warning: Poor earth continuity or no earth continuity at all will create a dangerous
situation, as any metal parts that should be earthed may become live and a short
circuit may cause an electric shock 

Insulation Resistance Test

 Insulation resistance test is non-destructive test and can detect if insulation is good.
In some regulation, do insulation resistance test firstly then withstand test. When
insulation resistance test fails usually withstand voltage test also fails. 
The standard insulation resistance test is divided into four steps:  

1. Charge 
2. DWELL 
3. Test  
4. Discharge  

This is the simplest of the tests. After the required connections are made, you apply
the test voltage for a period of one min. (The one-min interval is an industry practice
that allows everyone to take the reading at the same time. In this way, comparison of
readings will be of value because, although taken by different people, the test
methods are consistent.) During this interval, the resistance should drop or remain
relatively steady. Larger insulation systems will show a steady decrease, while smaller
systems will remain steady because the capacitive and absorption currents drop to
zero faster on smaller insulation systems. After one min, read and record the
resistance value. 
The Insulation Resistance Test consists in measuring the Insulation resistance of a
device under test, while phase and neutral are short circuited together. The
measured resistance has to be higher than the indicated limit from the international
standards. The measured resistance indicates the condition of the insulation between
two conductive parts. An infinite resistance would be the perfect result, but no
insulator is perfect, so the higher the reading the better. To perform the tests
needed, you will need an Insulation Resistance Tester or a multifunctional tester such
as Megger. 
You can use it as: 

 A quality control measure at the time a piece of electrical equipment is

produced.
 An installation requirement to help ensure specifications are met and to verify
proper hook-up. 
 A periodic preventive maintenance task, and 
 A troubleshooting tool. 

Obviously, it’s a good idea to have a basic familiarity with the item you’re testing.
Basically, you should know what is supposed to be insulated from what. The
equipment you’re testing will determine how you hook up your meghommeter. 
When performing insulation resistance testing, you must maintain consistency. Why?
Because electrical insulation will exhibit dynamic behavior during the course of your
test; whether the dielectric is “good” or “bad.” To evaluate a number of test results
on the same piece of equipment, you have to conduct the test the same way and
under the relatively same environmental parameters, each and every time. Your
 resistance measurement readings will also change with time. This is because
electrical insulation materials exhibit capacitance and will charge during the course
of the test. This can be somewhat frustrating to a novice. However, it becomes a
useful tool to a seasoned technician. 

Leakage Current Test

Leakage current is the current that flows from either AC or DC circuit in an equipment
to the chassis, or to the ground, and can be either from the input or the output. If the
equipment is not properly grounded, the current flows through other paths such as the
human body. The difference between leakage current test, withstanding voltage test
and grounding protection test is the process of testing an equipment under running
status. Whatever be the national standard regulation or region standard regulation,
the standard of leakage current is different depending on the insulation types of
products. “CLASSI, II, III” (which derived from IEC system) A brief descriptions is given
below:  

 CLASS I indicates anti-shock protection of product not only depends on basic

insulation but also includes grounding method.  
 CLASS II indicates anti-shock protection of product not only depends on basic
insulation but also includes additional precaution. For example double or reinforce
insulation but without grounding or installation condition for relying precaution.  
 CLASS III indicates anti-shock protection of product depends on power voltage
is safety extra-low voltage (SELV) and it don’t generate danger voltage. 

Leakage Current Test or a line voltage leakage current test simulates the effect of a
person touching exposed metal parts of a product and detects whether or not the
leakage current that would flow through the person’s body remains below a safe
level. A person typically perceives current flow through his body when it reaches or
exceeds 1mA (one thousandth of an ampere). Current above the threshold can cause
an uncontrolled muscular spasm or shock. The leakage current is measured by
applying a fixed voltage and measuring the voltage across the shunt that is a result of
the leakage current. The reference design uses different switchable shunt resistances,
which are switched on in a sequence to measure the insulation resistance. When there
is a dead short, the insulation resistance is 0 Ω and a full current (or maximum) can
pass through the insulation resistance. At this point in the measurement having a
smaller shunt value (by turning on all of the switches) is mandatory. In the other case,
when the insulation is higher, a higher shunt value is required. The leakage current
flowing through the shunt or shunts is measured using a current shunt monitor 

How to Select the Correct Safety Test Equipment

The first step to select safety test equipment is to realize your basic requirement, it
may be the safety standard your company product need to accord. The test is for
promoting product function requirement and consideration of cost and efficiency. 
Since hipot tests are usually required for 100% of the units in a production line, and
since hipot tests are more stringent, line voltage leakage tests are normally specified
as design or type tests and not as production line tests. 

Benefits of Electrical Safety Testing

Business Interruptions:
The more power your facility uses, the greater the risk of a failure. Electrical failures
are inevitable without preventive maintenance.  
Life/Safety Risks: 
Electrical distribution system malfunctions are now the leading cause of office
structure and basic industry fire in the North America. DON’T RISK IT! Let us help! 
Utility Costs: 
Without Preventive Maintenance the Electrical Distribution System itself can waste on
average $1,000 to $4,000 in Electric Utility Cost annually! We can help to identify and
eliminate these wasted costs! 
Surge Suppression: 
80% of all transients are generated internally by starting and stopping of
elevators, motors, heating and air conditioning equipment and manufacturing
equipment. Electrical transients, which are spikes of current and/or voltage in a
circuit, cause degradation in equipment which commonly get mistaken for
manufacturer quality and equipment age. We can help develop a surge suppression
plan to ensure the maximum possible protection of your assets. 
Power Quality Analysis: 
Power quality problems cause loss of data and malfunction of computerized
equipment. We can identify and help you eliminate these problems. 
Insurance/Certification: 
Insurance companies lose millions of dollars each year due to electrical failure. When
insurance companies lose so do their customers. More and more insurance companies
are encouraging their customers to participate in electrical preventive maintenance.
It’s a savings for all. 
Asset Management: 
The average life expectancy of your Electrical Distribution System is only 15 years
when electrical preventive maintenance does not exist. When your electrical system
is cared for its life expectancy goes to an average of 30 years. We can help you plan
for large upgrades, and avoid emergency repairs. 
 WHAT IS GENERATOR LOAD BANK
TESTING AND HOW IS IT DONE

Running your generator efficiently is the key to ensuring its longevity and avoiding
unnecessary downtime. Standby generators can remain unused for long periods of
time, awaiting a power cut before smoothly intercepting it. Even a regular no-load
test leaves the standby generator prone to faults incurred through underuse or
neglect. 
These diesel standby generators that run rarely and or lightly loaded can build up fuel
deposits in parts of the engine over time, which may leave your standby generator
with reduced output capacity when it is needed. Policies. Things like light loading a
generator or neglecting scheduled maintenance can lead to unexpected operating
costs, excessive wear and increased emissions 
A load test in this situation will ensure that your standby generator will support your
load when the occasion arises. Annual load testing is imperative to confirm your
generator is capable of handling the demanded load when necessary, and some
insurance companies demand it as part of their  
 Most importantly, though, regularly scheduled maintenance will help to make sure
that your generator is ready when it’s called upon. For some applications, such as
data centres, blood banks and hospitals, emergency power generators simply cannot
afford to fail. That’s why preventative maintenance techniques like load bank testing
are vitally important. 
In fact, load bank testing is a mandatory requirement for some backup power
generation applications. Emergency power generation systems fall under a number of
regulatory oversight conditions and code requirements. The National Fire Protection
Agency (NFPA) and the National Electric Code (NEC) have both drafted rules which
pertain directly to the load bank testing of emergency generators. 

Why is Generator Load Bank Testing Done? 

Your generator set is a valuable resource that provides a dependable emergency
power to your business when power from the utility grid is suddenly lost, or power is
not available in your environment. In the event of a power failure you want to have
peace of mind that your backup power supply will spring into action seamlessly on a
moment’s notice. But what happens when the power goes out and your generator fails
function as expected? The result can often be costly and sometimes catastrophic
depending upon your application.  
This is precisely the reason generator load bank testing is an essential piece of a
comprehensive preventative generator maintenance plan, which you should ideally
have conducted on your genset(s) each year. Load bank testing helps to ensure that
your generator will be fully dependable and operational, as well as completely
capable of the highest possible load it may be required to handle at any critical point
in time. Load testing your emergency standby generator system should be part of a
standard planned maintenance program for all systems. 

Reasons to Test Your Generator

 To make sure the generator will perform as designed, when it is needed most. This is
the only true way to check the performance of the generator. A load test will allow
verification that the generator system will produce and maintain full load without
overheating and shutting down. It also allows testing of all components of the system, to
ensure all work together as designed and intended and can help identify any potential
weaknesses in controlled conditions. This allows proactive maintenance, as weaknesses are
identified during controlled conditions, not during a utility outage when a weakness can cause
the system to fail.
The load can come from building load, but that may cause business interruptions when
transferring from utility to generator. It also does not allow the load to be applied in steps,
where performance can be monitored and recorded. Generally, utilizing a portable load bank
is the preferred method of load testing a generator system. 
 Most generator systems are programmed to exercise on a regular basis. Typically this
exercise period is under no (or very little) load. Monitoring the exercise period to ensure the
generator starts and runs as programmed is also important, but does not ensure the generator
will operate as designed. 

 Most generator systems are installed and then put into automatic mode. As the
generator ages, the possibility of weaknesses in the system will rise. Among other potential
enemies, weather, pests and age can negatively affect the efficiency of a generator system. A
good planned maintenance program that includes load testing is the best way to spot and
minimize potential weaknesses in a generator system. 
 In addition, because many of the installed generator systems that utilize a diesel
engine present another challenge. That challenge is referred to as wet-stacking. If not
addressed, wet-stacking will degrade the performance of the system and not allow the system
to operate as designed. Many systems are designed with some redundancy on load or for
future expansion. This means many systems are not loaded appropriately to eliminate wet-
stacking. At a minimum, I recommend all diesel system be load tested with a portable load
bank for a minimum of two hours, annually. If a diesel system hasn’t been load tested in over
a year, longer testing may be required. This annual testing will reduce the impact wet-
stacking will have on a generator system. 

A good planned maintenance program that includes regular load testing should be a
standard component of a generator system. The regular testing of the system will
provide the highest comfort level that when the system is required, it will operate as
designed. 

What is Generator Load Bank Testing? 

Generator Load Bank Testing is an Important Aspect of Preventative Maintenance. A
generator load bank test involves an examination and assessment of a genset.  It
verifies that all primary components of the generator set are in proper working
condition. The equipment used to conduct a load bank test produces artificial loads
on the generator by bringing the engine to an appropriate operating temperature and
pressure level. This is especially important for standby and emergency generator sets
that do not run very often and/or may not be exposed to carrying heavy loads on a
frequent basis.  The general rule is – if your generator is not exposed to higher than
30% of its rated kW load then you should be considering a load test. 
Load bank testing involves firing up a standby or prime power generator and running it
under an artificial load at its maximum capacity for a specified period of time. During
load bank testing, data can be recorded that offers a more thorough look into the
health of the gen set on the whole. The test verifies that the generator is capable of
handling incrementally higher kW loads, that it is still capable of accommodating its
maximum specified load, and that it can work for an extended period of time. So, at
its simplest, load bank testing is a way of verifying that your standby or prime power
generator is still capable of kicking on and operating at its maximum kW output. 
 A load bank test ensures that your generator will run property when it’s needed so
that you can fully depend on it during an emergency situation. The key to a proper
load bank test is that it tests your generator at its full kilowatt (kW) output rating.
Because many generators do not regularly operate at their full kW rating, it’s
especially important that you verify your generator can actually produce the highest
possible horsepower that may be required – while at the same time maintaining
adequate temperature and pressure levels that will allow it to run as long as
necessary. 
The recommended procedure to follow for the load bank test would be to: 

 Start and run the generator until the water temperature stabilizes. 
 Transfer all manual or automatic transfer switches to the emergency source. 
 Step load the generator with the load bank until the desired load is reached. 
 Remove the load bank load first, after the test. 
 Transfer all transfer switches back to the normal position. 
 Allow the generator to cool down according to manufacturers’ guidelines. 

It will be discussed in detail in the following section. 

Carelabs can help in designing the proper planned maintenance program for your
standby generator system, and our team of factory trained technicians will make sure
your planned maintenance will be carried out skilfully and any issues found will be
brought to your attention immediately, ensuring you are prepared for the next
interruption in utility power. 

Load Banks: 

Load Banks are electrical devices that are temporarily wired into a generators AC
voltage output. Load is applied to the generator through switches that are calibrated
to produce specific Kilowatt (Kw) output.  This allows the operator to apply specific
load steps during the testing process to match the generators rated capacity.  
A load bank test ensures that your generator will run property when it’s needed so
that you can depend on its proper operation during an actual emergency situation.
The key to a proper load bank test is that your generator operates and maintains its
full kilowatt (kW) output rating.  Most generators do not operate at their full kW
rating during their routine exercising.   
It is especially important that you verify your generator can actually produce the
highest possible horsepower that may be called upon to produce. Only through this
type of testing can you verify your unit’s proper operation of recommended
temperature and pressure levels throughout the full range of operational status. 

How does a Load Bank Test Work? 

When a load bank test is implemented, an artificial load is placed on the generator.
The test is timed and gradually increases the kW load in specific increments. Each
time the kW load is increased, the test measures and records critical engine
parameters, the generator’s ability to handle the boost, and its ability to continue
functioning at the highest possible level for a sustained period of time. The
equipment needed to complete the test includes a load bank (machine with kW rated
sizes and battery like cables).  
Placing a 100 percent capacity load on a generator and allowing it to run for a
while not only brings to light any problems in the generator and in the engine and its
cooling system; it also benefits the engine by properly seating the rings and
dislodging build-up in the combustion chambers and on the valves. Diesel engines
especially need a periodic load test in order to maintain performance and fuel
economy. 
At Carelabs we dispatch a portable load bank to the site, allowing the generator to be
load-tested safely in controlled conditions, at a time that suits your business. We test
the generator over a range of loads, monitoring and gathering data constantly for two
to four hours, depending on your requirements. 
Step 1
Check all fluid levels in the generator. Make sure the fuel tank is full, the oil level is
correct, and the radiator or coolant tank is full, if it is a water-cooled generator. 
Step 2
Start the generator and allow it to reach normal operating temperature. Watch and
listen for any potential problems or abnormal noises. If any problems are noted, do
not proceed with the test until you take care of them. 
Step 3
Begin connecting the loads, beginning with any large 220 volt loads and adding
smaller 110 volt loads until each leg carries 50 percent of the maximum continuous
rated load of the generator. Do not exceed 50 percent on any one leg. If possible, use
220 volt resistive loads, such as large space heaters or water heaters. They simplify
this step because they apply the load to each leg equally. 
Step 4
Check the amperage of each leg with the ammeter, and check the voltage from each
leg to neutral with the VOM set to read AC volts. For a 110/220 volt single phase
generator, the voltage of each leg should fall between 105 and 125 volts, and the
current should be half of the rated watt output divided by the voltage, for each leg.
For example, if the voltage from each leg to neutral is 117 volts loaded, and the
generator is rated at 10 kilowatts continuous, each leg should be loaded to 5000
divided by 117 or approximately 42 amperes. If one or both legs drops below 105 volts
at full load, the generator has failed the test and needs repair. 
Step 5
Monitor the generator while maintaining this load for the duration of the test. Watch
for overheating, listen for unusual noises, and monitor the output. If a problem
 develops, shut the generator down quickly to minimize damage, and repair the
generator before returning it to service. How long the test should continue depends
upon the type of generator. Light-duty portable generators should not be run at full
load for more than three to four hours. Contractor grade generators should be able to
run for eight hours. Continuous duty air or water cooled generators should run 24
hours. Larger industrial quality diesel generators should ideally be run under full load
for about a week. 
Step 6
Remove the loads gradually at the conclusion of the test, and allow the generator to
run under light load for one hour. Remove all loads five to ten minutes before
shutting the generator down. 
The load test results are recorded, reviewed and reported to our customers for
further action. We provide our customers with a Load Bank Report that contains
thorough, comprehensive test results 
Caution:  

 By adding the building load first you will not be in danger of losing power to the
building loads in case of a normal power failure…the building will already be on its emergency
source. 
 Follow lockout/tagout procedures and wear PPE as prescribed by NFPA 70E and OSHA
regulations as found in 29 CFR 1910 Subpart S. No person should be exposed to a live bus
without wearing the proper levels of PPE. 

Wet-Stacking 
When a diesel engine powered generator is not used frequently or only run on light
loads, it can be prone to experiencing unburned fuel and soot build-up in the exhaust
system. This is called ‘wet-stacking.’ When wet-stacking occurs, the genset is likely
to perform poorly, to endure damage, can become a fire hazard, and can even lead to
complete failure. During a load bank test, the generator is allowed to run at full
power and full temperature. This will cause any wet-stacking to burn off. Hence, a
load bank test actually serves two purposes:  

 It tests the generator to determine whether it will function properly and efficiently on
all levels; and   
 It eliminates any wet-stacking that may have built up within the generator. 

Benefits of Load Bank Testing  

 Verifies the gensets capabilities opposed to just routinely starting it up. 

 Problems discovered early can be significantly less expensive and prevents future
major issues. 
 Helps to avoid wet-stacking and cleans out carbon deposits. 
 Verifies the engine cooling systems will perform while under load. 
 Provides assurance that the genset should work properly when you need it most. 
 Tests that a gen set is capable of operating at peak specified kW output for a specified
amount of time. 
 Eases the effects of light loading by burning off the residue that leads to wet
stacking. 

Carelab’s load bank testing removes the issue of unburned fuel build-up by permitting
your generator’s engine to reach its maximum operating temperature. As a result,
your standby generator operates more efficiently, thereby guaranteeing the unit is
working exactly as it was designed to do. Regardless of whether your generator’s
engine is fuelled by diesel or natural gas, it can benefit remarkably from our load
bank testing service. 
Carelab’s load testing of generator sets is a wide-ranging service that monitors every
critical component of your generator, including the engine temperature as well as the
oil pressure. Throughout the testing process, we wisely oversee the entire unit,
ensuring that it is run at normal operating pressures and temperatures once optimal
levels are achieved. As part of this service, we provide you with a broad report that
includes all your generator’s output readings % load, kW meter, engine speed, power
factor, frequency meter, lube oil pressure, water temp, ambient room temp, oil
temp, battery voltage, fuel pressure and fuel level as well as any comments and
recommendations. As a plus when Carelab’s operates, you will experience
no disruption to your facility’s operating schedule during the testing process.

LEARN ABOUT HOW EARTH FAULT

LOOP IMPEDENCE TESTING IS DONE
Why Earth Fault Loop Impedance Test is Done? 
Every circuit must be tested to make sure that the actual loop impedance does not
exceed that specified for the protective device concerned. Because of the severity of
coming into contact with an electrical fault, having your electrical installations and
power points tested for earth fault loop impedance is crucial. Your systems are
valuable and circuitry needs to be maintained for the durability and functionality of
your business. In most homes, basic shock protection is done by organising an earthing
circuit with automatic switches in the indoor wiring circuits.  This quickly cuts off
supply to an earthing circuit where a fault occurs and touch voltage exceeds an
acceptable limit.  
According to the current national safety standards, you are required to conduct loop
impedance test on your premises to ensure the safety of all guests and
employees. The electrical earth of all your electrical installations and power points
has to be tested to discover any faults within your electric circuit. Having a functional
earth return circuit will allow the detection of circuit faults and facilitate a reaction
from your MCB (miniature circuit breaker). Carelabs technician will detect the
resistance level in your earth return circuit and notify you if it is at the wrong level –
it needs to be low enough to allow the circuit breaker to function correctly. Carelabs
will inspect and test your electrical wiring and by asking us to test you are protecting
both your employees and your liability. It is important to adhere to national
legislation to avoid harsh penalties. 
The required values of impedance and time will change dependent upon the type of
installation (TN/TT etc.) and the type of protection, whether it be a miniature
circuit breaker (MCB), cartridge fuse or re-wireable fuse for example. The fault
current can either be in the Line-Neutral or Line-Earth circuit, so there is a need to
confirm the loop impedance of each 

What is Done During Earth Fault Loop Impedance Testing? 

It is generally accepted that, where the measured earth fault loop impedance of a
circuit is not greater than 80% of the relevant limit specified in BS 7671, the
impedance can be expected to be sufficiently low under earth fault conditions to
meet the relevant limit specified in BS 7671, and for the protective device to
automatically disconnect within the time specified. 
Proper protection against electric shock hazards is given when the TT wiring system
complies with:  
Ra x Ia <50, 
Where “Ra” is the sum of the resistances of earth bars and protective conductors and
“Ia” is the maximum current of the protection system. Ra multiplied by Ia should not
be more than 50 V, i.e. the maximum voltage one can touch will not exceed 50 V in
the event of an earth fault. 
A fault loop impedence test is done between the active conductor and the earth. To
test the loop impedance our technician will use an earth loop impedence tester which
is plugged into the power socket (GPO) to take a reading. 
Our highly-trained staff are fully mobile and offer earth loop impedance test services
across the nation. 

How do We Conduct Earth Fault Loop Impedence Test? 

It is recommended that the External earth loop impedance (Ze) test be done first.
This test, done at the distribution board, gives the loop impedance of the circuit,
excluding the installation. The system loop impedance test (Zs), which includes the
circuit tested in the Ze test as well as including the installation resistance, must be
done next.  
AC impedance of a circuit may be different from its DC resistance – particularly for
circuits rated at over 100 A – the fault loop impedance is thus measured using the
same frequency as the nominal mains frequency (50 Hz). 
The Ze earth fault loop impedance measurement is made on the supply side of the
distribution board and the main means of earthing, with the main switch open and all
circuits isolated. The means of earthing will be isolated from the installation’s
 earthing system (earth rods) bonding during the test. The Ze measurement will
confirm the earth fault loop impedance as the sum of the resistances.  

External Earth Fault Loop test sequence: 

 Step 1: Use an Earth Fault Loop Tester or select the Earth Fault Loop Test option on a
multifunctional tester such as the Megger 1553. 
 Step 2: Test on the incoming side of the installation. Connect one test lead to the Line
terminal, the second test lead to the Neutral terminal and the third (usually green) test lead
to the incoming Earth conductor.  
 Step 3: Press the TEST button. The measurement should be a low reading ohm value. 
 Do not forget to record this value of `Ze` on the Electrical Installation Certificate. 
 Having obtained the `Ze` value for the installation, the value of `Zs` can be easily
calculated for every circuit. 

The maximum measured earth fault loop impedance (Zs) values recorded should be
compatible with the Ze + R1 + R2 value of each circuit, irrespective of the
requirements of the respective protective device(s). Test results measured using low
current tests are not recorded on schedules of test results, it is preferable to record
the Zs values calculated from individual test results i.e. 
The formula for determining Zs: 
Zs=Ze + (R1+R2) 
Zs – earth fault loop impedance of the circuit tested 
Ze – earth fault loop impedance external to the supply 
(R1+R2) – Sum of the resistance of Line and Earth for the tested circuit. 
Where Ze is derived from a high current test and R1 + R2 obtained during continuity
testing of the circuits. The type of test results recorded and the test method used will
be indicated in the appropriate remarks column of the test results schedule. 
The Zs earth fault loop impedance is tested at the furthest point of each circuit. In
most cases the circuit breaker needs to be bridged out. The total earth fault loop
impedance is measured by plugging a loop tester into a socket outlet, or in some
cases with an external earth probe. The value of the earth fault loop impedance is
the sum of the resistances. When using an external earth probe, the earth fault loop
impedance is measured by touching an external probe directly to an earth bar,
collector and connection point of an earth bar. The same measurement can be done
by touching the earth probe to exposed, conductive parts of equipment in the circuits
and exposed metal parts.  
 The Earth Fault Loop Test Sequence: 

 Step 1: Locate the furthest point on the circuit to be tested (such as the furthest
socket) 
 Step 2: With the appropriate Earth Fault Loop Tester, connect the test leads to the
Line, Neutral and Earth terminals.  
 Step 3: Measure and write down the test results on the Schedule Of Test Results. 
 If the circuit is RCD protected than you will have to select the “No trip” function of
the Megger 1553 to avoid nuisance tripping of the RCD. If your tester does not have this
option then you will have to link out the RCD. 

 Having obtained the value of Zs for every circuit, you will be expected to verify that
these values are within the accepted limits described by BS 7671. 

 Loop Impedance Tests Methods  

As it stands today, most contractors will use one of 5 different test techniques when
loop impedance testing:  

 2-wire high current test  

 2-wire “No-Trip” dc saturation test (Obsolete) 
 3-wire “No-Trip” test  
 2-wire “No-Trip” test  
 4-wire grid impedance test  

2-wire high current test 

This is the traditional loop impedance test. Using a test current of up to 20 A and a
simple 2 wire connection, it is by and large the fastest, most accurate test available
on a day to day basis. Most standard loop impedance testers will incorporate this
type of test. Because of the relatively high test current, the readings are not
generally influenced by external factors and will return repeatable, stable readings in
most scenarios. 

2-wire “No-Trip” dc saturation test 

A DC test current was injected in to the circuit prior to carrying out a standard 2 wire
high current test. The aim of this DC test was to saturate the monitoring coil within
the RCD, allowing enough time for the high current AC test to be carried out.
However, due to the increase in electronic RCDs, this method now has limited
applications 
3-wire “No-Trip” test  

This test method overcame the need to by-pass even the new electronic protection
devices by utilising a low current Line-Earth test current, whilst still returning a
degree of accuracy. Not having to by-pass the RCD/RCBO obviously introduced a time
saving factor. In addition, by having the requirement of connecting to Line, Neutral
and Earth, the testers were now able to confirm the presence of all three as well as
indicate if there was a reverse polarity at the test point and, due to the limited test
current, there was no issue with tripping the MCB. 

2-wire “No Trip” test 

They allow testing most RCDs and RCBOs without having to bypass them. With no
neutral connection required, they maintain a true 2-handed operation, but will no
longer indicate reverse polarity or warn of a missing neutral. Although the physical
test time is similar to that of the 3-wire method, the time saving of not having to
bypass the RCD still makes for a more efficient test. 

4-wire grid impedance test 

The test uses a 4 wire Kelvin connection, negating internal lead and contact
resistance; such is the accuracy of the test. With test currents up to 1000 A,
measurements down as low as 10 MOhm can be accurately made. Consequently, there
is no “No-Trip” option with this test method. With specific applications being
measurement in sub-station/switch room environments, this tester gives the test
engineer the ability to take accurate readings. 
A circuit protected by an RCD will need special attention, because the earth-fault
loop test will draw current from the phase which returns through the protective
system. Thus testing of circuits protected by RCDs has presented instrument
manufacturers’ with difficulties in providing test results similar to that of the testing
of non-RCD protected circuits, without tripping the RCDs during the tests. Therefore,
any RCDs must be bypassed by short circuiting connections before earth-fault loop
tests are carried out. It is, of course, of the greatest importance to ensure that such
connections are removed after testing. 
At Carelabs we use an earth loop impedence tester that will not trip out the circuits
RCD that we are testing. Our team will conduct all tests and inspections according to
the current safety standards. Testing is mandatory for the safety of all employees.
Get tested today to make sure your workplace is safe – we’re here to assist with all
your compliance requirements 
Since the test result is dependent on the supply voltage, small variations will affect
the reading. Thus, the test should be repeated several times to ensure consistent
results. Anyone on site must avoid shock hazard while establishing contact and while
 doing the test. When buying a loop tester ask for distribution board test leads so that
Ze and Zs measurements can be done. 
Impedence value: 
Earth Fault Loop Impedance Testing and Recording Earth fault loop impedance testing
is carried out on a completed electrical installation to check compliance with BS 7671
(IET Wiring Regulations) with regard to fault protection and is normally carried out as
follows:  

1. With a test current of approximately 23A where circuits are protected by overcurrent
devices such as fuses or circuit breakers only; or  
2. With a test current of approximately 15mA, to prevent unwanted tripping where
circuits are protected by 30mA or other RCDs.  

Typically test results for high current (23A) tests in the range 0.1Ω to 1.0Ω are largely
stable with a resolution of 0.01Ω. For low current (15mA) tests the resolution was
0.1Ω, but attempts to decrease this to 0.01Ω have been largely unsuccessful in
providing the same stable results for readings of less than 1.0Ω.  
A recent study by one of the UK leading instrument manufacturers using instruments
from seven different manufacturers under controlled conditions found significant
discrepancies in the instrument readings. Further investigation revealed that the
problem appeared to be mainly with the low test currents, caused by variations in
power supply quality created by voltage magnitude, transients, harmonics etc. Similar
tests carried out using a stabilised power supply with a clean 50Hz waveform
produced more consistent results. It should however, be noted that these
discrepancies, usually in the order of 1.0Ω or less, are not significant in terms of the
correct operation of an RCD.  
After testing is complete, we will give you a retest date (for your next earth loop
impedance test) that complies with the national standards. When the time comes, our
team will notify you of the retest. All results will be documented in a detailed report
that is supplied to each client. Within this report, your equipment will be assigned
either a pass or a fail. This document will be kept on file should you need to access it
in the future for compliance verification. We provide a wide range of inspection and
testing services to clients so that you can secure your entire workplace in one visit.
After you’ve had your impedance test, we can provide you other inspection services
too. With such a wide variety of services, there’s no reason to go elsewhere for your
safety testing requirements. 
Earth fault loop impedence testing is a way of insuring that you have made an
electrically safe ground connection having a suitably low residual resistance. Earth
loop impedance testing is essential since if a live conductor is accidentally connected
to an earth conductor in a faulty appliance or circuit, the resulting short-circuit
current to earth can easily be high enough to cause electric shock or generate enough
heat to start a fire. Normally, the fuse will blow or another circuit protection device
will trip, but a situation may arise where the actual short-circuit current in a faulty
installation is of insufficient level and the protection device would thus take too long
 to activate. The delay can be disastrous for life and property. It is therefore
necessary to know if the impedance of the path that any fault current would take is
low enough to allow sufficient current to flow in the event of a fault and that any
installed protective device will operate within a safe time limit.  

WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW ABOUT

ARC FLASH

Arc Flash is an energy release that takes place when electricity flows through the air
and two live conductors causing short circuit. In a residential setting, arc flashes
usually produce little more than a brief flash of light before extinguishing themselves
harmlessly. In commercial or industrial setting, voltages are high, so electrical faults
usually release high energy. As a result, arc flashes in data centers routinely produce
powerful explosions marked by searing heat, toxic fumes, blinding light, deafening
noise and massive pressure waves.

Human and Financial Repercussions of such Blasts can be Devastating

 Injuries to employees: Without adequate protection, workers exposed to arc

flash events can suffer third-degree burns, collapsed lungs, vision loss, eardrum
ruptures, puncture wounds, and even death. Literally, electrical contact results in 3,600
disabling injuries annually and one workplace death every day in the U.S., according to
statistics from the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health.

 Steep medical and insurance bills: Covering the cost of an injured employee’s

medical leave after an arc flash incident can expensive. Further, businesses
experienced an arc flash may difficult to get insurance and probably pay higher rates
for any coverage they do acquire until they can prove proper safety measures have
taken.
 Exposure to fines and lawsuits: Any time employees would die or get injured
during the job, costly lawsuits are almost sure to follow. Unless, it is important to pay
fines from the Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Literally, Occupational
Safety and Health Administration has known to impose fines aggregating millions of
dollars after arc flash events, and has even great companies that have yet to suffer arc
flashes for failure to comply arc flash safety standards.
 Damage to equipment: Arc Flash events are likely to damage any servers,
racks, networking gear and power distribution units in their immediate vicinity. Smoke
condensation can cause further harm to sensitive electrical equipment at greater
distances. Also, should an arc flash trigger your data center’s fire suppression system?
You can complete easily with an entire room of valuable IT resources covered in water
or thick flame proof foam.
 Delays and downtime: Companies sometimes must wait for Occupational
Safety and Health Administration to complete an investigation before repairing arc
flash-related damage. That means organizations with inadequately redundant data
centers can get through hours, days or even weeks of downtime after an arc flash
event.
 Impact on morale: Attracting and retaining qualified technicians can difficult if
an arc flash incident causes current and prospective employees to view your data center
as an unsafe place to work.

1. Perform a Hazard Analysis

Every Arc Flash reduction program should start by analysing risk aimed measuring how
much energy an arc flash could release at various points along with power chain.
Accuracy is essential with such measurements, so data centre managers who lack
direct and extensive experience with arc flash incident energy assessment should
always seek help from a qualified power systems engineer.
Beginning with integration of an arc Flash risk analysis, companies should take the
following steps:

 Equip data center staff with proper Personal Protective

Equipment: Technicians should never come within range of a potential arc flash
incident without wearing proper Personal Protective Equipment, such as flame-resistant
clothing, eye protection and gloves. Personal Protective Equipment is available in
different degrees of strength with different degrees of protection. Electrical engineers
and fire safety professionals have developed two standards to help organizations
analyse how much protection their employees need:
 Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers 1584: Created by the
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, one of the world’s most respected
technical professional associations, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers 1584
offers guidance on quantifying potential arc flash incident energy levels.
 NFPA 70E: Produced by the National Fire Protection Association, a non-profit
organization dedicated to fire, electrical, building and life safety, NFPA 70E defines
thresholds for proper Personal Protective Equipment based on  severity of potential arc
flash hazards. Drawing these two standards, data collected during an arc flash risk
analysis, organizations can exactly analyse their risk factor, which would analyse what
kind of Personal Protective Equipment their employees should wear while working in arc
flash danger zones. Data centre managers should make sure that group from any
vendors or third-party service who executes maintenance strategies on their server
infrastructure wear exact Personal Protective Equipment at all times.
 Post warning labels. To make sure data centre employees are always aware of
potential arc flash hazards, companies should place warning labels on any piece of
electrical equipment that poses an arc flash risk. They should record arc flash hazard
zones on the floor so workers not wearing Personal Protective Equipment can clearly
analyse how far from electrical equipment they must stand to avoid serious injury. Note
that the NFPA 70E standard explicitly needs employers to post signage notifying
employees of potential arc flash dangers. Organizations that ignoring this directive
would dramatically increase their chances of paying serious fines and losing expensive
litigation after arc flash incidents.
 Execute an employee training program. To make sure data centre group
understand arc flash dangers and know how to avoid them, be sure every existing and
newly hired employee receives thorough arc flash safety training.

 2. Reduce Available Fault Current

Even though it is not applicable to environments protection by fuses and electricity
limiting breakers, data centers use Non-Current Limiting Breakers can decrease the
risk of incident energy released during arc flashes by decreasing the amount of
available fault electricity. The following four strategies can help data centers with
NCLBs significantly reduce available fault current.
Operate with an open tie during maintenance: Managing two electrical feeds helps
data centers to increase repetition of their power supply, and availability of their IT
systems. The downside of this power architecture, however, is that it doubles the
amount of current available when faults occur. In most of the situations, opening the
tie between dual power feeds during maintenance strategies decreases arc flash
dangers by cutting available fault current in half.
Of course, opening ties during maintenance also temporarily renders your power
scheme less redundant, exposing IT equipment to heightened risk of failure. Given
destructive human and financial toll arc flashes can take, most organizations trade-off
worth making.
Switch to smaller kVA and/or higher impedance transformers: In the past, server
power supplies commonly generated distortion that could overheat electrical
transformers. To satisfy, data centers often used bigger and hence stronger
transformers than their infrastructure needed. These days, most server power
supplies “power factor corrected,” so they no longer pose a risk to transformers. As a
result, data centers can safely use smaller transformers suiting their needs. Following
such method would save money and improve arc flash safety. As a smaller transformer
releases less energy during faults, lowering the scale and impact of arc flash events.
Employ High-Resistance Grounding: During ground faults, High-Resistance Grounding
systems provide a path for ground current via a resistance that limits current
significance. That greatly decreases the size of line-to-ground faults and associated
arc flashes. High-Resistance Grounding can use on systems that service only three-
phase loads. The U.S. National Electrical Code prohibits using High-Resistance
Grounding on distribution systems serving loads that connected line-to-neutral, as are
most servers. This limits practicality of High-Resistance Grounding system to the
section of data center that powers cooling plants and other large three-phase loads.
Use current limiting reactors: Current-limiting reactors act as a bottleneck on
electrical flows, restricting electricity failures. For example, low-voltage motor
control centers can supply with three single phase reactors that restrict available
short circuit electricity, resulting in less energy releases when errors occur.

3. Shorten Clearing Time

Just a smaller arc flashes release less energy, to do shorter ones. There are three
techniques for shortening arc flash events by decreasing fault clearance times:
Utilize Zone Selective Interlocking: Zone Selective Interlocking is a security scheme
that makes use of an “inhibit” signal transmitted from downstream breakers that see
error to next breaker upstream. The upstream breaker analyse both the electricity
failure and the inhibit signal and therefore delays tripping, allowing the downstream
breaker to clear the fault. Should a fault occur between the downstream and
upstream breaker, however, the downstream feeder doesn’t see the fault or send an
inhibit signal to the upstream breaker. That causes the upstream breaker to bypass at
any time, significantly decreasing arc flash incident energy.
Implement a bus differential scheme: These integrated zones of protection within an
electrical system. If any error take place between main and feeder breakers, then the
protective devices trip immediately, Resisting arc flash durations while confining arc
flash damage to specific portions of your infrastructure. Bus differential systems are
typically faster and more sensitive than Zone Selective Interlocking, but need further
current transformers and relaying equipment. This generally makes them harder to
apply and more expensive.
Deploy an Arcflash Reduction Maintenance System: An ArcFlash Reduction
Maintenance System shortens faults by passing all time delays in the trip circuit at any
time electricity exceeds maximal. That permits faults to clear even faster than a
circuit breaker’s “instantaneous” function makes possible. Technicians must manually
allow ArcFlash Reduction Maintenance System circuits before doing maintenance work
and then disable them when work is complete, using familiar lockout strategies.
4. Adopt Remote Operation
Executing probably dangerous strategies casually can safeguard data center group
from injuries. There are two ways to resist the number of maintenance activity,
technicians must execute while in range of ArcFlash blasts:
Install remote monitoring, control and diagnostics software: Today’s sophisticated
power management systems equip administrators to execute many administrative
tasks remotely. They give companies to casually de-energize electrical equipment
before data center staff approaches.
Use remote shaking devices: Normally, technicians should stand close to equipment,
electrical connections shake and un-shaking breakers. Remote shaking devices allow
operators to execute these extremely dangerous tasks from a safe distance.

5. Predict and Prevent Faults

One of the most effective ways to prevent arc flashes is to assume and ignore the
conditions that cause them. The following three solutions permit data centers to spot
possible ArcFlash risk before they have  chance to harm and keep group safely away
from live connections.
Analyse insulation security: Deteriorating insulations is the leading cause of
electrical failures. Analysing and repairing insulation before it fails could avoid arc
flash explosions. Anticipative maintenance systems give warning of insulation failure
in medium voltage switchgear, substations, generators, transformers and motors.
Monitor pressure junctions: Most of the electrical equipment has pressure junctions.
Like, shipping splits, load lugs and compression fittings. Over time, vibration and
thermal cycling can loosen these connections. When current flows through loosened
connection, it cause overheating and ultimately produces an ArcFlash. Using non-
conductors thermal sensors called pyrometers. Data centers can regulate pressure
junctions regularly and receive advance notification of loose connections before they
become very loose that they create an ArcFlash explosion.
Use infrared (IR) windows: Using contactless IR thermography technology, IR
windows enable technicians to execute IR scans without removing switchgear side
panels, lessening the likelihood of arc flash events caused by accidental contact with
live bus.

6. Redirect Blast Energy

Equipment that directs arc flash energy away from data center group is called “arc
resistant.” Arc-resistant switchgear, for example, utilizes sealed joints, top-mounted
pressure relief vents, and reinforced hinges to have the energy and heat released by
arc flashes and channel them by ducts to vacant area inside or outside the data
center.
When all else fails, arc-resistant switchgear offers vulnerable data center employees
a critical last line of defense from the explosive power of arc flash incidents. Anyhow,
protective conditions said to effective only when equipment doors closed, it is
important to train technicians to fasten doors safely while operating.
Carelabs is authorized provider of Electrical Installation’s Study, Analysis,
Inspection, and Certification services in UAE, and offer arc flash study and
analysis services.
Contact Carelabs at 971 4 514 9730 or +971 55 792 1054 (Call or WhatsApp) or
email at info@carelabz.com

LEARN WHAT IS EARTH GROUND

TEST, WHY AND HOW IS IT DONE.

Electrical safety testing is essential to ensure safe operating standards for any
product that uses electricity. Various governments and agencies have developed
stringent requirements for electrical products that are sold world-wide. Several tests
are conducted to check the safety of products. One among that is earth test.
Potentially the most dangerous appliances are Class I appliances (earthed appliances),
example: microwave ovens/bench grinders and the like, but also in this category are
extension leads. Class I appliances are designed to have a connection to the ground
via an earth conductor. This may, or may not, be a suitable low resistance path for
electric current to protect personnel and equipment. If this conductor is damaged
anywhere then the consequences can be virulent.
 Why is Earth Ground Testing Needed?
The measurement of ground resistance for an earth electrode system should be done
when the electrode is first installed, and then at periodic intervals thereafter. This
ensures that the resistance-to-ground does not increase over time. The International
Electrical Testing Association specifies ground electrode testing every three years for
a system in good condition with average up-time requirements.
Poor grounding not only increases the risk of equipment failure; it is dangerous too.
Facilities need to have adequately grounded electrical systems so in the event of a
lightning strike, or utility overvoltage, current will find a safe path to earth. Although
the ground system when initially installed had low earth ground resistance values, the
resistance of the grounding system can increase if the ground rods are eaten away by
corrosive soils with high moisture content, high salt content, and high temperatures.
If our technician finds an increase in resistance of more than 20 percent, we will
investigate the source of the problem and make the correction to the grounding
system to lower the resistance.

Factors That Can Change Your Minimum Earth Resistance

 A plant or other electrical facility can expand in size. Also, new plants continue to be
built larger and larger. Such changes create different needs in the earth electrode. What was
formerly a suitably low earth resistance can become an obsolete “standard.”
 As facilities add more modern sensitive computer-controlled equipment, the problems
of electrical noise is magnified. Noise that would not effect cruder, older equipment can
cause daily problems with new equipment.
 As more non-metallic pipes and conduits are installed underground, such installations
become less and less dependable as effective, low-resistance ground connections.
 In many locations, the water table is gradually falling. In a year or so, earth electrode
systems that formerly were effective may end up in dry earth of high resistance.

These factors emphasize the importance of a continuous, periodic program of earth-

resistance testing. It is not enough to check the earth resistance only at the time of
installation.

Factors Influencing Requirements for a Good Grounding System

 Limiting to definite values the voltage to earth of the entire electrical system. Use of
a suitable grounding system can do this by maintaining some point in the circuit at earth
potential. Such a grounding system provides these advantages:
o Limits voltage to which the system-to-ground insulation is subjected, thereby
more definitely fixing the insulation rating.
o Limits the system-to-ground or system-to-frame voltage to values safe for
personnel.
o Provides a relatively stable system with a minimum of transient over-voltage.
o Permits any system fault to ground to be quickly isolated.
 Proper grounding of metallic enclosures and support structures that are part of the
electrical system and may be contacted by personnel. Also to be included are portable
electrically operated devices. Consider that only a small amount of electric current — as little
as 01 A for one second — can be fatal! An even smaller amount can cause you to lose muscular
control. These low currents can occur in your body at voltages as low as 100 V, if your skin is
moist.
 Protection against static electricity from friction. Along with this are the attendant
hazards of shock, fire and explosion. Moving objects that may be inherent insulators – such as
paper, textiles, conveyor belts or power belts and rubberised fabrics – can develop
surprisingly high charges unless properly grounded.
 Protection against direct lightning strokes. Elevated structures, such as stacks, the
building proper, and water tanks may require lightning rods connected into the grounding
system.
 Protection against induced lightning voltages. This is particularly a factor if aerial
power distribution and communications circuits are involved. Lightning arresters may be
required in strategic locations throughout the plant.
 Providing good grounds for electric process control and communication circuits. With
the increased use of industrial control instruments, computers, and communications
equipment, accessibility of low resistance ground connections in many plant locations — in
office and production areas — must be considered.

Resistance to earth can vary with changes in climate and temperature. Such changes
can be considerable. An earth electrode that was good (low-resistance) when
installed may not stay that way; to be sure, you must check it periodically. We cannot
tell you what your maximum earth resistance should be. For specific systems in
definite locations, specifications are often set. Some call for 5 Ω maximum; others
accept no more than 3 Ω. In certain cases, resistances as low as a small fraction of an
ohm are required.

Nature of an Earth Electrode

Nature of an Earth Electrode Resistance to current through an earth electrode
actually has three components:

 Resistance of the electrode itself and connections to it.

 Contact resistance between the electrode and the soil adjacent to it.
 Resistance of the surrounding earth.

Electrode Resistance: Rods, pipes, masses of metal, structures, and other devices are
commonly used for earth connections. These are usually of sufficient size or cross-
section that their resistance is a negligible part of the total resistance.
Electrode-Earth Contact Resistance: This is much less than you might think. If the
electrode is free from paint or grease, and the earth is packed firmly, contact
resistance is negligible. Rust on an iron electrode has little or no effect but if an iron
pipe has rusted through, the part below the break is not effective as a part of the
earth electrode
Resistance of Surrounding Earth: An electrode driven into earth of uniform resistivity
radiates current in all directions. Think of the electrode as being surrounded by shells
of earth, all of equal thickness. The earth shell nearest the electrode naturally has
the smallest surface area and so offers the greatest resistance

Principles Involved in Earth Resistance Testing

The resistance to earth of any system of electrodes theoretically can be calculated
from formulas based upon the general resistance formula:
R = ρ LA
Where ρ is the resistivity of the earth in ohm-cm, L is the length of the conducting
path, and A is the cross-sectional area of the path. All such formulas can be simplified
a little by basing them on the assumption that the earth’s resistivity is uniform
throughout the entire soil volume under consideration.

There are five basic test methods as noted below

Soil Resistivity Testing:

Wenner four-pole equal method [19] has been considered in measuring the soil
resistivity. The correct design of an earthing system is dependent upon detailed
knowledge of the local ground resistivity. This is measured as a function of depth at a
series of locations around the site, using an expanding four electrode Wenner array
(BS EN 50522). The procedure is known as soil resistivity or earth resistance testing.
Correct measurement is particularly important in areas of high resistivity ground,
where electrical currents are not able to dissipate. In these conditions obtaining an
earth can be problematic, and information on ground resistivity is required to much
greater depths for the successful installation of an earthing system.
Fall-of-Potential Method:
With a four-terminal tester, P1 and C1 terminals on the instrument are connected to
the earth electrode under test. With a three-terminal instrument, connect X to the
earth electrode. Although four terminals are necessary for resistivity measurements,
the use of either three of four terminals is largely optional for testing the resistance
of an installed electrode. The use of three terminals is more convenient because it
requires one lead to be connected. The trade-off is that the resistance of this
common lead is included in the measurement. Normally, this effect can be minimized
by keeping the lead short, to accommodate simple test requirements. The small
 additional resistance thus introduced is negligible. When performing more complex
tests or meeting stringent requirements, however, it may be better to use all four
terminals by a lead from the P1 terminal to the test electrode (connecting it inside
the lead from C1). This is a true four wire test configuration which eliminates all lead
resistance from the measurement.
The added accuracy may prove significant when meeting very low resistance
specifications or using test methods that necessitate an extra digit of measurement in
order to meet the mathematical requirements. The decision is optional, based on the
operator’s testing goals and the method used. The driven reference rod C should be
placed as far from the earth electrode as practical; this distance may be limited by
the length of extension wire available, or the geography of the surroundings. Leads
should be separated and “snaked,” not run close and parallel to each other, to
eliminate mutual inductance. Potential-reference rod P is then driven in at a number
of points roughly on a straight line between the earth electrode and C. Resistance
readings are logged for each of the points.
Dead Earth Method:
When using a four-terminal instrument, P1 and C1 terminals connect to the earth
electrode under test; P2 and C2 terminals connect to an all-metallic water-pipe
system. With a three-terminal instrument, connect X to the earth electrode, P and C
to the pipe system. If the water system is extensive (covering a large area), its
resistance should only be a fraction of an ohm. You can then take the instrument
reading as being the resistance of the electrode under test. The dead earth method is
the simplest way to make an earth resistance test. With this method, resistance of
two electrodes in series is measured — the driven rod and the water system. But there
are three important limitations:

1. The waterpipe system must be extensive enough to have a negligible resistance.

2. The waterpipe system must be metallic throughout, without any insulating couplings
or flanges.
3. The earth electrode under test must be far enough away from the water-pipe system
to be outside its sphere of influence. In some locations, your earth electrode may be so close
to the water-pipe system that you cannot separate the two by the required distance for
measurement by the two-terminal method.

Under these circumstances, if conditions 1 and 2 above are met, you can connect to
the water-pipe system and obtain a suitable earth electrode. As a precaution against
any possible future changes in the resistance of the water-pipe system, however, you
should also install an earth electrode.
Clamp-on Method:
Fall-of-potential testing, and its modifications, is the only ground testing method that
conforms to IEEE 81. It is extremely reliable, highly accurate and can be used to test
any size ground system. Additionally, the operator has complete control of the test
set-up and can check or proof his/her results by testing at different probe spacing.
Unfortunately, the Fall of Potential method also comes with drawbacks:
 It is extremely time consuming and labour intensive.
 Individual ground electrodes must be disconnected from the system to be measured.

The clamp-on ground testing method, although it does not conform to IEEE 81, does
provide the operator with the ability to make effective measurements under the right
conditions. The clamp-on methodology is based on Ohm’s Law (R=V/I). A known
voltage is applied to a complete circuit and the resulting current flow is measured.
The resistance of the circuit can then be calculated. The clamp-on ground tester
applies the signal and measures the current without a direct electrical connection.
The clamp includes a transmit coil that applies the voltage and a receive coil that
measures the current.
Selective Measurement Testing:
Selective testing is very similar to the Fall-of-Potential testing, providing all the same
measurements, but in a much safer and easier way. This is because with Selective
testing, the earth electrode of interest does not need to be disconnected from its
connection to the site! The technician does not have to endanger himself by
disconnecting ground, nor endanger other personnel or electrical equipment inside a
no grounded structure.

How to Improve Earth Resistance

When you find that your earth electrode resistance is not low enough, there are
several ways you can improve it:

 Lengthen the earth electrode in the earth.

 Use multiple rods.
 Treat the soil.

Effect of Rod Size:

As you might suspect, driving a longer rod deeper into the earth, materially decreases
its resistance. In general, doubling the rod length reduces resistance by about 40
percent.
Use of Multiple Rods:
Two well-spaced rods driven into the earth provide parallel paths. They are, in effect,
two resistances in parallel. The rule for two resistances in parallel does not apply
exactly; that is, the resultant resistance is not one-half the individual rod resistances
(assuming they are of the same size and depth).
Treatment of the Soil:
Chemical treatment of soil is a good way to improve earth electrode resistance when
you cannot drive deeper ground rods because of hard underlying rock, for example. It
is beyond the scope of this manual to recommend the best treatment chemicals for all
situations. You have to consider the possible corrosive effect on the electrode as well
as EPA and local environmental regulations. Magnesium sulfate, copper sulfate, and
 ordinary rock salt are suitable non-corrosive materials. Magnesium sulfate is the least
corrosive, but rock salt is cheaper and does the job if applied in a trench dug around
the electrode. It should be noted that soluble sulfates attack concrete, and should be
kept away from building foundations. Another popular approach is to backfill around
the electrode with a specialized conductive concrete. A number of these products,
like bentonite, are available on the market.

Effect of Temperature on Earth Resistivity

Not much information has been collected on the effects of temperature. Two facts
lead to the logical conclusion that an increase in temperature will decrease
resistivity:

 Water present in soil mostly determines the resistivity

 An increase in temperature markedly decreases the resistivity of water.
 The resistivity continues to increase as temperatures go below freezing.

Grounding testers are indispensable troubleshooting tools to help you maintain

uptime. It is recommended that all grounds and ground connections be checked at
least annually as a part of your normal predictive maintenance plan. Should an
increase in resistance of more than 20% be measured during these periodic checks,
the technician should investigate the source of the problem and make the correction
to lower the resistance by replacing or adding ground rods to the ground system.

WHY IS ELECTRICAL INFRARED

THERMOGRAPHY INSPECTION
IMPORTANT?
Infrared Scanning of electrical installations falls under classification of Predictive
Maintenance Fault Finding. The value is that we are now able to predict an electrical
fault before the element fails completely.
We are able to get this due to the heat build-up of any electrical element under stress
and predict that it will fail while it is still functional and appears normal to the naked
eye or any other test equipment. The heat signature identified with the use of an
Infrared camera. The pictures are then analysed and put into an easy-to-follow report
so that they can rectify before a breakdown occurs, preventing loss of production due
to unplanned down time.
Unexpected breakdowns in electrical supply can inconvenient and costly. Infrared
electrical thermography is a useful tool that can recognize stressed elements of your
electrical installation before they break down or cause a fire. This gives you the
opportunity to solve the problem as part of planned maintenance before it causes a
serious problem.
Another result of failed or stressed electrical elements is the risk of fire; in fact the
risk is more real than commonly realise. It is in this vein that insurance companies are
increasingly calling for infrared electrical thermography surveys as a valuable risk
assessment aid.
In the past this service was only available to very large companies and mining houses
due to the cost determinant, but as with everything there have been massive
 advancements in the last few years and Thermo Scanning has now become a very
profitable tool in the small to medium size business world.
Maintenance includes vibration analysis on machines, audio, ultrasonic and infrared
thermography inspection on electrical systems. Thermography used to recognize
equipment hot spots. This task is typically carried out using temperature sensing
instruments like thermocouple sensors or other forms of thermometers. Limitation of
this analysis is that this kind of instrument can give maintenance personnel only with
temperature readings on certain spots but not overall electrical system.
Thermography inspection generally uses infrared instrumentation to scan and create a
temperature profile of intended targets.
In a typical manufacturing plant, Infrared thermography inspections did on electrical
systems such as electrical switchboards, high-voltage distribution equipment motors,
corresponding controllers, transformers and other control panels.

Switchgear Thermography
A great deal of investment is presently being made installation of thermal viewing
ports for switchgear. These ports allow infrared inspections to carry out without
removing switchgear covers, thus it would avoid worker arc-flash exposure.
Installation of permanent infrared sensors and continuous infrared monitors are also
reasonable methods for recognizing potential thermal failures of critical equipment.
The principle of outdoor switchgear assemblies is often compromised by defective
strip heaters. The strip heaters increase the switchgear temperature slightly above
ambient to prevent condensation during daily or seasonal temperature changes.
Functionality of these strips heaters and their effectiveness to carry out this duty can
decide by carrying out thermal imaging of the switchgear enclosures. In other words,
and once again, absence of heating identifies a potential problem.

Benefits of Thermography Survey

A major insurance carrier estimates that nearly 25 percent of all electrical failures
attributed to faulty electrical connections. Therefore, many insurance firms are the
driving force behind requiring facilities to conduct annual infrared surveys. Infrared
technology has evolved into one of the most effective technologies for preventing
failures and added benefit of not requiring an outage to carry out, as it can done on
raw. Several further benefits of infrared technology listed below:
Hot spots such as loose connections and bad contacts.

 Under-rated cables overheating under existing demand.

 Unbalanced loads.
 Stressed earth leakage units, circuit breakers, conductors and other electrical
elements.

Infrared Electrical Thermography Survey Benefits

An infrared electrical thermography survey can result in significant financial savings
for the client by:

 Reducing the risk of an electrical fire.

 Reducing the risk of an unplanned electrical outage.
 Identifying priorities for planned maintenance, resulting in your spend going
where it needed most.

 Determines if the elements and system have been properly installed and are
not damaged
 Reduces downtime
 Reduces risk of equipment failure
 Increases safety
 Improves insurability
 Reduces liability exposure of the designers and installers
 Improves system performance
 Determines elements and systems carry out properly and meet the design
intent
 Determines if elements and systems compliance with the project specifications
and design
 Reduces construction schedule delays
 Saves money

Infrared Thermography Testing can be Done on

 Detecting loose or corroded electrical connections

 Detecting electrical unbalance and overloads
 Inspecting bearings and Electrical motors
 Inspecting steam systems IR Imaging helps  better to recognise and report
suspect elements
 Enable the repair to done right the first time.
 High resistance connections
 Hot spots
 Over loaded cables
 Over loaded fuses or breakers
 Imminent motor or conveyor bearing failure
 Motor windings over heating
 Overheating in distribution equipment
 Phase load imbalance
 Hot spots in high level lighting
 Heat build-up in overcrowded trunking
 Thermal insulation breakdown (hot or cold)
 Thermal loss
 Damp ingress

WHY AND HOW IS AUTOMATIC

TRANSFER SWITCH TESTING DONE
What is Automatic Transfer Switch?
The Automatic Transfer Switch (ATS) is a critical piece of equipment that alternates
the origin or the source of power, typically between your utility power and
backup/emergency power, ensuring your system’s ability to stay online. It is
inherently important in making sure that this part of your emergency system is
working properly. Also, because this particular part of your system is usually relatively
complicated in nature, they are rarely examined or tested after the ATS has left its
manufacturing facility. This is precisely why Industrial Tests, Inc. should be your first
choice in ATS testing, so that you and your facility can feel safe and confident in its
ability to transfer power, in the event of losing normal power. Automatic Transfer
switch tests, tests utility power or standby generator power—and conducts the power
to critical loads. The NFPA, Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare
Organizations (JCAHO), and all major ATS manufacturers publish literature calling for
the monthly test of ATSs, yet many facility owners ignore these guidelines and refuse
to perform the tests. There are good reasons for both the monthly-test requirement
and for the reluctance of many operators to comply.
NFPA 110, the standard for emergency and standby power supply systems, states “the
monthly test of a transfer switch shall consist of electrically operating the transfer
switch from the standard position to the alternate position and then a return to the
standard position”. The standard also requires a monthly generator run. The best way
to perform both these tests is by operating the test toggle on the ATS when the
generator isn’t running, and confirming that the ATS properly signals the generator to
start and run before transferring building load.

Why Automatic Transfer Switch Testing is Done?

Many critical electrical systems are not being maintained to the proper standard, and
some are not maintained at all. Why? Maybe it’s because electrical systems and
components are being installed improperly. Maybe it’s because of poor system design
that leaves little access. Or maybe it’s because many facility engineers still regard
maintenance as a necessary evil. In order to evaluate the cost of maintenance, one
must factor in the cost of lost service due to an unplanned failure plus the cost of
replacement.
The automatic transfer switch (ATS) is a critical system component of the emergency
power system, and proper maintenance of an ATS depends on the type of switch and
its position in the critical power infrastructure. It is essential to find out whether your
ATS is within manufacturers specifications during a planned examination, so that you
don’t run the risk of finding this out during an unforeseen outage and you are unable
to switch your system to its secondary power. Intermittent testing of your ATS is the
sure-handed method of guaranteeing that your emergency system is as reliable as it
can be. Our core group of technicians and engineers have been thoroughly educated
and trained on emergency systems, particularly transfer switches. Combining our
staff’s training with their vast experience in the field allows for an undeniable recipe
for success, where our customers always seek out our expertise and services.
 The Three Primary Reasons for the Monthly Test

1. A test is an active demonstration that the EPSS is still able to function as intended. If a
switch is going to fail to transfer, it’s better to have the switch fail while connected to a live
normal source during a test than to have it remain connected to a dead normal source during
an actual power outage.
2. An automatic transfer switch is an electromechanical device with moving parts. Like
the pistons and crankshaft in an automotive engine, the moving parts in an ATS can seize if
they’re left in one position for months or years. Regular exercise will help ensure that moving
parts will continue to operate smoothly.
3. A transfer switch test transfers building load onto the generator for the duration of
the generator test. Most standby power generators of more than 100kW are diesel engine
driven, and all major diesel generator manufacturers recommend a load of at least 50% of
maximum capacity during monthly generator tests. NFPA requires the same thing, for the
simple reason that running under a light load is very bad for a diesel engine.

Running a diesel generator in an unloaded condition—with no ATS transfer, thus with

no building load connected—causes carbon buildup in the cylinders and exhaust
system, a condition known as “wet stacking.” This problem reduces efficiency and
power, and in extreme cases it can cause an exhaust system to catch fire. To reduce a
wet-stack condition once it has developed, some facility owners will rent a resistive
load bank and connect it to the standby generator for a full-load run of sufficient
duration to “burn out” the build-up. The cost for such an exercise is substantial, and
the relief provided is only temporary.

Reasons Behind the Objection to Testing ATS

Some people mistakenly think that monthly tests will shorten the life of a transfer
switch, and are therefore reluctant to conduct them. More often, the reason for
refusing to test properly is a fear of the two brief interruptions in power that an ATS
test entails. There’s no truth to the idea of a regular test shortening the life of an
ATS. Any device to be used as a transfer switch—switching a single electrical load
between two sources of power—must comply with UL standard 1008, the only
standard applicable to this duty.
Any switch that bears a UL 1008 label can transfer a minimum of 3,000 times, with at
least 1,000 of those operations under at least 100% of rated load. (For smaller
ampacity switches 6,000 transfers must be under 100% load or greater). A switch that
transfers back and forth each month will see 12 transfer operations per year,
generally under something less than 100% of rated load. It would take a transfer
switch at least 83 years to reach the same level of full-load use that representative
switches endure in standard UL testing. And, as mentioned above, a switch that
transfers regularly is less prone to seizure than a switch that has remained static for a
long period.
 The most-cited reason for failing to test transfer switches is that power interruptions
can cause problems with lighting, transformers, computers, and other sensitive loads.
It’s this fear, primarily, that causes many facility operators to conduct their monthly
generator runs without switching building load onto the generator. While problems of
this nature can be frightening, they should be no more frightening than the prospect
of a transfer switch that fails to operate at a critical time due to lack of testing, or a
generator that fails due to wet-stacking.

There are several ways of mitigating or eliminating the problems caused by these
power interruptions, both in new construction and in existing facilities:

 For new construction projects the issue of transfer-test-caused interruptions in power

is an easy one to solve. The engineer responsible for specifying the electrical equipment
should specify “closed transition,” or make-before-break, transfer switches. A transfer switch
of this kind transfers when in its test mode, with no interruption in power. Switches of this
kind were once a special product available from only one manufacturer, and they carried a
daunting price premium. Today, however, closed transition transfer switches (CTTS) are
available from several manufacturers, and at a very modest price premium over the old-
fashioned open transition switch.
 For existing facilities, a study should be done to determine which specific transfer
switches feed loads that would actually suffer any negative impact from monthly
interruptions in power. Those loads that are sensitive to interruptions can be protected with
UPS systems, or with a timed pre-signal before transfer, allowing for orderly shutdown of the
loads before power is interrupted. Also, existing open transition switches can be replaced
with CTTS.

Any automatic transfer switch in an emergency or standby power system should be

should be tested monthly in accordance with NFPA 110. That test should consist of an
automatic generator start, initiated by the transfer switch, followed by an automatic
transfer of facility load onto the standby generator. If power interruptions are a
matter of concern, closed transition transfer switches should be used to eliminate the
problem, or other methods should be used to mitigate the effects.

What is Done During an Automatic Transfer Switch Test?

Following steps are performed

1. Simulate loss of normal power.

2. Return to normal power.
3. Simulate loss of emergency power.
4. Simulate all forms of single-phase conditions.
 ATS Checks Include

 Check wiring and connections are tight with no discoloration of metal, melted plastic
and odour indicating excessive heat.
 Verify external operating mechanism is clean and re lubricate if found dirty.
 Check for any deterioration of wiring insulation such as cuts and abrasions. Replace or
repair any damaged wiring.
 Check tightness of wiring connections. Retighten to specification if any loose wiring
found.
 Perform insulation resistance tests on all control wiring with respect to ground.
 Perform a contact/pole-resistance test.
 Verify settings and operation of control devices.
 Calibrate and set all relays and timers.
 Verify phase rotation, phasing, and synchronized operation as required by the
application. .
 Check ATS main power switching contacts condition. Clean or replace. Replace
contractor assembly if necessary.
 Exercise the generator set under load.
 Test the transfer switch’s automatic control system.
 Test all indicators (LEDs) and all remote control systems for operation.
 Inspect the outside of the transfer switch for any indication of wear, excessive
vibration, leakage, high temperature, contamination or other deterioration.
 Verify all external components are in place, firm, tightened and not excessively worn.
 Inspect the inside of the transfer switch for any indication of excessive vibration,
leakage, high temperature, contamination or any other deterioration.
 Verify all internal components are in place, firm, tightened and not excessively worn.

Standard for ATS Maintenance and Testing

TRANSFER SWITCH MAINTENANCE NFPA 110, Standard for Emergency and Standby
Power Systems covers performance requirements for power systems providing an
alternate source of electrical power in the event the primary power source fails. This
standard includes power sources, transfer equipment, controls, supervisory
equipment, and accessory equipment. The standard also addresses installation,
maintenance, operation, and testing requirements for these components of the
emergency power supply system.
Transfer switches are installed in the emergency power system to transfer the
electrical load from the normal power source to the emergency power source
(generator) upon failure of normal power. The transfer switch must transfer and
retransfer the load automatically. Maintenance programs for transfer switches include
checking of connections, inspection or testing for evidence of overheating and
excessive contact erosion, removal of dust and dirt, and replacement of contacts
 when required. The maintenance procedure and frequency should follow those
recommended by the manufacturer.
In the absence of manufacturer’s recommendations, NFPA 110 suggests visual
inspection and cleaning annually. The 2005 edition of NFPA 110 further recommends
an annual maintenance program including one major maintenance and three quarterly
inspections. The major maintenance includes a thermographic or temperature scan of
the automatic transfer switch. Automatic transfer switches must also be operated
monthly. The monthly test consists of electrically operating the transfer switch from
the standard position to the alternate position and then a return to the standard
position.

How ATS Testing is Done?

ATS is a pretty simple device. It senses power source and behaves according to how
it’s set up. Generally it defaults to generator, so with no power all 3 contacts, (30
amp) or 4 contacts, (50 amp) should measure closed and electricity will pass from one
contact to the other.

Summarized Procedure for Automatic Transfer Switch Testing and

Maintenance
Based on NETA Acceptance & Maintenance Testing Standards, the process
includes:

 Contact to pole resistance test.

 Settings and operations verification.
 Control device Examinations.
 Manufacturer’s standards and specifications checks.
 Calibration services.
 Tap connections resistance measurements.
 Verifying engine start sequence.
 Time delay and retransfer functions checks.
 Mechanical parts inspections.
 Anchorage and groundings review for impairment or damage.
 Corresponding parts are properly lubricated and clean of debris or contaminants and
more.

Automatic transfers should operate in accordance with manufacturer’s design. For

more detail on these tests, see the ATS functional testing procedure described below.
A general procedure for functional testing of an automatic transfer switch and
standby generator is described below.
Step 1: To begin the test, close the normal source circuit breaker. The switch
controller will illuminate the Utility Available LED (if equipped) when correct voltage
is sensed. If the ATS mechanism is set on Source 1, the Source 1 position LED will also
light. Verify the phase to phase voltages at the utility line terminals.
Step 2: Next, close the Alternate source breaker and start the engine generator. The
S2 (Alternate) Available LED will illuminate when correct voltage and frequency levels
are sensed. After both sources have been verified, shut down the engine generator,
and put the generator’s start control in the automatic position.
Step 3: Simulate a utility outage by opening the Source 1 (normal side) breaker. The
delay to engine start timer begins its timing cycle. After the timer has completed its
timing cycle, the engine start contacts close to start the generator.
Step 4: When generator voltage and frequency reach the preset restore points the
Source 2 Available LED illuminates. Simultaneously, the delay to generator timer
begins its timing cycle. When the time delay is completed the ATS will transfer to
Generator, the S1 position LED goes off, and the S2 position LED illuminates. Systems
shall transfer in no less than 10 seconds where failure of the equipment to perform
could result in loss of human life or serious injuries.
Step 5: Reclose the Source 1 breaker to re transfer to the normal source. The delay
to utility timer begins its timing cycle. When the timer has completed its timing
cycle, the ATS will transfer. The S2 position LED goes off, and the S1 position LED
illuminates.
Step 6: The delay engine stop timer will begin its timing cycle. The generator runs
unloaded for the duration of this timing cycle. When the timer completes its timing
cycle, the generator will stop. The S2 Available LED goes off. A minimum time delay
of 5 minutes should be provided for unloaded running of the EPS prior to shutdown to
allow for engine cool down (NFPA 110). The minimum 5-minute delay is not required
on small air-cooled prime movers 15 kW or less.
Apply a field testing label in accordance with NFPA standards indicating that the
transfer switch is electrically and mechanically sound and suitable for service after
completing all tests.
 
Whether you are looking for routine maintenance, or wanting to troubleshoot ATS
failure or have emergency systems queries, contact Carelabs at 971 4 514
9730 or +971 55 792 1054 (Call or WhatsApp) or email at info@carelabz.com . We
offer monthly, quarterly and semi-annual inspections and testing.

LIVE TESTING
 Live Testing or Live working shall be defined as the practice of working on parts of
the electrical system while the part in question is still live. This may or may not
include the removal of covers or protective devices without isolating the means of
supply during such an operation. The safest way to conduct electrical work is to shut
off electric power and work on de-energized equipment. However, there may arise
extraordinary circumstances that necessitate work on energized equipment. Live
testing helps ensure all electrical apparatuses within the circuit are set within their
respective recommended electrical polarities for continuous flow of electrical energy.

What is Done During Live Testing? 

Live testing applies to all electrical conductors and equipment operating at 50 volts
nominal, or greater. This procedure also applies to live parts operating at less than 50
volts nominal, if there is an increased risk of exposure to electrical burns or to
explosion due to electrical arcs. 

Live working may not be undertaken unless the following applies (as prescribed by
“The Electricity at Work Regulations” regulation 14): 

 It is unreasonable in all circumstances for it to be dead. 

 It is reasonable in all circumstances for him to be at work on or near it while it is live. 
 Suitable precautions (including where necessary the provision of suitable protective
equipment) are taken to prevent injury.  
 The use of all insulated tools and matting and protective equipment in use. Situations
where working “live” is acceptable.  
 Live working may be undertaken only when adequate precautions are taken to
prevent danger or injury to all persons:

 Persons carrying out work on live equipment shall be competent to do so safely.  

 Live exposed parts shall not be left unattended at any time.  
 Live work will only be carried out where there exists no risk of water ingress to live
exposed parts.  
 Live work may only be carried out where it is impracticable to isolate the supply. 
 Signs shall be fitted in all cases on circuits under test stating “Warning, circuit under
test “Do Not Operate”.  

Situations where working “live” is unacceptable:

The following situations are not appropriate to be worked on live:  

 Motor terminal covers must not be removed live.  

 Panel covers must not be removed if adequate knowledge of that panel is not known. 
 Covers shall not be removed in wet environments.  
 Live work must not be undertaken where by “risk assessment” danger or injury may
occur to the engineer or others.  
 Signs shall be fitted in all cases on circuits under test stating “Warning, circuit under
test “Do Not Operate”. 

Procedures to be implemented when working “live”:  

 All suitable precautions shall be taken to prevent “danger” arising.  

 All personnel not directly involved with the task in hand will be kept clear of the area
at all times. 
 Suitable barriers and warning signs shall be erected as and when appropriate.  
 If any doubts regarding safety arise then work must be halted and the circuit made
dead prior to any further progress being made.   
 Precautions shall be taken to ensure that no nearby dead circuits become
unexpectedly live.” 
 The appointed site representative shall be kept fully informed of areas where
live work is being undertaken.  
 Signs shall be fitted in all cases on circuits under test stating “Warning, circuit under
test “Do Not Operate”. 

How to Conduct Live Testing? 

Following are the tests that we carry out during live testing: 
Polarity Testing 

We require a polarity test to ensure that all single pole devices (fuses, switches and
circuit breakers) are connected in the PHASE conductor only. We cannot simply trust
that the electrician(s) have connected things up the right way; everyone makes
mistakes, even if it’s your own work. “Basically it is a test that creates a circuit using
the phase conductor and the single pole device in question, breaking the circuit when
operating the device, means that the reading on the instrument will change, and thus
confirming that that device must be connected in the phase conductor.
It ensures apparatus connected to the circuit is connected correctly, and does not
become damaged. Plug in tester, and ensure the polarity is correct according to the
charts on the test instrument. (Varies from tester to tester) 

Earth Loop Impedance Test 

The main reason for earth loop impedance testing – which is often simply called loop
testing – is to verify that, if a fault occurs in an electrical installation, sufficient
current will flow to operate the fuse or circuit breaker protecting the faulty circuit
within a predetermined time. i.e.; ensure the resistance of the earth cable is not so
high as to prevent it from working correctly in the event of a fault. The objective is to
make sure that the circuit is disconnected fast enough to prevent overheating and
possibly a fire. 
To perform the test plug in the instrument, set the range to the lowest setting first
and press test, then record the result. 
Three-wire no-trip testing is one of the method used in earth loop impedance testing.
It requires connections to be made to the live, neutral and earth conductors, and
typically uses a test current of 15 mA or less. Its benefits are that there is no need to
bypass RCDs and RCBOs during testing, which saves time, and that it does not trip
MCBs. There are, however, a few limitations. 

Prospective Short Circuit Test 

It helps to ensure that in the event of a short circuit, the cable tested can carry
enough fault current, to trip the MCB or blow a fuse, as quickly as possible  (and
within the stated regulation guideline times of 0.4 seconds for socket outlets
(portable equipment) and 5 seconds for fixed equipment). A PSC test calculates the
current that will flow in the event of a short circuit fault between the live
conductors. That is, Line and Neutral on a single phase installation or Line to Line/
Line to Neutral on a three phase installation. Result should be recorded in hundreds of
amps. 
Residual Current Device Test 

RCD testing is the process of safely “tripping” your RCD to ensure it will operate
quickly should there be an electrical incident. This is also known as safety switch
testing. Your RCD is designed to trip, or switch off all the power to that circuit. It is
done to ensure that the RCDs installed will trip fast enough in the event of a fault, to
prevent electrocution. 
To do RCD testing plug in test equipment (set at the rating of the RCD), and set the
test at 0.5 of the RCD’s rated tripping current – the RCD must not trip out. Repeat the
test at the rated tripping current of the RCD, the device should trip out in around 0.3
of a second. Repeat the test again, setting the test at 5 times the rating of the RCD,
the RCD must trip faster than the last result (even though only slightly) 
To make sure that your facility is safe to use, its advised to ensure that the electric
circuit, which is exposed to conditions likely to cause deterioration and consequent
danger, and is supplied at a voltage in excess of 125 volts AC, undergoes a periodic
check by certified authority like Carelabs, so we can establish the ongoing safety of
the electrical equipment. While live testing may be required in order to find the
fault, live repair work must not be carried out. The individual circuit or item
of equipment must first be isolated.
Carelabs is authorized provider of Electrical Installation’s Study, Analysis,
Inspection, and Certification services in UAE, and provide live testing service.

COMMERCIAL ELECTRICAL INSPECTION

SERVICES
 Carelabs is authorized provider of Electrical Installation’s Study, Analysis,
Inspection, and Certification services in UAE, and offer commercial electrical
inspection services.
Commercial Electrical inspection refers to the thorough check-up of all electrical
connections and wiring installed in your premises. An electrical inspector is an
authorized person from the government and municipality who is responsible for
checking the electrical connections to ensure they comply with the law codes and
requirements in the area. Commercial electrical inspectors conduct inspections of all
wiring, electrical equipment/fixtures, alarm systems and all associated systems
regarding electrical power sources.

Carelabs Inspectors Review the Following Type of Installations

 New installations/additions of electrical services

 New installations/additions of electrical wiring, fixtures, equipment
 Alterations of existing electrical services, wiring, equipment
 Fire alarm/annunciations system installations
 Transformers, communication towers, hydro vaults
 Outdoor lighting
 Temporary and special events services
 Emergency turn-on and disconnect of services
 New, additions/alterations to electrical components of mechanical systems:
 Heating systems
 Cooling systems
 Venting systems
 Cooking exhaust systems
 Dust Collection systems

Why is Electrical Inspection Important?

There are many reasons behind the necessity of getting an electrical inspection done.
Some of the most common ones are:

Protection Against Possible Surges

This is a common phenomenon in different regions, especially when there is a storm.

Electrical surges can not only ruin your appliances, but can also create short circuits
in your house. When the inspection is being done, the inspector will check for
different points in the wiring that can cause this type of mishap.
Fire

Many a times it has been seen that an electrical short circuit has been the reason
behind a fire breakout in a house. These short circuits are caused by different loose
wires in the meter or in the cabling itself. During the inspection, the inspector can
easily recognize these faults and ask you to rectify them.

Shocks

Imagine touching an electronic appliance and immediately experiencing a surging

electric current in your body. Although the impact may not be that disastrous;
however, this could lead to other mishaps easily. Apart from this, the body current in
an electronic appliance can easily hamper its performance or can render it
completely non-workable. An electrical inspector can catch these faults in the wiring
in time to rectify them.

Steps for Commercial Electrical Inspection Process

 
 
 
IEC 60335 is the most widely applied standard for electrical safety testing, especially
for domestic appliances. Many safety testing standards in the world have been based
on it. To safeguard workplace health and safety, many sections of the Occupational
Health and Safety Regulation provide guidelines on electrical safety and the
appropriate equipment required to work on low and high voltage electrical
appliances.

GFCI STANDARD INSPECTION SERVICE

Carelabs is authorized provider of Electrical Installation’s Study, Analysis,
Inspection, and Certification services in UAE, and offer GFCI Standard Inspection
Service.
One of the most important aspects of being a home inspector is detecting safety
hazards. Unsafe electrical practices are common safety hazards home inspectors will
come across.
One area of the electrical inspection in particular is Ground Fault Circuit Interrupters
(GFCI). OSHA 1910.399 defines a ground fault circuit interrupter, or GFCI, as “a
device whose function is to interrupt the electric circuit to load when a fault current
to ground exceeds some predetermined value, that is less than that required to
operate the over-current protective device of the supply circuit.
Charles Dalziel first developed a transistorized version of the ground-fault circuit
interrupter in 1961. Through the 1970s, most GFCIs were of the circuit-breaker type.
This version of the GFCI was prone to frequent false trips due to poor alternating-
current characteristics of 120-volt insulations. Especially in circuits with long cable
runs, current leaking along the conductors’ insulation could be high enough that
breakers tended to trip at the slightest imbalance. Since the early 1980s, ground-fault
circuit interrupters have been built into outlet receptacles, and advances in design in
both receptacle and breaker types have improved reliability while reducing instances
of false trips.
A Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter, commonly called a GFI or GFCI, is most commonly
installed on exterior outlets, or in areas where there is a water source (bathroom or
kitchen sink) near the outlet. They are easily identified by two buttons in the middle
of the receptacle, sometimes the buttons are coloured.
A GFCI is typically a receptacle with small buttons on it that usually say “Test” and
“Reset”. It can also be built into a circuit breaker that is installed in an electric
panel.
 GFCI units are designed to guard the users of electrical appliances from electrocution
because of dangerous ground faults or short circuits, by mechanically turning off
electricity when a fault is detected. Home inspectors test the operation of GFCI’s as
part of their evaluation. They may also recommend the installation of GFCI
receptacles near plumbing fixtures. But they weren’t always required. GFCI wiring
regulations only apply to recent wiring installations and constructions. Older homes
are not obliged to install GFI’s unless they are been rewired or a new outlet is being
added in a location that would require a GFCI in a new house.
As per the 2011 NEC, GFCIs are required in the following areas of the home, excluding
pools, spas & boathouses.

 Required to be in readily accessible locations

 All bathroom receptacles
 All garage receptacles and accessory building receptacles
 All indoor receptacles in unfinished basements, excluding permanently installed fire
alarm or burglar alarm systems
 All outdoor receptacles, excluding GFPE circuits dedicated to non-readily accessible
receptacles for snow-melting or deicing equipment
 All receptacles in crawl spaces or below grade level
 All kitchen receptacles serving kitchen counters
 Receptacles within 6 ft. of all non-kitchen sinks
 Whirlpool tubs receptacles

How does a GFCI Work?

The GFCI has a sensor inside that detects variations in current that flow through the
appliance that is connected to it, by comparing the current flow to the appliance and
the current flow from the appliance. If there is a potentially dangerous drop off in the
current, then the GFCI turns off all power by tripping a relay within it in less than one
second. If a GFCI turns off your appliance, then you will have to press the reset
button. A GFCI has two buttons: a test button and a reset button. If a GFCI turns off
your appliance, then you will have to press the reset button. On a home inspection
you should be testing each GFCI for proper operation with a GFCI 3 –prong tester.
Inspectors need to remember that they are not there to detect cite code violations,
but rather, are there to make recommendations to the client if additional safety can
be added or upgraded. For example if inspecting a bathroom in a house that was built
in 1987, or for that fact 2007, and the receptacle is checked and is properly grounded
but does not have GFCI protection, it should not be written up as a safety hazard,
even though the code for GFCI protection in a bathroom went into effect in 1975.
Instead, this should be expressed verbally and should be written in the report as, “for
additional safety, recommend GFCI protected receptacles in the bathroom.” It is okay
to recommend GFCI protected receptacles in locations that typically require them but
do not currently have them.
 There are three types of GFCIs

Receptacle Type
The Receptacle Type incorporates a GFCI device within one or more receptacle
outlets. Such devices are becoming popular because of their low cost.
Portable Type
Portable Type GFCIs come in several styles, all designed for easy transport. Some are
designed to plug into existing non-GFCI outlets, or connect with a cord and plug
arrangement.
Cord-Connected Type
The Cord-Connected Type of GFCI is an attachment plug incorporating the GFCI
module. It protects the cord and any equipment attached to the cord. The
attachment plug has a non-standard appearance with test and reset buttons.

Ground Fault Circuit Inspection Requirements

Employers provide:

 Written description of program

 Competent person to implement the program
 Inspection and testing
 Records of test results

Inspections/Tests:

 Visual inspection of the following equipment is required:

 Cord sets
 Cap, plug and receptacle of cord sets
 Equipment connected by cord and plug

Exceptions:

 Receptacles and cord sets that are fixed and not exposed to damage

Conduct tests for:

 Continuity of equipment of grounding conductor

 Proper terminal connection of equipment grounding conductor

Frequency of tests:

 Before first use

 After repair and before placing back in service
 Before use after suspected damage
 Every three months—however, cord sets and receptacles exposed to damage must be
tested at regular intervals not to exceed six months

All GFCIs shall be tested once every three months using the following procedures to
make sure they are working properly and protecting the employees from electric
shock.

 To test a GFCI, first plug a test-light or shop-light into the outlet, the light should be
ON. Then press the TEST button on the GFCI , the GFCIs RESET button should pop-out and
light should go out.
 If the RESET button pops out and the light doesn’t go out the GFCI has been
improperly wired.
 If the RESET button doesn’t pop out the GFCI is defective and should be replaced.
 If the GFCI is functioning properly, and the lamp goes out. Press the RESET button to
restore power to the outlet.

The GFCI will not protect you from line contact hazards (i.e. a person holding two
“hot” wires, a hot and a neutral wire in each hand, or contacting an overhead power
line). However, it protects against the most common form of electrical shock hazard,
the ground-fault. It also protects against fires, overheating, and destruction of wire
insulation.

ELECTRICAL COMPLIANCE INSPECTION

OSHA has established a direct correlation between effective management of worker

safety and health protection and the incidence and severity of employee injuries.
OSHA maintains that effective management helps eliminate or control employee
exposure to toxic substances and other unhealthy conditions. It enriches employee
 confidence and productivity and decreases workers payment and other less apparent
expenses of work-related injuries and illnesses.

Why is Electrical Compliance Inspection Needed?

Electricity, just like water and gas, can leak. This leakage current is potentially
dangerous as it can flow through you when you touch the leaking appliance. The earth
leakage relay is designed to monitor for leakage current going directly or indirectly to
earth and if it exceeds a certain value it will trip and disconnect the current flow.
This is why it is so important that all circuits are properly earthed to ensure that the
earth leakage relay would operate in an emergency.
The responsibility has been placed on the owner to ensure that a faulty or non-
compliant electrical installation in his / her property does not pose a threat through
fire or electrocution to any person, animal or property. Without a valid compliance
certificate, should an injury or incident occur, the owner could be held liable and the
insurance on the property could be declared invalid?

What is Done During Electrical Compliance Inspection?

Part of our responsibility is to

 Ensure that all the safety features and functions of the electrical installation
are functioning correctly.
 What should be earthed is earthed and that the earth leakage relay is
operational and trips accordingly.
 If your earth leakage or circuit breakers are tripping it’s actually a good sign, it
means your electrical installation is doing what it should be doing, I would be more
concerned if you NEVER have tripping problems. It could be a faulty appliance or circuit.
Very often what happens over the years is that safety features go faulty, are
deliberately disabled or by passed to “fix” a tripping problem instead of the actual fault
being traced and rectified properly.

As part of our process of issuing a certificate after compliance inspection we replace

faulty safety equipment and re-enable all the safety features and then suddenly that
existing faulty circuit or appliance starts causing the earth leakage relay to trip when
next used and the natural assumption is that we have somehow created a fault.
What also happens is a new faulty appliance which now causes the earth leakage to
trip in property. Overloading is not a certificate issue, the owner may need to
upgrade the installation.
A compliance certificate will be given after inspection that covers the permanent
electrical installation which includes:
 All the cables from the mains incoming point to the main distribution board;
 Everything in the main distribution board and any sub boards, circuit breakers,
earth leakage etc. ;
 All the cabling from the distribution boards to switches and plugs, including the
wall plugs and light switches, through to the connection at the lights;
 All circuits and wiring to any fixed appliances, even if they are plugged into a
wall socket, but it does not include the actual appliance itself;
 The earthing system and connectivity throughout the installation;
 Positioning of electrical equipment, e.g. light switches and plugs may not be
within a certain distance of taps, shower, baths etc.;
 Mains switch must be accessible and a within a certain height from the floor in
case of emergencies;
 All electrical equipment in the installation must be approved, SABS or other
relevant approvals, and be of the correct type and rating for the application;
 All electrical equipment must be installed in an approved manner, must be
securely attached in place and suitably protected from little fingers gaining access;
 All parts of the permanent electrical installation must be in good working
order, including safety features;
 The electrician will also take various readings to ensure that voltages,
insulation, earthing and other values are within requirements.

How is electrical Compliance Inspection Done?

A proper inspection program is a key tool management can use in its efforts to
establish and maintain an electrical safety program. The OSHA of 1970 requires the
employer to provide a safe and healthful workplace for every working man and
woman. The General Duty Clause, in OSHA needs every employer to provide his/her
employees a place free from hazards that cause shock or arc flash. It also requires the
employer to comply with occupational safety and health standards promulgated under
the OSHA. To accomplish this, the employer can carry out a self-assessment or
inspection program to make sure electrical systems and equipment are correctly
installed, designed, functioned and maintained in a safe and consistent condition.
Fulfilling these rules and regulations will make sure employers are fitting and
maintaining electrical systems and equipment in proper and safe working condition as
well as confirming employee’s perform safe work and also back supervisors and
managers in fulfilling electrical safety goals set forth by the company for regulatory
compliance.

1. Employee implementation of the electrical safety program, which includes:

o Understanding the program.
o Identify how much supervision emphasizes the program.
o Describe the condition of the program.
2. Does the electrical safety program address all hazards (e.g., determines if
employees are exposed to other risks not addressed in the program)?
3. The audit must address the process for revising procedures as needed,
including:
4. Where incidents or injuries occur, a review of procedures must take place.
5. Procedure revisions or a new procedure may be needed.
6. Define how procedure revisions are communicated to employees.

The inspection and audit programs should be carried out by an electrically

knowledgeable, qualified person in order to identify deficiencies in electrical
equipment or systems and to correct or properly document any deficiencies found.
An option to make sure the inspection program is on board is to have electrically
skilled safety personnel perform the inspections. Another way is to contact a third-
party electrical inspection company. Using a person from outside the company or
facility will often lead to discovery of issues and deficiencies that may be overlooked
by self-inspecting.
The written electrical safety inspection program should be reviewed on a periodic
basis by electrically qualified persons to ensure that checklists are current and being
used. Inspections should include a review of the entire electrical safe work program
for energized and de-energized work, which includes the energy control or
lockout/tagout program. Written work practices, PPE, and the condition/maintenance
of installed electrical equipment and systems should be inspected for compliance with
regulations and industry consensus standards.
The inspection and audit programs should be carried out by an electrically
knowledgeable, qualified person in order to identify deficiencies in electrical
equipment or systems and to correct or properly document any deficiencies found.

Benefits of Electrical Compliance Inspection

For owners, having a certificate of compliance safeguards that the rental house or
facility meets government recommended guidelines for electrical safety. This gives
possible tenants confidence and peace of mind, which will be good for business.
Stiff fines may be imposed to responsible landlords or home-owners for violations of
these electrical safety rules in the unfortunate event of an incident involving an
electrical failure. A court can charge a responsible landlord with six months’
imprisonment and additional criminal charges for the offender in the event of an
electrical incident that leads to personal injury or worse, death. This highlights the
benefit of regular checks and certification of compliance for electrical safety as it
prevents accidents and other unfortunate incidents.
 ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS
CERTIFICATION SERVICES

Carelabs is authorized provider of Electrical Installation’s Study, Analysis,

Inspection, and Certification services in UAE, and offer electrical installations
certification services.
Electrical installation certificate is something you should have every time some work
done which includes extending a circuit or new surface or even a few orders. What is
the benefit of getting an installation certificate? It ensures that the work just
completed is compliant and secure and assures that it is safe to use.
Whether you are a manufacturer or operator, you need to ensure cost-effective and
safe use of your electrical installations and power plants.
Electrical Installation Certificates (EICs) and Minor Electrical Installation Works
Certificates (MEIWCs) provide you, as the person responsible for the safety of an
electrical installation, with a declaration that the new installation, or alteration or
addition, is safe to use at the time it was put into service.
Keeping hold of these certificates also provides a basis for any further inspection and
testing, as they can help save on costly exploratory work which might otherwise be
needed in future. Additionally, in the event of a claim that injury or fire was caused
by an electrical installation, certificates are documentary evidence which help show
that the installation had been installed to a satisfactory standard of safety.

The Electrical Installations Certificate will indicate whether the electrical

work that has been carried out is:
 New – where the whole installation has been installed as new, if a complete rewire has
been carried out.
 Addition – applies if an existing installation has been modified by adding one or more
new circuits.
 Alteration – applies where one or more existing circuits have been modified or
extended (for example to add a socket), or items such as a consumer unit (fuse box) and
switching equipment have been replaced.

An Electrical Installation Certificate must be issued for all new electrical installations.
It may also be required for an alteration or addition to the installation – depending
upon whether or not a new circuit has been installed. Where an alteration or addition
is carried out but does not include a new circuit, a MEIWC or an EIC may be used.

The Electrical Installation Certificate will need to be issued any time that
there is:

 A newly installed installation

 When any new single circuit or multiple circuits are being added to any installation
that already exists.
 When there is any change of distribution board (consumer unit)
 When there has been any alteration to a circuit and that alteration has required a
change to the protective device.
 Following initial verification, and after a full inspection and testing procedures have
been undertaken, the Electrical Installation Certificate has to be completed. This is
something that is required by law.

Carelabs Electrical Installation Certification Process

Every time an Electrical Contractor completes a new electrical installation, extension,
or modification to an existing installation he/she is obliged to test and certify that
the installation complies with current standards. These standards are set by the
Electro Technical Council of Ireland (ETCI). A validated Electrical Completion
Certificate, where applicable, must be sent to ESB Networks by the electrical
contractor’s regulatory body before any connection work can commence. Every
customer should receive a copy of an Electrical Completion Certificate whenever
electrical work is completed. Make sure you keep your copy of the certificate. This
requirement helps to ensure your safety.
In order to verify that it complies with the relevant requirements of the standard.
With self-certification, there is an absolute requirement for full inspection and testing
procedures. This chapter explains the minimum verification procedures that are
required by Health and Safety legislation and BS 7671. The Wiring Regulations require
that every installation must be inspected and tested, both during erection and before
being put into service. The persons signing certification take responsibility for all
 work, hidden and obvious. A signatory on an Electrical installation certificate (EIC)
can only be responsible for work for which there is a contractual arrangement.
Inspection and testing may be carried out by a specialized operator, or the installer,
or perhaps the design consultant.

Who can apply for Electrical Installation Certification?

Property owners, electrical contractors and licensed wiremen can apply to have their
electrical work inspected and certified.

Carelabs Provide Certificates after testing for faults like:

 If any of your electrical circuits or equipment are overloaded.

 If any potential electric shock risks and fire hazards are present
If any defective electrical work is present
 If any lack of earthing or bonding is present
 Tests are also carried out on wiring and fixed electrical equipment to check that they
are safe. A schedule of circuits is also provided, which is invaluable for a property
 The suitability of the switchgear and controlgear. For example, an old fusebox with a
wooden back, cast-iron switches, or a mixture of both will need replacing
 The serviceability of switches, sockets and lighting fittings. Items that may need
replacing include: older round-pin sockets, round light switches, cables with fabric coating
hanging from ceiling roses to light fittings, black switches and sockets mounted in skirting
boards
 The type of wiring system and its condition. For example, cables coated in black
rubber were phased out in the 1960s. Likewise cables coated in lead or fabric is even older
and may well need replacing (modern cables use longer-lasting pvc insulation)
 Making sure you have a fusebox with a suitable residual current device (RCD)
 The presence of adequate identification and notices
 The extent of any wear and tear, damage or other deterioration
 Any changes in the use of the premises that have led to, or may lead to, unsafe
conditions

If any dangerous or potentially dangerous condition or conditions are found, the

overall condition of the electrical installation will be declared to be ‘unsatisfactory’,
meaning that remedial action is required without delay to remove the risks to people,
and damage to equipment in the premises.

Minor Electrical Installation Work Certificate

The Minor Works Certificate is intended to be used for additions and alterations to an
installation that do not extend to the provision of a new circuit. Examples include the
 addition of a socket-outlet or lighting point to an existing circuit, the
relocation/replacement of a light switch etc. This Certificate may also be used for the
replacement of equipment such as accessories or luminaries, but not for the
replacement of distribution boards or similar items. Appropriate inspection and
testing, however, should always be carried out irrespective of the extent of the work
undertaken.

Carelabs Electrical installations certificate will have the following list of

regulations printed:

 The Electrical Installation Certificate will be used only for the initial certification of a
new installation or for an alteration or addition to an existing installation where new circuits
have been introduced. It is not to be used for a Periodic Inspection for which a Periodic
Inspection Report form should be used. For an alteration or addition which does not extend to
the introduction of new circuits, a Minor Electrical Installation Works Certificate may be used.
The original Certificate is to be given to the person ordering the work (Regulation 742-01-03).
A duplicate should be retained by the contractor.
 This certificate is only valid if accompanied by the Schedule of Inspections and the
Schedule(s) of Test Results.
 The signatures appended are those of the persons authorized byx the companies
executing the work of design, construction and inspection and testing respectively. A
signatory authorized to certify more than one category of work should sign in each of the
appropriate places.
 The time interval recommended before the first periodic inspection must be inserted.
 The page numbers for each of the Schedules of Test Results will be indicated, together
with the total number of sheets involved.
 For the proposed date for the next inspection, it should be taken into consideration
the frequency and quality of maintenance that the installation can reasonably be expected to
receive during its intended life, and the period should be agreed between the designer,
installer and other relevant parties.

ELECTRICAL SWITCHGEAR SAFETY

INSPECTION SERVICES
 Carelabs is authorized provider of Electrical Installation’s Study, Analysis,
Inspection, and Certification services in UAE, and offer electrical switchgear
safety inspection services.
In an electric power system, switchgear is the combination of electrical disconnect
switches, fuses or circuit breakers used to control, protect and isolate electrical
equipment. Switchgears are used both to de-energize equipment to allow work to be
done safely, and to clear faults downstream.

Electrical Switchgear is Composed of Passive and Active Components

 Passive components include the horizontal and vertical bus structures.

 Active components are the power circuit breakers and fusible switching
devices. Their role is to protect the electrical assets downstream, disconnect the
circuit, and protect personnel in case of an arc flash event.

Passive and active components require regular maintenance to ensure equipment

integrity and proper mechanical and electrical functionality, as well as to optimize
the equipment’s useful life. A regularly scheduled electrical system preventive
maintenance program is intended to detect, repair, or replace affected electrical
components, parts, or equipment before they lead to catastrophic damages,
significant power interruptions, and loss of business functions. Current Injection Tests
for Switchgear and Switchboards Current-injection tests will prove current wiring is in
accordance with design specifications.

Ten Tips to Optimize the Life of Electrical Switchgear

 Perform Infrared Inspections
 Exercise Circuit Breakers Annually
 Don’t Neglect Recommended Maintenance
 Recondition the Equipment
 Keep Good Records and Trend Performance
 Upgrade the Equipment
 Outsource Preventive Maintenance Via a Long-Term Maintenance Contract
 Comply with NFPA 70E
 Utilize Predictive Maintenance Tools and perform a Short Circuit Analysis and a
Time Current Coordination Study

You should regularly inspect, maintain and test all switchgear and its environment,
for example the switchroom. In all cases you should do this in accordance with the
manufacturer’s instructions.

Switchgear Inspection
You should inspect substations regularly. During the inspection work you should
prioritise any remedial actions as follows:

 Immediately (this should always be the case when security of the substation
enclosure has been interfered with).
 Earliest possible opportunity.
 Next scheduled maintenance.

You should include the following items in the inspection schedule:

 Switchgear environment (switchroom access and surrounds, including fence and

external walls if outdoors), signs of water getting in/dampness, signs of unauthorized
access and/or interference, condition of fire fighting equipment and warning notices,
and general housekeeping.
 Signs of abnormal conditions such as high temperature, smell of hot substances
or ozone, presence of smoke, signs of fresh leakage of oil or compound, distortion and
evidence of deformation on enclosures.
 General condition of switchgear, such as corrosion, evidence of leaks, fluid
levels, presence/condition of labels, padlocks and key exchange interlocks, condition of
instruments and protection equipment.
 Condition of ancillary equipment such as batteries and chargers, control panels
etc.

General Visual and Mechanical Inspection of Switchgear

 Switchgear should be inspected for proper anchorage, alignment, grounding and
required clearances.
1.) Inspect the physical, electrical, and mechanical condition of switchgear or
switchboard, including its anchorage, alignment, grounding and required clearances.
When performing acceptance testing, verify that the equipment nameplate data
matches project drawings and specifications. This is important because switchboards
are designed and rated for specific applications and should not be used otherwise,
unless explicitly approved by the manufacturer.
2.) The unit should be clean and all shipping braces, loose parts, and documentation
shipped inside the cubicles removed. Keep all documentation in a safe location for
maintenance personnel in the future while loose parts and switchgear tools should be
safely stored outside of the enclosure for easy access. When performing maintenance
programs, clean the assembly using industry accepted methods of cleaning.
3.) For initial acceptance, verify that fuse and/or circuit breaker sizes, types, and
protective settings match the project drawings and coordination study. Circuit
breakers equipped with microprocessor-communication packages should be
programmed with the proper digital address. All instrument transformer current and
voltage ratios should also correspond to project drawings.

Moisture and Corona Inspections for Switchgear and Switchboards

If corona occurs in switchgear assemblies, it is usually localized in thin air gaps that
exist between a high-voltage bus bar and its adjacent insulation or between two
adjacent insulating members. Corona might also form around bolt heads or other
sharp projections that are not properly insulated or shielded. Corona in low-voltage
switchgear is practically nonexistent.

1. Inspect for evidence of moisture or corona when performing maintenance

inspections. On outdoor assemblies, roof or wall seams should be checked for evidence
of leakage, and any leaking seams should be sealed with weatherproof caulk. Prolonged
leakage can be identified by rust or water marks on surfaces adjacent to and below
leaky seams. The assembly base should be checked for openings that could permit water
to drain into the interior, and any such openings should be caulked or grouted. Larger
openings should be sealed to prevent rodent intrusion. Many electric inspection
protocols call for using ultrasound to test enclosed electric gear before opening to
prevent arc flash incidents.
2. All interior and exterior lighting should be checked for proper operation. It is
essential for personnel safety that the area be well lit at all times in case of emergency
response and other security reasons.

Wiring and Bolted Connection Checks for Switchgear and Switchboards

 Bolted electrical connections should be inspected for high resistance, either by use of
a low-resistance ohmmeter, calibrated torque-wrench, or infrared scan. Loose bolted
electrical connections can lead to higher energy consumption and eventual equipment
failure if not properly addressed.

 When using a low-resistance ohmmeter, investigate values which deviate from

those of similar bolted connections by more than 50 percent of the lowest value.
 Bolt-torque levels should be in accordance with manufacturer’s published data.

General Wiring Checks for Switchgear and Switchboards

Loose control wires can lead to catastrophic failure if they are part of a critical
protective circuit, such as a protective relay for a circuit breaker. Other critical
functions like electrical charging and re-closing of circuit breakers can be inhibited if
poor connections overheat and lose integrity.
Check that all wiring connections are tight and that wiring is secure to prevent
damage during routine operation of moving parts, especially when removing draw-out
circuit breakers or opening and closing cubicle doors. Gently tug on control wires to
ensure a tight connection or use a screwdriver to gently verify torque on the
connection. Infrared scans are also very effective for finding loose wires in control
circuits.

Moving Parts and Interlock Checks for Switchgear and Switchboards

1. Confirm the correct operation and sequencing of electrical and mechanical

interlock systems. Attempt closure on locked-open devices and attempt to open locked-
closed devices.
2. Test key interlock systems by making key exchanges with all devices included
in the interlock scheme as applicable. All of these systems are essential for safety of
both the operator and the equipment.

Lubrication of Switchgear and Switchboards

Check for appropriate lubrication on moving current-carrying parts and moving/sliding
surfaces to keep everything operating smoothly. This includes hinges, locks, and
latches when performing maintenance tests. Lubricate as necessary using industry
accepted lubrications and techniques.

Insulators and Barrier Checks for Switchgear and Switchboards

 Tracking is an electrical discharge phenomenon caused by electrical stress on
insulation. This stress can occur phase-to-phase or phase-to-ground. Although tracking
can occur internally in certain insulating materials, these materials as a rule are not
used in medium- or high-voltage switchgear insulation. Tracking, when it occurs in
switchgear assemblies, normally is found on insulation surfaces.
Accumulated dirt, oil or grease might require liquid solvents or other alternative
methods to be removed.

1. Electrical insulators should be inspected for evidence of physical damage or

contaminated surfaces. Damage caused by electrical distress is normally evident on the
surface of insulating members in the form of corona erosion or markings or tracking
paths.
2. Inspect barrier and shutter assemblies for proper installation and operation. All
active components should be exercised; mechanical indicating devices should be
inspected for correct operation.
3. Ensure that vents are clear and filters are in place. Screens covering ventilation
openings should be in place to prevent entry of rodents or small animals.

Bolted Connection Electrical Tests for Switchgear and Switchboards

1. Perform resistance measurements through bolted electrical connections with a

low-resistance ohmmeter. Measure line/load bus resistance end-to-end and to each
distribution section.
2. Verify dual-source switchgear bussing is correct at the tie breaker. Compare
resistance values to values of similar connections and investigate values that deviate by
more than 50 percent of the lowest value.

Insulation Electrical Tests for Switchgear and Switchboards

1. Insulation–resistance tests should be performed with a megohmmeter for one

minute on each bus section, phase-to-phase and phase-to-ground. The used is
dependent on the rating of the equipment and should be applied in accordance with
manufacturer’s published data. can be used as a guideline if manufacturer’s data
cannot be found.
2. Insulation-resistance values of bus insulation depends on voltage class and
should be in accordance with manufacturer’s published data. Values of insulation
resistance less than manufacturer’s recommendations should be investigated.

Dielectric Withstand Test for Switchgear and Switchboards

AC Hipots are recommended for dielectric withstands testing circuit breakers.
1. Perform a dielectric withstand voltage test on each bus section, each phase-to-
ground with phases not under test grounded, using a test voltage in accordance with
manufacturer’s published data.
2. Apply test voltage for one minute. If no evidence of distress or insulation
failure is observed by the end of the total time of voltage application, the test
specimen is considered to have passed the test. Dielectric Withstand is an optional test
when performing routine maintenance per NETA.

Important: Dielectric withstand voltage tests should not proceed until insulation-
resistance levels are raised above the recommended minimum values.

Control Wiring Electrical Tests for Switchgear and Switchboards

Perform insulation-resistance tests on control wiring with respect to ground. Apply
500 volts dc for 300-volt rated cable and 1000 volts dc for 600-volt rated cable for one
minute each.
Important: For units with solid-state components or control devices that cannot
tolerate the applied test voltage, follow manufacturer’s recommendation. Isolate
these components and use a ohmmeter to check the circuit before applying test
voltage.
Minimum insulation-resistance values of control wiring should be comparable to
previously obtained results but not less than two megaohms. This test is optional for
both maintenance and initial acceptance.

Instrument Transformer Tests for Switchgear and Switchboards

Current transformers are just some of the many instrument transformers found in
switchgear and switchboards.
The procedure for inspecting and testing instrument transformers is beyond the scope
of this guide as each type has its own procedure. Instrument transformers generally
include current transformers, voltage transformers, and control power transformers.
Conduct electrical tests on instrument transformers in accordance with NETA. Where
applicable, testing of instrument transformers generally include:

 Visual/Mechanical Inspection
 Insulation Resistance Test
 Dielectric Withstand
 Turns Ratio Tests
 Excitation Tests
 Burden Test
 Power/Dissipation Factor
 Secondary Wiring Integrity
 Circuit Breaker and Switch Tests for Switchgear and Switchboards
It’s essential that circuit breakers be tested and maintained to ensure proper
operation during electrical faults. Photo: Vacuum Interrupter Testing
The procedure for the inspection/testing of circuit breakers and switches is beyond
the scope of this guide as each type and voltage class has its own procedure. Conduct
electrical tests on circuit breakers in accordance with NETA. Where applicable,
testing of circuit breakers generally include:

 Visual/Mechanical Inspection
 Insulation Resistance
 Dielectric Withstand
 Contact/Pole Resistance
 Electrical Operations
 Vacuum Integrity
 Power/Dissipation Factor
 Protective Devices and Instrument Transformers

Control Power Transfer Scheme Test for Switchgear and Switchboards

Switchgear and switchboard assemblies equipped with multiple control power sources
should be checked for proper function of the control transfer scheme by connecting a
rated secondary voltage to each source. Transfer relays should perform as designed
when the primary source is lost.

Ground Resistance Electrical Tests for Switchgear and Switchboards

1. Perform resistance measurements through bolted ground connections with a

low-resistance ohmmeter, if applicable. Compare bolted connection resistance values to
values of similar connections and investigate values which deviate from those of similar
bolted connections by more than 50 percent of the lowest value.
2. Determine the resistance between the main grounding system and all major
electrical equipment frames, system neutral, and derived neutral points by means of
point-to-point testing using a low-resistance ohmmeter. Values which exceed 0.5 ohm
should be investigated.
3. Perform fall-of-potential or alternative ground resistance test in accordance
with IEEE on the main grounding electrode or system. The resistance between the main
grounding electrode and ground should be no greater than 5 ohms for large commercial
or industrial systems and 1 ohm or less for generating or transmission station grounds,
unless otherwise specified by the owner
 Metering Electrical Tests for Switchgear and Switchboards
Metering devices are verified using secondary voltage and current levels.
Generally, metering devices are verified using secondary voltage and current levels
supplied by a relay test set or other secondary source.
Determine accuracy of all meters and calibrate watt-hour meters in accordance with
NETA.

Current Injection Tests for Switchgear and Switchboards

 Current-injection tests will prove current wiring is in accordance with design

specifications. This is an optional test according to NETA.
 Perform current-injection tests on the entire current circuit in each section of
switchgear by secondary injection with magnitudes that produce a minimum current of
1.0 ampere flows in the secondary circuit. Verify correct magnitude of current at each
device in the circuit.

Cubicle Heater Tests for Switchgear and Switchboards

 Moisture accumulation is prevented by heat and air circulation. It’s important,

therefore, to make sure the heating and ventilating systems are functioning properly to
reduce internal condensation.
 The operation of switchgear/switchboard heaters should be verified along with
their controller. Heaters should be operational.

Tip: Infrared cameras are the easiest way to verify heater functionality without
making contact with the equipment.

Surge Arrester Tests for Switchgear and Switchboards

Inspection and testing procedures for surge arresters exceeds the scope of this
document. Surge Arresters should be performed in accordance with NETA. Testing
these devices typically consist of applying a high voltage across the arrester to ground
and observing the leakage current.

Dual-Source Phasing Check for Switchgear and Switchboards

During initial acceptance, perform phasing checks on double-ended or dual-source
switchgear to insure correct bus phasing from each source. Phasing checks should
prove the switchgear or switchboard phasing is correct and in accordance with the
system design.

ELECTRICAL SAFETY AUDIT

 Carelabs is authorized provider of Electrical Installation’s Study, Analysis,
Inspection, and Certification services in UAE, and offer electrical safety audit
service in UAE.
Electrical Safety is an on-going conversation. In process industries, fires due to
electrical reasons are very probable, especially in industries that handle flammable
chemicals. In service industries such as information technology, telecommunications,
banking and other commercial establishments, business interruption losses could be
due to electrical hazards.
Trained professionals will examine your arc flash study, training programs,
documentation, and PPE to ensure your electrical safety program is up to date,
compliant, and comprehensive. Document safety measures for OSHA audits and
compliance comply with the latest NFPA 70E standard.

Benefits Of Electrical Safety Audit

 Compliance with regulations

 Increased levels of safety
 More efficient use of resources
 Clarification of electrical safety responsibilities
 Electrical equipment is required to be maintained so as to avoid danger and to allow
the continued use of equipment in service
 Identification and elimination of safety hazards
 Ensuring longevity of expensive electronic equipment like computers and other
machines
 Development of a dynamic record of safety performance
 Creation of positive cycle of safety improvement
 Ensuring compliance with Regulatory and industry safety related best practices

Why Electrical Safety Audits (ESA) Necessary?

Identifying potential electrical hazards to prevent or minimize loss of life and
property is perceived seriously by many industries the world over. General safety
auditing is popular where the objectives & concepts are clear whereas ESA is
a specialized area that is still in the process of being understood by many.
In factories, around 8% of all fatalities are due to accidents caused by electricity.
Data compiled by international organizations like National Fire Protection Association
(NFPA), indicate that nearly one fourth of all fires are caused by electrical appliances
or installations. Major fire incidents in various types of occupancies over a number
of years show that nearly 40% of the fires are initiated by electrical causes such as
short circuits, overloading, loose electrical connections.
 Although electrical hazards will be identified and assessed in general safety audits,
comprehensive electrical safety audits can provide a thorough review of the electrical
system. This could identify potential electrical hazards, flaws in design system,
maintenance system, etc.

Electrical Safety Audit Service can be broadly classified into 3 major areas namely:

1. Pre-Audit
2. Audit
3. Post-Audit

Pre-Safety Electrical Audit

An effective ESA programme should include elements such as competent
audit team formation, pre_audit briefing, collection & review of relevant
information (preventive maintenance documentation, accident reports,
electrical inspector’s reports, history cards), discussion with safety &
electrical officers, plant visit and then the consolidation to the top management.
Defining scope of Electrical Safety audit based on the specific requirement is the first
step in the process of Electrical Safety auditing. Typical ESA scope of work could
include:
 

 Physical inspection of the area with reference to standards and other relevant

codes of Practice &identifying electrical hazards (shocks, fires, etc.).
 Reviewing the role of electrical safety in the total safety system.
 Review of protection devices / system of the electrical installation.
 Review of adequacy of cables, motors, etc. based on actual load current
measurements and cable current carrying capacities.
 Review of electrical accidents to identify root cause of the accidents.
 Review the EPM (Electrical Preventive Maintenance) programme in the plant and
to examine the documentation, checklists, work permit, test records, etc. and to suggest
recommendations as per applicable standards.
 To identify training needs of the plant employees from the point of view of electrical
safety.
 To evaluate the earthling system (installation and maintenance) in the plant based on
IS 3043 and to suggest recommendations.
 Review of the following test records, evaluating the test results and to suggest
recommendations as per applicable standards.
 Transformer oil test.
 Insulation Resistance Tests.
 Earth Resistance tests.(The checking of test procedures and checking of test result
interpretations are also part of this exercise).
 To evaluate the potential electrical fire hazards in the plant electrical installation and
to suggest fire protection measures as per applicable standards and Indian Electricity Rules.
 To identify the ESD (Electro-Static Hazards in the plant and to suggest
recommendations as per applicable standards

The pre-audit questionnaire for ESA could include the following aspects:

 Process details
 Electrical Single Line Diagram
 Name plate details of major electrical equipment
 Details of classified zones in the plant
 Details of flammable chemicals handled in the plant
 Details of electrical accidents in the plant
 Details of addition / expansion of the plant including electrical installation
 Overview of electrical maintenance system

Audit  Preperation / Reference:

The questionnaire is a vital tool for successful inspection and time spent onits
preparation is as valuable as that taken by the audit itself. Auditing experience will
reveal the need for supplementing or modifying it, provided that the auditors adopt a
flexible approach to their task, and the danger of confining attention only to those
matters listed in the original questionnaire must be avoided. Checklists can be made
with reference to:

 Statutory Regulations
 Non-Statutory Standards (national and international)

To understand the efficiancy of the various electrical safety elements, the grouping as
indicated below will be of use. This way of grouping enables the consolidation
exercise more effective.

Compliance to Statutory Rules

 Applicability of rules (International & Local codes, Petroleum Rules, etc.)

 Compliance to inspector’s reports
 Submission of accident intimation reports, forms, etc. in time
 Intimation of inspector before energizing new / changed electrical installation

Electrical Shock/ Flash / Injury Hazards

 RCCBs –selection, installation and maintenance

 Aspect of Nuisance Tripping and bypassing of RCCBs
 Bypasses fuses, MCB (Miniature Circuit Breaker), etc.
 Use of rewirable fuses
 Earthing defects
 Use of double insulated (class II) tools, centre tapped power supply, extra-lowvoltage
equipment for confined spaces
 Accessible live parts
 Electrical rubber mat
 Wrong identification of equipment / feeders
 Defective electrical portable tools
 Are the necessary PPEs (Personal Protective Equipments) used?
 Interlocks provided for multiple power sources?
 Adequacy of illumination in electrical rooms/around panels, DBs, etc.

Electrical Fire Hazards

 Storage of combustible materials near electrical equipment / fuse units

 RCCBs
 Earthing defects
 Use of non-standard fuse wires
 Bypassing of protection devices
 Deteriorated insulation
 Selection, deployment of PFEs ( (Portable Fire Extinguishers)
 Unused openings in live panels, etc.
 Possibility of ground fault / short circuit
 Loose terminations due to improper supports, crimping
 Improper gland installation, wrong lug size
 Over-rated fuses, wrongly set protection relays, etc.

Electrical Safety Training

 Need for electrical safety training

 Training content identification
 Periodicity
 Competency of faculty members
 Objective of training

Earthing System

 Installation as per approved design?

 Installation and Maintenance as per IS 3043?
 Earth resistance measured periodically?
 Test procedure
 Acceptable earth resistance values
 Is the earthing system modified when electrical installation is modified?
 Are neutral earth pits independent and separate?
 Are earth pits identified?
 Are two and distinct earth connections provided?
 Is the earth continuity tested?
 Is bonding and earthing carried out to avoid ESD hazards?

Electrical Preventive Maintenance

 Is there an EPM program in place?

 Is the program implemented? What is the slippage?
 Are the relevant standards (statutes and non-statutory) referred and incorporated in
the EPM programme?
 Electrical Tests, Records, Test Procedure and periodicity (earth resistance, insulation
resistance tests)
 Is the EPM program only documented?
 Transformer tests (dielectric strength, acidity, sludge deposits, dissolved gases, etc.)
and periodicity
 Periodic calibration of meters (ammeter, voltmeter, relays, temperature gauges) and
test instruments (insulation resistance megger, earth resistance megger, multi-meters, etc.)

Electrical Protection System

 Are the protection relays in place and set in the main PCC / MCC?
 Are the relays set in accordance with calculated, design parameters in mind?
 Are they calibrated and tested periodically?
 Availability of HRC fuses, standard fuse wires, MCBs, MCCBs, RCCBs, etc.
 Are the transformer protection devices in place? (Bucholtz Relay, Oil Temperature
Relay, Winding Temperature relay, Silica Gel Breather, Explosion Vent, etc.

Electrical Safety Auditing

The field /plant visit is the most important part of the ESA program. This involves
visiting the plant to identify electrical hazards as per the scope of the audit. In
electrical safety audits, the incoming electrical supply receiving section (outdoor
substation and main transformer) is inspected first. Then the main sub-station housing
the PCCs or MCCs and the cable gallery (if present) is inspected. Next are the
electrical equipment installed in various process sections, the cabling and the
distribution transformers located in the plant are visited.
The aspects such as earthing, lightning protection,maintenance condition,loose cablin
g, temporary wiring, electrical firehazards, shock potential, etc. are critically lookedi
nto. The checklist provided in the ‘Pre-
audit Preparation’ section is rather a comprehensiveattempt, covering almost all-
electrical safety aspect

Review of Documentation / Records

Normally, this part is taken up after the field visits. All the relevant
maintenance documentation, test records, electrical records, electrical inspector
reports, OEM (Original Equipment Manufacturer) service manuals,
History cards are subjected to detailed examination. All the relevant
drawings (electrical single line diagram, earthing layout, hazardous are a
classification drawings, protection system schematic, equipment layout,lightning prot
ection drawings) are also checked against actual installation and commended upon,
with reference to applicable standards

Post Electrical Safety Audit

Management Abstract
The management abstract as the name implies contains the salient observations noted
during the audit and the recommendations in a nutshell. Management needs  to
understand those hazards that are harmful to their employees and to the property.
Any prudent management will consider seriously potential hazards that can affect
their business (directly as well as indirectly) and will take immediate action.
Considering the importance of this section, every care has to be taken in choosing
appropriate words and to effectively convey the message, depending upon the
criticality of the hazard.
Introduction
This section generally contains the ESA scope of work, exclusions in the audit scope,
assistance provided during the audit, details of the audit team, client’s officials
contacted during the audit, audit methodology, audit duration. and summary of the
client’s safety system, safety auditing policy, training strategy, Accident Prevention
Program, and the management commitment towards safety.
Overview of Electrical System
The overview section contains the details of the electrical power supply and the
power distribution. This section can also discuss the details of critical electrical
installations, name plate details of critical electrical equipment, recent
alterations/additions carried in the electrical installation, captive generation details,
etc. This section can also discuss about the future expansion plans with respect to
electrical capacity.
Specific Observations and Recommendations
This is the most important section containing the specific observations and
recommendations in the plant observed during the audit. Normally, the observations
are noted area/plant wise. Checklist method is found effective and various standards
(both statutes and non-statutes) are available for reference. The format for this
section is given in this paper.
Lightning Protection System Evaluation
The review of the existing lightning protection system of the plant as per the
applicable national (IS: 2309) and international standards (NFPA 780) is carried out in
this section on a sample basis. The various maintenance aspects are also evaluated in
this section. If required, the fundamental step of ascertaining the need for protecting
buildings /structures by calculating the risk factor is also carried out.
Electro-Static Hazards- Control Measures
ESD (Electro-Static Discharges) is a critical area where the potential ESD hazards are
to be identified and necessary solutions are to be provided. Making the client aware
of the potential accidents that can occur due to Electro-static discharges, minimum
ignition energy required for fire/explosion, concept of equi-potential bonding and
earthing, etc. are also crucial to make them understand the ESD hazards in the right
light.
Hazardous Areas – Observations and Recommendations
This is another crucial area that needs to be evaluated critically. Although hazardous
areas are critical, they are mostly neglected in most of the hazardous plants. The
design principle of flameproof equipment makes it a special equipment that needs
‘special care’. Area classification into zones and installing various types of electrical
equipment are the critical factors in controlling accidents in hazardous areas.
Safety audits are an important part of a company’s control system. The auditing
schemes does not remove from the management and supervisors the necessity for
regular checking and rechecking to ensure that people under their control are working
in a safe manner. Their application and use do not remove the need for proper care
and responsibility at all levels in day-to-day operations.

THIRD PARTY ELECTRICAL

CERTIFICATION
 Several key components are required for safe, reliable operation of a newly-
installed electrical power system and related components: 

 The power system and components must be designed and engineered

correctly. 
 Quality equipment should be procured. 
 The installation must meet all applicable codes and standards and be
performed by qualified contractors and vendors. 
 Verification of all of the above should be performed through an independent,
third-party inspection process. 
 All information should be documented and archived for future needs. 

While these are not daunting requirements, all too often these basic elements are not
met when installing and commissioning an electrical power system. Poorly written
specifications and contracts, lack of understanding, budget constraints, unqualified
contractors, failure to utilize accredited testing and commissioning companies or a
host of other reasons can lead to issues with the installation and operation of the
electrical power system. 
Thus the question arises: “How can the owner of the equipment ensure an unbiased
and qualified assessment of the newly installed system?” That is when third party
electrical certification comes into play. 
Third Party Inspection was introduced by DCLG as a way for DIY’ers and those not
registered with a competent persons scheme to have their work checked and
certified by a local authority or a private sector approved inspector. Third-party
certification involves an independent assessment declaring that specified
 requirements pertaining to a product, person, process, or management system have
been met. A third-party body is entitled by an accreditation body. Upon definition of
standards and regulations, the accreditation body may allow a Notified body to
provide third-party certification and testing services.  
They not only ensure and assess compliance to the previously-defined codes but
also provide an official certification mark or a declaration of conformity. Third party
inspectors also provide periodic Inspection and testing; They perform checking on
installations previously carried out by other contractors and determines whether
the installation is in a satisfactory condition for continued service. Third party
certification should not be used for initial verification and certification of
new electrical installation work undertaken by others. 
Before work begins, an installer who is not a registered competent person may
appoint a registered third-party certifier to inspect and test the work as
necessary. Within five days of completing the work, the installer must notify the
registered third-party certifier who, subject to the results of the inspection and
testing being satisfactory, should then complete an electrical condition report and
give it to the person ordering the work. 
Registration is of both the individual certifier and the company that
employs them; this ensures that requirements that can only be placed on a legal
entity can be enforced. No electrical business can certify any third party electrical
work until they are registered on a Third Party Certification Scheme.  Therefore
technical competencies of all electricians are checked before third party certification
is awarded. 
 
There are 4 types of certificates (electrical safety certificates) provided by third
party inspectors: 

 Electrical installation certificate 

 Periodical test, inspection & report 
 Domestic installation certificate 
 Minor works certificate 

 Certification of Competency 
Certification of competency is particularly important in the electrical testing
industry. Inherent in the determination of the equipment’s serviceability is the
prerequisite that individuals performing the tests be capable of conducting the tests
in a safe manner and with complete knowledge of the hazards involved. They must
also evaluate the test data and make an informed judgment on the continued
serviceability, deterioration, or non-serviceability of the specific equipment. 
 Electrical Installation Certificate / Domestic Installation Certificate 
This is issued to the customer on the completion of any electrical installation works.
It details the type of works undertaken; any deviations from the regulations as listed
in BS 7671, who designed, installed and tested the works and when the next
inspection is due. 

Periodical Test, Inspection & Report 

This is used for the testing of existing electrical installations that have come up for
their next inspections or for installations that do not have a current installation
certificate. It will detail most if not all of the deviations that need to be addressed
and will fall into four categories / codes. 

 Code 1: Major deviation from the regulations, immediate remedial works are
required and the system is unsafe to remain in service in its present condition. 
 Code 2: Minor deviation from the regulations, remedial works are required to
the electrical installation, this should be carried out soon and in there, present
condition does not provide immediate danger to life or property. 
 Code 3: Requires further investigation. 
 Code 4: Third Party Electrical Certification isn’t just about winning more work
for your business. The most important issues for our members is upholding professional
installation standards within your industry. Electricians who are certified for third party
hold that responsibility in their own hands. The ability to act as a Third Party certifier
means that electrician is directly involved in ensuring that standards of competence and
professionalism in the electrical industry always meet the expected level. 

Minor Works Certificate 

This is used for small works like additional sockets or lights that are not in special
locations. A minor works certificate cannot be used for the provision of a new circuit. 

Qualifications of the Testing Organization 

An independent overview is the only method of determining the long-term usage of
electrical apparatus and its suitability for the intended purpose. Third-party testing
organizations best support the interest of the owner, and the objectivity and
competency of testing organization is as important as the competency of the
individual technician performing the work. Third party testing organizations are
independent of the manufacturer and the installing contractor. Hiring certified third-
party testing organizations assures the owner that: 
The certified technician has broad-based knowledge — this person is trained to
inspect, test, maintain, and calibrate all types of electrical equipment in all types of
industries. 
NETA (International Electrical Testing Association) is the leading source of
specifications, procedures, testing, and equipment performance requirements, not
only for commissioning of new equipment, but also for testing the reliability,
performance, and continued serviceability of existing equipment. A registered
professional engineer will review all engineering reports. All tests will be performed
objectively, independent of the manufacturer of the equipment, according to NETA
specifications and using calibrated instruments traceable to the National Institute of
Science and Technology (NIST). 
The testing organization is a well-established, full-service electrical testing and
maintenance business. The introduction of Third Party Certification effectively
recognises that electricians can do the work of Building Control. As such it is
important that it doesn’t weaken the approach that would be taken by a local
authority and as such the Certifier must be notified by the installer before the work
begins, and must be involved in inspecting the project throughout the installation –
this scheme does not allow certification of finished work which can only be
regularised by a local authority. Having a testing organization that meets these basic
requirements is paramount if objectivity and quality are to be assured. 
Carelabs is authorized provider of Electrical Installation’s Study, Analysis,
Inspection, and Certification services in UAE, and provide Third Party Inspection
of Electrical Installation and Certification.

VOLTAGE IMBALANCE STUDY

Electrical equipment like motors will not function consistently on unbalanced voltages
in systems. Usually, the variance between the maximum and the minimum voltages
must not surpass four percent of the lowest voltage. Larger unbalances may lead to
overheating of components, particularly motors.
 A three phase equipment such induction motor with unbalance in its windings.
 Any large single phase load, or a number of small loads connected to only one phase
cause more current to flow from that particular phase causing voltage drop on line.
 Switching of three phase heavy loads results in current and voltage surges which cause
unbalance in the system.
 Unequal impedances in the power transmission or distribution system cause
differentiating current in three phases.

Why is Voltage Imbalance Study Important?

The effects of extensive voltage imbalances on power systems and equipment are
broad and serious. A severe imbalance might dramatically decrease the equipment
life cycles, considerably speed up the replacement cycle of equipment, and
significantly increase system operation and maintenance costs. Furthermore, for a 3
phase 4 wire system, voltage imbalance leads to bigger neutral wire current and
cause relay malfunction.
Voltage imbalances will create extra power loss, reduce system efficiency, decrease
motor life cycles, etc. Also few abnormal functioning and maintenance circumstance
also causes voltage imbalance and result in negative effects on equipment and
systems. These conditions include such problems as bad electrical contacts,
unsuitable shunt capacitor bank installation, single-phase operation of a motor, etc.
These kinds of operation and maintenance conditions may not occur frequently.
However, if they do occur they will bring about very serious problems for systems or
equipment

The major effects of voltage imbalance are described as follows:

 Extra power loss

 Safety deficiency
 Motor failure
 Life cycle decrease
 Relay malfunction
 Inaccurate Measurement
 Transformer failure

What is Done During Voltage Unbalance Study?

Because voltage unbalance can be very harmful to electrical equipment, the source of
the problem should be thoroughly investigated and corrected. By tallying the voltage
it can assist put aside money and energy by improving gear efficiency and possibly
avoiding costly facility interruption because of its failure. Proper testing and
communication with the utility can help locate and resolve the problem.
 Main objective of this study is:

 To determine the causes and effects of voltage unbalance on the distribution system
and in user facilities.
 To determine the accepted definitions for calculating voltage unbalance and to clarify
the related standards.
 To identify mitigation techniques for the distribution system and for industries.

Voltage imbalance percentage can be calculated using this formula:

% Unbalance= [Maximum deviation from average / Average of 3 phase to phase
voltages]*100
To calculate the percentage deviation in three phases:
[Max (Im-Ir)(Im-Iy)(Im-Ib)*100] / Im
Where, Im is mean of currents in three phases
Im= (Ir+Iy+Ib)/3
Ir, Iy, Ib are phase currents.
Besides, an unbalance can also be measured by matching the strength of positive
sequence currents in comparison to the negative sequence currents. The permissible
limit in terms of percentage of negative phase sequence current over positive
sequence current is 1.3% ideally but acceptable upto 2%.

How is Voltage Imbalance Study Done?

This study performed a comprehensive analysis of the issue of voltage unbalance on
the power system. It will help utilities and industries understand the causes, effects,
and definitions of voltage unbalance, identify mitigation techniques, and interpret
related standards.
Several practical cases are taken into account to deal with voltage imbalances. The
simulation results with problem defined and improvement measures will be later
carried out based on the results from these cases. Few examples of these cases are:

 Bad connection of neutral wire

 Neutral wire broken
 Operation of three-phase motor under voltage imbalance
 Unsuitable capacitor bank installation
 Effects of Voltage Unbalance on Machines
 Effects of Voltage Unbalance on Power Electronic Converters and Drives

Such cases will be used to confirm the impacts of voltage imbalance on systems and
equipment. Voltage imbalance not only causes extra energy loss, but also causes
 safety problems for a system. To prevent voltage imbalance, the balance problem
should be taken into account through all the planning, design, installation and
operation stages. This study will provide details, with theoretical analysis and
explanation, to make it easy to grasp the impacts of voltage imbalance on systems
and equipment. The results are of value to engineers for better design, operation and
maintenance of power distribution systems

Mitigation Techniques for Facilities:

 Unbalanced loads are the main cause of unbalanced voltages on distribution circuits
and thus a great deal can be gained by attempting to distribute single-phase loads equally
across all three voltage phases. Electrical distrbution systems can be balanced by changing
the system configuration through manual and automatic feeder switching operations to
transfer loads among circuits. This reconfiguration can be performed to reduce losses, and
has the natural tendency to balance loading among
 Unbalanced impedances, including transformers and their connections, are often the
next largest contributor to unbalanced voltages. Therefore, proper selection of distribution
transformers is a very important step in preventing voltage unbalance, paying particular
attention to the balancing of open wye and open delta transformer banks.
 If the amount of unbalance tends to vary with the customer load, it is a good
possibility that the transformer is the cause of the unbalanced condition. One way to
determine the transformer banks contribution to voltage unbalance is to measure the voltages
on the primary and the voltages on the secondary and calculate the percent unbalance at
each point.
 In addition, overload conditions on the power system should always be corrected as
soon as possible for a number of protection and safety reasons as well as unbalance
compensation.
 Unbalance compensation can also be achieved by means of passive power filters that
balance the load impedance, where the load current is balanced by adding reactive elements
in parallel to the load.
 For variable loads, voltage unbalance in ac supply systems can be corrected by means
of a shunt connected thrysitor-controlled static VAR compensator, where again the load
current is balanced by adding reactive elements in parallel to the load.
 Within a user facility, all overloaded equipment should be corrected. In addition,
passive power filters and shunt connected static VAR compensators, for mitigation on power
systems, can be used for unbalance compensation in user facilities.
 Mitigation of the adverse effects of unbalanced voltage on adjustable speed drives
(ASD) can be achieved through the use of properly sized ac-line and dc-link reactors as
demonstrated in. The test results showed that connecting both the ac-line and dc-link
reactors to the ASD has the greatest effect on phase-current unbalance, reducing it by more
than half.
 Various relays can be introduced to protect induction motors from unbalanced
voltages, where the relay settings and applications depend on the motor horsepower, loading,
insulation class and service factor. The negative sequence current relays are more reliable
and effective because relays measuring negative sequence voltage can lack the necessary
sensitivity in some system and load configurations
 ENERGY AUDITING SERVICE

The purpose of an energy audit also known as energy assessment or energy study is to
find out why, where, how and when is energy utilised in a facility, and to discover
occasions to increase efficiency. Energy auditing services are provided by energy
services companies, energy experts and engineering organisations. The energy auditor
directs the audit process but functions watchfully with staffs, building owners and
other key participants all the way through to make sure precision of data collection
and correctness of energy efficiency suggestion.

Why is Energy Auditing Done?

With the rising energy expense, you facility or business might be in jeopardy if
sufficient action isn’t taken and you keep guessing the energy use versus financial
plan equation. Energy audits helps to find out where you are throwing away energy in
your facility. Domestic and industrial properties account for around 15% of carbon
emissions in the UAE, according to the EPA, which means they are uneconomical and
inefficient. Carelabs is there to guide you on which techniques are beneficial for
decreasing energy waste and overall energy expenditure.
 When considering energy, a smaller amount is always applauded. Less energy
utilisation equals less energy expense. And, also, less energy utilization is clearly
worthy for the environment.

What is Done During Energy Auditing?

Similar to any other audits, energy audit will evaluate all of your facility’s energy
usage and sketch all of the details. It is a procedure that assists you to check where
your property is wasting energy and what actions you can take to increase energy
efficiency. An energy audit is something that all facilities must undergo every two to
three years in order to make sure utmost efficiency and expenditure.
There are three phases in an audit based on the requirements of the client:

Investigation Phase

This phase is about getting all the information concerning:

 Historical energy consumption for the past 1 to 2 years

 Tariffs and related energy supply contracts
 Floor areas, staff numbers, production levels
 Occupancy hours
 Industry energy use/cost benchmark levels
 Sub electrical and gas metering equipment
 After-hours air conditioning usage
 Mechanical plant configuration, as-installed drawings, electrical single line drawings,
and operational & maintenance manuals
 Lighting configuration, condition and controls
 Compressed air system including rating, presence of air leaks, hours of usage
 Steam and hot water boilers
 Building Management Systems and control strategies
 Building envelope, shading, orientation, insulation levels
 Energy management process and policy information
 Asset management plan, if any

Monitoring Phase

This phase is about getting data related to the entire site and the main energy usage
groups. The function of main plant and gear is checked, and measurement of a scale
of parameters i performed where necessary, including:

 Electrical & gas load profiles

 Internal temperature/humidity
 Ventilation rate
 Light levels
 Boiler flue combustion analysis

Response is also attained from maintenance workers on subjects regarding building

and plant functioning and repairs which could be affecting energy efficiency as well
as causing inhabitant discomfort.

Analysis and Reporting Phase

This is about:

 Finding out complete energy efficiency of facility

 Finding out the greenhouse emission index(GEI) and ABGR energy star rating for office
structures
 Life cycle cost analysis of various energy saving measures
 Tariff analysis
 Top demand management including assessment of power factor correction
 Noted down and if required, verbal report on results

How is Energy Auditing Performed?

Preliminary review of utility data

 Inspect equipment lists, utility data, building diagrams, and other property
information
 Auditor gathers and review at least 2 years of utility data during the energy use
analysis to account for seasonal variations and patterns of energy use (Monthly utility bill data
is most commonly used)
 All forms of energy (electricity, gas, oil, water) should be included in this analysis
 From this evaluation, your facility’s Energy Utilization Index (EUI) value (annual energy
use/square footage) and energy end uses (energy used by each building system) are
calculated
 The Energy Utilization Index (EUI) and base energy load allow the auditor to target this
data against energy usage of similar buildings and systems to show the magnitude of energy
efficiency options and give an early estimate of potential savings
 Auditor also checks for the difference in usage of energy with time and reasons for the
same
 Auditor will give an initial report which contains a summary of information and graphs
and other visuals to permit easy interpretation.
 Outcomes from the study is used in determining which level of audit to run and get
data for the final report
 The Site Assessment

 First auditor will do a physical valuation of your property and its function
 The energy auditor will also conduct a visual inspection and inventory of the building’s
key elements
 Construction details of the building envelope (e.g. walls, roof, windows, doors and
related insulation values)
 An inventory of the heating and cooling systems (HVAC) capacities and rated efficiency
 Manual, time clock or automated HVAC control methods
 Lightning systems and control (both interior and exterior)
 Service hot water systems

Data Analysis

After the energy auditor has collected the necessary data for your building, they will
begin the energy and cost analysis. Before starting the analysis, the energy auditor
should have a good understanding of your economic methodology and business criteria
to ensure that the analysis is fairly compared with other investment opportunities and
that cash flows match expectations.

 Energy analysis methodologies vary widely. Your project goals should inform the
analysis methodology selected to avoid results that yield too much or too little detail. Typical
analysis methodologies include spreadsheet analysis based on engineering formulas that
account for variations in time of day and season, and whole-building hourly energy use
analysis for larger buildings or buildings with complex mechanical systems.
 Cost analysis considers current energy costs, measure implementation costs and
potential savings over time help to determine practicality and priority of Energy Efficient
Mortgage (EEM) recommendations. You must give the economic method that auditor will
consider for determining order of EEM implementation.

Audit Report

Audit report will constitute of sufficient data to let you make updated decisions about
next stages to tally your energy savings and financial aims.
Audit reports consists of detailed descriptions including:

 An catalogue of all current gears, a record of your property’s current state and energy
utilisation
 A list of suggested low-cost, no-cost, and longer-term EEM suggestions depending on
studies of historical energy usage and the onsite evaluation
 Existing conditions and recommended changes, including equipment specs and specific
locations of installations
 How the measure will save energy and how much energy it will save
 Financial analysis outcomes i.e. expenses of suggested measures
 Effects on maintenance and comfort

The report should also present optimized bundles of measures, where shorter payback
EEMs are combined with longer payback EEMs to collectively meet energy savings and
financial goals. This may be of particular interest if your facility has significant
deferred maintenance items.

Benefits of Energy Auditing

 It helps reduce energy costs in your facility

 With a reduction in production costs, the competitiveness of your company will be
improved
 It helps reduce the dependence on foreign energy sources
 It helps reduce environmental damage and pollution
 It can increase the security of your energy supply
 It can reduce the consumption of natural resources
 It can reduce damage to the environment associated with the exploitation of resources
 It helps reduce the impact of greenhouse gas emissions

MOTOR ACCELERATION STUDY AND

ANALYSIS

Motor Starting Study and Analysis recognises the probable voltage dip and
acceleration time for a motor and the consequences of motor starting on a system. It
assesses proper starting and running of motors on load with given system inertia
without causing tripping or instability in the system. Other starting methods, such as
 autotransformer start, reactor, across-the-line, capacitor, or are also studied. If
system voltage dips are a concern, Carelabs will propose the appropriate solutions.
The starting current of most AC motors is several times the normal full rated load
current when starting from full line voltage. These large current requirements can
result in nuisance tripping of protection breakers, excessive running currents, drop in
terminal voltage etc. Dimming of lights as motors start up is a clear indicator that the
power system may need investigation. It may have insufficient capacity or a better
motor starting strategy may be required.

Why is Motor Starting Study and Analysis Done?

The starting torque varies directly as the square of the applied voltage. Thus
excessive starting current results in drop in terminal voltage and may result in the
following:

 Failure of motor starting due to low starting torques.

 Unnecessary operation of under voltage relays.
 Stalling of other running motors connected to the network.
 Voltage dips at the power sources and consequent flicker in the lighting system.

The most serious effect of a large voltage drop or brown out is an increase in current
of all devices servicing a constant load. Static power supplies such as computers and
ballasts for lighting must increase the current to deliver the same amount of power
resulting in overheating and eventually burn-out. Other induction motors operating at
sync speed will increase their current draw until it reaches maximum current and may
slip out of sync further increasing the current demand.
Motor starting studies assists in the choice of the proper motor design, the best
method of starting and the proper system design for reducing the effect of the motor
starting. Motor starting studies are essential in determining the impact on system
voltage during starting and in establishing whether the motor will start satisfactorily
and come up to speed. The result of these studies allows engineers

 To start motors individually

 Use load transitioning to test the impact of fast bus transfer voltage
 Enable load-group actions.

In various electrical installations in industrial and commercial units, engineers are

continuously verifying and stimulating motor starting and acceleration systems to
determine whether they are working properly. The essential areas they must evaluate
are the starting, stopping and restarting of electrical motors.

What is Done During Motor Starting Study and Analysis?

 Motor starting studies vary from instantaneous start-up of one or more of the largest
motors to detailed simulation of the current, voltage and speed with respect to time.
This allows engineers to test different slow start mechanisms ranging from auto-
transformers to variable frequency drives and determine the optimum settings for
start-up time and effect on the system. If a starting device is needed, its
characteristics and ratings can be easily determined.
Study of motor starting methods can be done using both static and dynamic simulation
methods. These techniques have their own advantages and disadvantages. We believe
mainly in transient or dynamic motor starting studies that reproduce measured motor
starting conditions.

 Load flow type solution with the observed starting impedance of the motor modelled
as part of network modelling.
 Short circuit method type of calculations considering pre-fault short circuit conditions
and using voltage drop calculations considering motor starting currents. Alternatively
 Where precise dynamic model of the motor electric circuit and load – torque
characteristics are existing, dynamic model of the motor can be utilised in traditional
transient stability algorithm to evaluate the impact of the motor starting.
 When there is a lack of precise model information, transient stability studies can be
utilised, where the measured starting current can be applied as a nodal injection at the
motor bus as a dynamic event and the system response to this dynamic event can be
measured.

How is Motor Starting Study and Analysis Performed?

The output torque is related to square of the voltage. If an AC induction or
synchronous motor is started while attached to a mechanical load on the shaft, inrush
current can be up to 6 times full-load current and will be drawn for a longer time.
The power system while offering normal service to the remainder of the industrial or
commercial system, must also be capable to source enough inrush current to any
motor
As electrical consultants, motor starting studies help to improve the reliability
engineering for the entire building system and industrial complex. We help to
determine the best way to start large motors in a group help keep large investments
of yours running and lasting longer.
There are various ways to start a motor including:

 Direct supply voltage

 Direct supply voltage with compensation
 Auto-transformers
 Soft starters
 Star-Delta Starters
 Variable Frequency Drives (VFD)
Steps in motor starting analysis:

Step 1: Motor starting analysis starts at the client site to gather current and historical
information.
Step 2: Then simulations are run using these measured data and information from the
manufacturer.
Step 3: From our computer models, we will be able to predict the operation for new
installations and to diagnosis problems and offer solutions for existing motor
installations.
Step 4: We utilise both static and dynamic techniques to create the starting sequence
of motors and normally depend on dynamic analysis to recreate observed and
measured starting conditions.

Following are various types of motor starting study:

The Voltage Drop Snapshot

This method examines the effect of voltage dip during motor-starting is to ensure the
maximum instantaneous drop that occurs leaves bus voltages at acceptable levels
throughout the system. This is done by inspecting the power system that tallies to the
worst-case voltage. Through appropriate system modelling, this study can be
performed by various calculating methods using the digital computer. Voltage drop
snapshot study is beneficial only for measuring system voltages.
The Detailed Voltage Profile
This study allows a more exact examination of the voltage drop situation. Regulator
response, exciter operation, and sometimes governor action are modelled to
accurately represent transient behaviour of local generators. This type of study is
similar to a simplified transient stability analysis and can be considered a series of
voltage snapshots throughout the motor-starting interval including the moment of
minimum or worst-case voltage.
The Speed-Torque and Acceleration Time Analysis
It is the most precise analysis for motor-starting conditions. Like transient stability
study, speed-torque study gives electrical and accelerating torque calculations for
definite time intervals during the motor starting period.
In some conditions, the motor may not be able to break away from standstill. A
speed-torque study, mainly when done using a computer program, can foretell these
problematic areas and allow corrections to be made before difficulties arise. Speed-
torque analysis can help in autotransformer magnetizing current, when exclusive
starting techniques are needed, like autotransformer start, reduced voltage starting
etc., and it can determine the peak time to switch the transformer out of the circuit.
The initial performance of wound rotor motors is inspected using this analysis.
Carelabs uses latest software to calculate speed, slip, electrical output torque, load
current, and terminal voltage data at discrete time intervals from locked rotor to full
load speed. Also, voltage at important locations throughout the system during start-
up will be monitored. The study can help select the best method of starting, the right
motor design, or the required system design for minimizing the impact of motor
starting on the entire system.

 SERVICES
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DUTY OF CARE
MANAGEMENT
Owing to working with the complete Electrical Engineering sector since the
establishment, together with the oil & gas industry, commercial building, infra
structure developers, CareLabs has maintained discipline, in quality standards,
customer management, process management, just in time delivery system and started
to gain an important place in the market.
Within the frame of world standards, one of our main target is to lead to new ideas
and meet the requirements of sector also being professional consultant by taking
advantage of newer  technologies. CareLabs establishes itself by abiding
with principles and improve ourselves continuously by taking into account our
environmental responsibilities.
AREA OF SERVICE
Carelabs providing electrical testing, calibration services, inspection services and
testing equipment for electrical projects. Process control instruments, electrical &
linear instruments, calibration & certification,
installation, pressure calibration , temperature calibration, dimension calibration, ma
ss calibration, power quality, thermography test, cable & wire fault, UPS/battery 
testing services.
Our services cater to major clients which includes utility generation, transmission and
distribution substations, district cooling plants, sewage treatment plants, data
centers, pumping stations, malls and commercial buildings, super/hyper markets and
infrastructure developers.
CareLabs consistently has field crews deployed in various locations so whether your
need is routine or emergency; our specialists are always nearby. This expertise and
exposure, efficient access to comprehensive historical data, and highly trained field
and office technical staffs, allow for the most complete and cost effective project
management solutions.
CareLabs has been a part of various prestigious projects in the globe. In a very short
span of time, CareLabs has been established as an ISO 9001:2008 certified
organization and has acquired a reputed client base with excellent feedback from the
clients.
Our subsidiaries and global associates have expertise in management systems, product
testing, electrical safety, medical device certification, and explosion & process
safety. CareLabs believes in conducting business with highest ethical standards by
providing quality services with commitment, building knowledge, transforming ideas
by respecting our clients and customers values and principles. We are ductile to your
requirement and can work on more than one type of contract simultaneously. Our
major service areas are UAE, Saudi Arabia, Oman, Qatar, Kuwait, Bahrain, India,
Middle East & Africa.

Electricity Safety Testing

Electrical safety testing is crucial to ensure secure operating standards for any
product that utilises electricity. Occupational Health and Safety Regulations, and IEC
60335 are the considered guidelines for electrical safety testing. Carelabs is an
authorized provider of Electrical Testing Services in UAE.

Calibration
Calibration increases the precision of the measuring device. There are unseen
expenses and dangers associated with un-calibrated gears. Carelabs is an authorized
provider of Electrical Calibration Services in UAE.

Inspection
Third party inspection is essential to verify that installations are safe when connected
to a source and should be performed according to the Standards. Carelabs performs
inspection of entire wiring, electrical equipment, transformers, alarm systems,
emergency turn-on, lighting etc. Carelabs is an authorized provider of Electrical
Inspection Services in UAE.

Study and Analysis

Organizations such as OSHA, NFPA, ASTM, and IEEE aim to safeguard workers from
electrical threats through training, appropriate equipment maintenance, correct use
of tools and protective gear, and sound engineering procedures for design and analysis
of electrical systems. Carelabs is an authorized ETAP Service provider of Electrical
Study and Analysis in UAE.

Thermography
With time, electrical connections in your building becomes slack from cycling
temperature differences, because of loading variations and pulsation, along with
many other factors. These loses can be identified using infrared thermography
inspection. Carelabs is an authorized provider of Electrical Infrared Thermography
Inspection Services in UAE.

What is The EPSS?

What is the EPSS, or Emergency Power Supply System?

EPSS – that’s the “emergency power supply system”- it’s the entire system: the emergency generator, the
transfer switch and the distribution panel for the emergency power. It is the complete package of the entire
emergency system which supplies power to the building when called upon.

For more information on emergency power supply, you can request a quote for an EPSS or other
services. You can also give us a call at 1-800-899-3931

What is the difference between a 22KW and 2000KW

Generator?

What is the difference between 22kW generators and 2000kW generators?

A 22KW generator is a smaller piece of equipment that may be used at a small nursing home, small business or
maybe a telecommunications site. They are really small as far as load capacity goes. That’s what we see out in
the field.

The 2000 KW (generator) is a large generator that you would see at facilities such as data centers, large
hospitals or maybe multiple centers at a hospital. These generators usually are involved in the fire life safety of
the of the building. They are large units and sometimes come in shipping cargo container type housings.

For more information on generator sizes, request a quote or give us a call at 1-800-899-3931.

The Size of a Generator is Dictated by the Customers

Load
What Size Backup Generator Do You Need?

The size of a generator is dictated by the customer’s load, and it varies depending on the customer’s
requirements.

For example at a customers location they may require an air conditioner, some refrigeration, some test lab
powering – it just depends on which items they want to have on the emergency backup system (so that when
they lose power these items are powered up).

What we typically do is come out for a visit at a customers location. During that visit we would go over the
items that you’d want to back up during an outage. We would then calculate that load into the generator sizing.
Part of the equation includes seeing if there are any elevators that would require motor starting, air
conditioning sizing or lighting requirements.

These are just examples of what we would look at that go into sizing of a generator.

For more information on a new generator or to find the required size, you can request a quote or give us a call
at 1-800-899-3931

Top 10 Generator Service Mistakes To Avoid

Generators are powerful industrial machines that will keep your site operational when you need them most.
However, you need to ensure that your generators are in reliable working order if you want them to operate at
full capacity. Downtime can be easily avoided if owners, building engineers, maintenance personnel, and
factory managers service generators properly. Here are the most commonly-encountered generator
maintenance mistakes you should avoid to keep your keep your site up and running in an emergency situation.
1: Lack of Servicing
The most obvious generator maintenance mistake you can make is to neglect to service your generator
regularly. Performing regular preventative maintenance ensures that you identify issues before they become
major problems, and it keeps your equipment in good running order.

2: Inadequate Generator Maintenance

Even if you service your generator, you need to service it properly. This includes burning off unburned fuel,
changing filters and fluids as needed, testing the fuel, starting, and cooling systems, and checking the engine.

3: Not Hiring Specialists

Generator service and repair specialists can advise you on exactly what servicing you need, and the frequency
required. Attempting generator maintenance yourself may be risky  as  you’ll likely miss problems or
maintenance checks that a generator specialist would acknowledge.

4: Fuel Quality
When you’re not regularly using your generator, it’s common for fuel to develop problems within the tank. If
you don’t maintain good fuel quality, condensation will cause microbes to thrive and eventually contaminate
the tank. This contamination will lead to damage to the fuel injection system. Injection pumps can be very
costly to replace.

5: Improper Fuel Supply

Just as fuel quality is important so is quantity. There must be adequate fuel reaching the tank in the first place.
When there’s not enough fuel, the generator will shut down.  It is important to have your fuel tank at 90%,
leaving room to compensate for expanding of fuel.

6: Never Running the Generator

Just like you wouldn’t leave a car for weeks or months without turning the engine over, you shouldn’t leave
your generator off all the time. Running your generator on a regular basis reduces the risk of your generator
shutting down, and it draws your attention to other faults in the system.

7: The Generator is too Large

You might think that it makes sense to buy the largest generator you can afford so that you’ll never run out of
power. However, it’s not as simple as that. When you buy a generator that is too large for your operational
needs, you’re always running the generator at lower loads than it was designed to carry. This can result in
excessive fuel waste, and wet stacking.

Commonly, running too light a load through your generator causes wet stacking which is an accumulation of
unburned fuel in the exhaust system which can be a fire hazard.

8: Failing to Plan for Future Needs

You may purchase a generator that is currently too large for your operational needs if you plan on expanding
and adding equipment in the near future.
Performing regular load tests will help alleviate any wet stacking that might happen before more equipment is
installed.

9: Neglecting Oil Changes

You change the oil in your car frequently, and a generator’s engine should be no exception. Regular oil
changes will keep your engine in the best possible working order.

10: Insufficient Lubrication
Undertaking tasks such as oil changes keeps your generator’s components moving properly. A lack of
lubrication inside the generator causes corrosion and unnecessary wear and tear on the parts.

At Duthie Power, we know that generators most often fail because they’ve been improperly maintained.
Through regularly-scheduled generator maintenance, our expert team takes the hassle out of servicing for your
complete peace of mind. Stop worrying about whether your generator will fire up when you need it–contact
us today to see how we can help.

How a Docking Station Can Help with

Quick Back-Up Power
Random outages jeopardize every business’s ability to function. They significantly delay deadlines and
interrupt work. They even make security systems incredibly vulnerable.

The truth is that power outages affect business’s revenue streams. ITIC reports that 98% of all organizations
say just one hour of downtime costs their firm over $100,000.

According to a study by Inside Energy, the five-year annual average of outages doubled every five years from
2000 to 2014.

So, how can you protect your business from power outage interruptions? If you don’t already have a back-up
generator for your building, you can do the next best thing. Install a generator docking station, also known as a
TAP box, so a portable generator can be quickly hooked up.

What is a Generator Docking Station?

A generator docking station connects a portable generator to the building’s electrical system without the need
to run lots of cable throughout the building into the main electrical panel. It is already pre-wired, so this is the
plug-n-play solution in the temporary power world.  This can change the time needed to set-up and get your
building power from 4 hours to 30 minutes. This is especially important in the case of an outage in certain
industries such as food and data centers. Using a manual or automatic transfer switch, the generator Tap box
delivers temporary power in the case of a building-wide outage. The system keeps business functions safe and
running smoothly.
Generator tap boxes, are also called “quick connects” because the transfer of power is easy and smooth.
Electrical service tap boxes provide the quick connection of portable power right when a building needs it
most.

Generator tap boxes are usually installed at the side of a building, on its exterior. The “quick connection” of a
docking station is a cost-effective method because it avoids the need to connect temporary power from the
portable generator to the main breaker during an outage because it has already been done.

The sheer flexibility of the generator docking station, coupled with a portable generator, allows power support
for:

 HVAC systems
 Lights
 Hot Water Heaters
 Refrigerators
 Security Systems
 Electronics

Determining your Generator Tap Box Needs

Docking stations come with a range of custom-designed specifications and it’s up to a business or building to
assess their own needs.

Often, customizations include features like Cam-Lok snap covers for a “quick connection” to portable
generators. Other options include short circuit protection, custom enclosure doors, phase rotation protection
and more.

Generally speaking, a business or building will have to write down or estimate the number of times a year they
experience power outages. They should also note the location of the temporary generator and the size of the
electrical load (which could end up being quite high). Critical, priority systems and the overall budget must
also be considered.

Creating a Continuity Plan

Think about a “continuity plan” like an “in case of emergency” box for the business.

After having evaluated how many times a year an outage occurs, businesses should focus on creating a plan. It
must identify risks and show how those risks will impact operations. Having a docking station in place can be
part of a continuity plan that helps to mitigate those risks.

Of course, even the best laid plans require stress tests and practice. Businesses should be testing the
effectiveness of their generator tap boxes and keep up with preventative maintenance. That way they can make
sure everything is up-to-date.

The effects of power outages on businesses usually go unconsidered. This holds true until it happens, and a
business is caught, like a sitting duck, in the dark throughout all of the outage.

Today, practically every business increasingly relies on networks and web-based technologies. That’s why
setbacks of an outage cause so many widespread problems.
A few of the consequences could include the following:

 Lost Customers
 Decreased Revenue
 Effect on Reputation
 Unturned Inventory
 Spoilage
 Decreased Employee Productivity
 Damaged Equipment

All these risks sound pretty scary to most businesses. The good news is that power outages are catastrophes
that can be planned for.

The key is preparedness and forethought. And you already know how important it is to have a business plan.
Now, focus on your power plan by including a generator docking station and electrical tap box.

Contact one of our qualified sales engineers to discuss how Duthie Power Services can install your Docking
Station at your facility to better prepare your business for your next power outage.

Power Outage! How Long it Takes for a Generator to

Start

How Long it Takes for a Generator to Start During a Power Outage

If utility power goes out, the (ATS) Automatic Transfer Switch is going to tell the generator start. The
generator will start (come up to speed) and the ATS will monitor it verify voltage and frequency and then it
will transfer over. This will typically happen within 10 seconds.

For more information on generator start times, request a quote or give us a call at 1-800-899-3931

If I Have an ATS Why is There a Time Delay When the

Power Goes Off?
 

If I Have an ATS Why is There a Time Delay When the Power Goes Off?
There’s a system of time delays just in case power goes off and comes right back on – you don’t want your
generator switching to emergency power at that point.

So after a certain amount of time, 1 to 2 seconds of a voltage dip, the generator will get a crank signal from
your automatic transfer switch.

When the generator comes up to voltage, (which is sensed by your automatic transfer switch) it then transfers
power from utility to the generator.

For more information about automatic transfer switches (ATS), request a quote or give us a call at 1-800-899-
3931.

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Businesses and Public Services that Benefit from an

ATS
What do government buildings, factories, hospitals, restaurants and schools have in common?

This is not a trick question. But the answer might surprise you.

All five of these are businesses and/or public services that require a continuous application of power. 

Consider what might happen, for example, if a hospital were to suddenly shut down and lose power while
patients are in surgery, in MRI machines, or giving birth?

While it may sound extreme, the only reason this hasn’t happened yet is probably because big businesses and
public services use a small component that has been installed on a generator. Small but powerful, that’s the
automatic transfer switch.

What is an ATS?
“ATS” stands for “automatic transfer switch”. Transfer switches come in either automatic or manual and they
are the mechanisms that kick-start a generator into gear. 

As you might imagine, an automatic transfer switch sends a signal to your generator to kick in without
interrupting the flow of electricity. There might be a few seconds of darkness, but the transfer gets handed off
nearly seamlessly.

Manual transfers require an individual to head outside where the generator is located and connect the transfer
switch to manually start the generator. 

Naturally, the choice between the two, in terms of convenience, is pretty clear: automatic seems like a clear
winner, right?

Well, choosing between an automatic transfer switch and a manual transfer switch depends on a variety of
factors including your personal budget, your electrical demands and what your energy is actually powering. 
There’s one other thing to consider as well, however: Where you live. 

If your area, town or country is prone to seasonal loss of power (because of heat in the summer, for example)
or you live in a more rural area, choosing a trusted generator service company to professionally install an
automatic transfer switch would be worth the investment. 

Automatic transfer switches also require maintenance, after your service provider has accurately sized the
transfer switch, according to your backup generator’s load.

A manual transfer switch costs less and is easier to install, but the trade-off is a prolonged period of power
interruption. While this option still requires professional installation, the simplicity of the job knocks down the
price.

Businesses and public services that could rely on a smooth flow of electricity
There are five types of businesses and public services that could benefit from choosing automatic transfer
switches instead of the manual option.

These are government services and buildings, hospitals and medical centers, restaurants and hotels, factories
and manufacturing plants, and schools. 

These kinds of services and businesses require a smooth and uninterrupted flow of power. Since an ATS
automatically senses a loss of electricity, it allows the changeover to occur without a break in business. 

For commercial centers, hospitality-based businesses and retail or commercial businesses, the choice of an
automatic transfer switch is less of a “life-and-death” situation and more one of perception and guest services.

Continuing uninterrupted might not be a dire need but it greatly affects a patron’s experience of your
establishment. 

Manufacturing plants and factories fall under more of a need since their operations are often a workflow or a
process. Assembly lines, robots and programs intended to put together products, print, and run general
operations, when interrupted, could have their own built-in safety mechanisms. 

These mechanisms might trigger at a loss of power. This means that even if power were restored, the loss of
power and downtime could affect the process negatively or require another manual intervention from a
specialist who must then come in and reset these machines. 

The result is obviously chaos. 

If you run or work at an institution or organization that comes under these five types of places, you might
consider making a switch. Automatic transfer switches come with clear advantages but there’s no such thing as
a free lunch, as the saying goes. 

The clear benefits of automatic transfer switches are:

Reduced downtime: having to head out to where your generator is located makes ATS electrical equipment
much less time-consuming. Additionally, if your generator is located somewhere that’s hard to reach, an
automatic transfer switch is not a choice, it’s a necessity.
Safety first: Using an ATS means you pay more but you also reduce your own financial liability when it
comes to patrons and those who access social services like hospitals. In terms of restaurants, hotels and retail
centers, this becomes a matter of customer service and the risk of a loss of business. But there’s one more
aspect to the benefit of an ATS. Using an automatic transfer switch means you’re not putting an employee in
harm’s way or risking them toying with electrical equipment while on the clock.

Keep the essentials going: The ATS option allows businesses and services to pick and choose which aspects
of your power supply are impacted and which are automatically switched over. For example, if you work in an
office building that specializes in digital and data security and some of your data towers are housed within the
building, the ATS could ensure that the towers are protected, first and foremost, while the lights or lunchroom
refrigerator can be less of a priority.

While ATSs have clear advantages, they’re only machines and have been known to error, responding to false
signals. This wastes generator power, but it’s not as though the entire system trips or overloads. 

In the grand scheme of things, having an ATS, though entailing great upfront cost, expert installation and
maintenance, is the right solution if your business is in the business of serving people. 

That’s what is at the core of these five businesses — yes, including factories and plants. While machines have
reached a state of automation, they, like an ATS, still require help and input from humans. 

So make your decision wisely, considering these factors, but perhaps giving the human element the greatest
weight. 

Duthie Power Services is proud to help with all your ATS needs. Give us a call today if you have more
questions or would like more information. 1-800-899-3931 or request a quote by filling out this
form: https://duthiepower.com/request-a-quote

Where is the Automatic Transfer Switch?

 

Where is the Automatic Transfer Switch?

Continuing our series on the ATS a lot of our new customers always ask – Where is the Automatic Transfer
Switch Located?

They can be near each other or the generator can be on the ground and your transfer switch can be on the roof
of a 50-story building – it really doesn’t matter. Generally wherever the emergency power (that dedication) is
located that’s where the transfer switch is going to be. It’s a it’s a matter of logistics more than anything.
What goes wrong with an ATS?
 

What goes wrong with an ATS Switch?

Continuing our series on the ATS let us help answer the question – What goes wrong with an ATS?

On a transfer switch service almost anything can go wrong. Generally it’s wire connections or a coil relay
(something that has malfunctioned). some micro switches that are involved in travel on the mechanism will get
stuck from lying dormant ( unused ) for months at a time. That’s why we recommend at least a monthly
transfer switch test.

For more information about automatic transfer switches ( ATS ) – or – to request a quote click
here https://duthiepower.com/request-a-quote or give us a call at 1-800-899-3931

Servicing Your Automatic Transfer Switch

Automatic Transfer Switch Maintenance

When you are servicing an Automatic Transfer Switch the first thing you should do is a visual inspection.
Look for telltale signs of a loose cable which would be discolored on the lux (you don’t need an infrared gun to
tell that).

Tighten up all the connections. We want to go through the mechanism to make sure that there is no binding,
everything works as expected.

All lubricating points if necessary they will be done again. All connections are tightened everything is
analyzed as far as the manufacturer spec and the operation (all time delays are checked). Then we’ll do a test
(using a test feature) on the transfer switch and finally we will do a drop power test to make sure everything
functions as normal.

All transfer switches are different. Generally a relay or coil may burn and that could be due to a micro switch
that gets stuck from idle/non-use.

That’s why a monthly test on your transfer switch really recommend. An annual transfer switch service test
will give you peace of mind it will work every time.
ATS: The Heart of Emergency Power
 

The Automatic Transfer Switch (ATS) is the heart of emergency power. The National Fire Protection
Association has codes dictating that it does require at least a monthly inspection (especially
Healthcare/Hospitals). The normal high rises are not really listed in the code for a monthly inspection but they
strongly suggest it. “NFPA 110” is very direct about ATS inspections and ATS operations.

Automatic Transfer Switch – ATS 101

 

How does an ATS work?

The ATS, or automatic transfer switches, are basically the go-between utility power and generator power.
There is a common load fed from the transfer switch usually to all your emergency panels. During a test or an
actual power failure, there is a time delay before the ATS sends a signal to your generator, starting it. When
the voltage and frequency of your generator is acceptable by the voltage sensing network, it sends a signal over
to the mechanism. It will open up normal power and then close the generator. Now you’re online and
everything is stable at this point. When normal power, or utility comes back online there is a time delay
preventing the generator from switching back – just in case normal power is unstable for a while (usually 10
minutes is a good number).

After 10 minutes of voltage sensing in your digital display is acceptable for utility it will send a signal to the
mechanisms once again. It will open generator first, close normal power, and now you’re back on utility. The
generator will cool down for a certain amount of time and then you’re ready for the next power failure.

The ATS is the heart of emergency power. Your generator has to be in good shape for the transfer switch to
accept the power and it also has to be up to snuff for utility to be accepted by the power – but nothing happens
without it.

The Best Ways to Exercise a Generator

 

Just starting the engine and running it at the rated RPM is better than nothing at all, but you’re not building any
horsepower.
What you have to do is actually put a load on the generator, that requires the transfer switch to shift from
normal power to emergency power. That will interrupt all emergency circuits momentary, but it’s the best way
to exercise the engine.

Wondering how often you should be exercising the engine on the generator? Visit this post to see what we
recommend.

At Duthie Power, we offer Load Bank testing as a service to your generator. To learn more about the details of
what exactly a Load Bank does, you can visit this blog post and watch the video for more information.

Tips for Keeping Your Generator in Good Shape

When you have a generator in place at your business, you are setting yourself up with a great alternative if the
power should go off. But when that outage or major storm happens, your generator could be taking on a lot of
work, running all day and all night until the problem is fixed.

To prepare for these occasions, it’s important that your unit stays in good shape with these generator
maintenance tips – even if you have not used it for a while.

Keep it Clean
The first major check you will want to make on a regular basis is whether or not your generator is clean. It
should be clear of leaves and grass, or anything else that might be swept onto it by the wind. There should not
be anything on top of it – whether permanently, or even for a few moments.

Make sure you check the air flow vents and the radiator in particular. It’s important to check your generator
regularly, but even more so when the weather report begins to suggest a storm or a heat wave. When winds
pick up, debris can block those air flow vents and cause overheating.
Make Visual Checks
There are some other checks that you should be doing regularly, too. These include monitoring the fluid levels,
such as your oil, fuel, coolant, and lubricants. Set up a schedule so that the employee or employees who are
responsible for the generator need to sign off on all of these checks once a week. 

You should check the battery charging rate, and ensure that the electrolyte level is correct on serviceable
batteries. If your batteries aren’t working, you could be in trouble next time you need the generator.

Visual inspections also need to be done across all of the fuel lines and connections. You should be looking for
leaks in the lines, kinks, and loose connections, which need to be repaired or replaced as soon as possible.

Get it Running
You should also make sure your generator still runs on a regular basis. To be safe, once a month, this should be
added to your scheduled checks. Turn the generator on and make sure all of the indicator lights and gauges
work properly. Ensure that the system is doing the weekly exercise tests that it has been set up to complete.

Make sure to check the natural gas or propane pressure, oil pressure, frequency, temperature, and fuel pressure,
comparing it alongside the specifications in your user manual. If they don’t match up, something is wrong.

You can also check the voltage to ensure your generator has the right output. If you see anything at all during
your checks which does not look right, call in maintenance for help. Any of these flaws could stop it from
working properly when you do need it.

Keep it Going
When your generator does end up running and the power comes back on you shouldn’t just let it run and leave
it alone. This is the time when checks and inspections are most important. You still need to keep things in good
shape. After it has been running for eight hours, change the oil and the filters to ensure everything is still
working fine. Once you have done that, your user manual will tell you how often your particular generator
needs to be exercised.

It’s important to check your generator regularly and to keep it in good working shape for when it needs to kick
in. You will be rewarded with smooth running and no disruption to your power, which may be essential to
keeping your business running. In addition, make sure to have regular maintenance visits and services from
trained professionals who know how to spot the more complex problems. This will ensure your generator
works in the event of a power emergency.

Generator Inspection Checklist

 

Generator Inspection Checklist

On our semi annual service we basically run through a checklist (a criteria of minor maintenance). We look at
your belts, hoses, battery – we look for cracking in the hoses and wear on the belts. We will run the unit, check
the generator for proper output and check the engine for leaks. Anything that can be detected with a visual
scan.

We will open panels and check for tightness of connections and look for anything that can inhibit the generator
from operating properly.

This includes the operation of block heaters, the basic engine coolant heater and the battery charger that’s
supposed to keep your battery at a perfection level.

There is a criteria for engine cranking. It’s called an over crank test where your generator will crank for certain
amount of time (rest) and then re-crank until the set point has been reached. If the engine does not start you’ll
get an alarm for “over-crank”. That basically protects your engine starter and allows the fire control (what
should be an alarm) to alert your engineering staff.

Power Outage! How Long it Takes for a Generator to

Start

How Long it Takes for a Generator to Start During a Power Outage

If utility power goes out, the (ATS) Automatic Transfer Switch is going to tell the generator start. The
generator will start (come up to speed) and the ATS will monitor it verify voltage and frequency and then it
will transfer over. This will typically happen within 10 seconds.
Types of Automatic Transfer Switches and
How They Work
Providing power to your home or business in the event of a power outage or
other electrical problems can be useful or even critical depending on your
industry. The best way to do this is to use a generator. Generators are
devices that generate electricity for some amount of time using a source of
fuel like natural gas in order to replace power from the city or utility plant.

What many people don’t know about generators is that they are not the only
piece you need. There is another piece that must be considered called an
Automatic Transfer Switch, or ATS. An ATS is a device that acts as a brain
between utility and secondary power. It acts in the event of power interruption
to switch over to secondary power and control the system with little or no input
from you.
After reading this guide about ATS systems, you will be more prepared to
understand your power needs and decide what solution is best for your
business.

Understanding ATS Systems

ATS systems act as a brain between your building, utility power and the
generator. They detect changes in power and act accordingly to maintain
electricity for your building with the help of a generator. If utility power cuts
out, the ATS will turn on your generator and switch to it. When utility power is
back, it will shut down the generator and switch back to utility power
automatically.

This system, besides convenience, is there to prevent even small losses of

electrical power which can be devastating for your business. The ATS and
generator are sized according to the needs of your building or system.
Ultimately, the intelligent backup and power transfer provided by the ATS
helps maintain business continuity and prevent costly or potentially deadly
failures in environments such as hospitals, heavy industries or other
businesses.

Types of ATS Systems

There are four types of ATS systems that can be installed depending on the
needs of the building(s). All types of switches have the same ultimate goal of
managing electricity in a safe and expedient way; however, each design
meets different criteria and is used for different applications. The electrical
power professionals at Buckeye Power Sales can help you determine exactly
what type of ATS you need and how to design it for your specific needs.

1. Open Transition ATS – The open transition switch or break before

make switch is used in systems that can handle the brief interruption in
power when switching between utility and local backup power. This
delay is typically less than a second long but allows for a safe transfer
ensuring that no utility or local employees or people around the devices
are at risk. A variation of this type of ATS is called a Programmed
Transition switch which pauses between utility power and generator
power. This allows residual voltage in circuits to decay prior to restoring
power.
2. Closed Transition ATS – The closed transition system is used in
spaces where even a brief interruption in power cannot be tolerated.
This ATS has internal systems that allow for both power sources to be
 on simultaneously and to allow a seamless switchover that maintains
safety standards. These systems are more complicated and more
expensive than open transition systems.
3. Soft Loading Transfer Switch – This switch is similar to the closed
transition ATS but has the ability to adjust the amount of load it handles
from situation to situation. This dynamic capability comes at an extra
cost but allows businesses to have greater flexibility against more
situations that may require backup power.
4. Bypass Isolation ATS – This is the most complicated but highest
capability ATS system. It is comprised of two systems typically running
in parallel allowing for inspection, maintenance and testing to be
performed while in use. Setups involving Bypass Isolation ATS systems
are typically used in the most sensitive business spaces such as critical
life support systems, telecommunications, air traffic control stations and
other similar priority 1 setups.

Standards, Certifications and Regulations

Given the complexity and sensitivity of businesses that need this level of
protection, there are many codes and standards that govern these devices
and their use. Standby power systems can be very complex, especially when
connected in parallel with utility power. Buckeye Power Sales and their highly
trained staff are experts at handling the selection and sizing of ATS and
generator systems.

The team at Buckeye Power Sales can help you and your business
understand every regulatory and legal compliance standard such as
Underwriters Laboratories, National Electric Code and National Fire Protection
Association standards, not to mention all local laws on these topics.

If you need legally mandated backups systems or are interested in having the
security and peace of mind that comes with power backup systems, contact
Buckeye Power Sales today to make an appointment. Our highly capable staff
can help you understand and work through your needs while maintaining the
strictest security and legal standards in the business.

Get Maximum Flexibility with Paralleling

Switchgear Systems
  

Many businesses use a single, large generator to meet their power needs.
However, these businesses may be missing out on the benefits of paralleling
two or more systems, or paralleling their generator to the utility.

When you choose two or more generators, or to parallel a single generator to

the utility, that’s where switchgear come in. Switchgear, also referred to as
switchboards, provide additional controls to operate the generators in parallel
with one another and/or the utility.

What Are The Benefits of Paralleled Power?

When choosing between a single generator or a multiple generator system,
you should take the following benefits of paralleling power into consideration.

1.
1. Redundancy: Having more than one generator connected at all
times delivers greater reliability and flexibility, particularly in the event
another generator goes out or during scheduled maintenance.
2. Efficiency: Choosing multiple smaller generators connected in
parallel, instead of one large generator, allows you to turn generators on
and off as necessary to meet the varying needs of the load.
3. Value: In some cases, multiple small generators can actually cost
less than a single large generator.
4. Power Needs: If the largest available generator won’t meet your
power needs, multiple generators can be connected in parallel to
provide the necessary power.
5. Space Constraints: If space is limited and a large generator
won’t fit, multiple smaller generators can be used without sacrificing
power capacity.
6. Future Growth: As your power requirements expand, you can
add new generators to the paralleled system.

Benefits of KOHLER® Paralleling Switchgear

When it comes to paralleling power, it’s all about the controls. Choosing the
right system and switchgear for your business’ needs is crucial. KOHLER
Paralleling Switchgear will help you meet your synchronization and load
management requirements and will be configured to the specific transition
type you need.
Here are some of the reasons to choose KOHLER Paralleling Switchgear:

 Completely customized to meet your unique application.

 Switchgear work with the entire KOHLER Power System, Generator,
ATS and more.
 Chart-based sequences of operation eliminate guesswork by detailing
each step of every sequence.
 An intuitive user interface makes using the switchgear as simple as
selecting the sequence you want, verifying your choice and pressing the
start button.

Work with Buckeye Power Sales to Fully Integrate Your Paralleling System

With the KOHLER Decision-Maker® Paralleling System, you get a complete

solution to parallel power. Each system includes generators, Decision-Maker
6000 controllers, a master control panel, power distribution switchboards with
breakers and KOHLER automatic transfer systems.

We work with you to choose the KOHLER system that provides the operating
modes that meet the needs of your facility—whether you require simple
standby power or multiple-utility paralleling and emergency power, prime
power or peak shaving.

At Buckeye Power Sales, our in-depth experience with KOHLER Paralleling

Switchgear, paired with our full-service approach before, during and after the
sale, makes us the ideal partner for customizing your system.

If you have questions about paralleling switchgear or want to discuss your

power needs, contact us at Buckeye Power Sales today.

How to Size a Generator for a Commercial

or Industrial Building
If you’ve ever purchased a generator before, you already know how
complicated it can be – generators come in all shapes and sizes, and are able
to meet a long list of uses. And while you might be familiar with how to use a
home generator, or hooking up a portable generator, choosing the right
generator for a commercial building is a different story.
At Buckeye Power Sales, our professionals have been helping our customers
find the right tool for the job for over seven decades, and selecting a generator
is no exception.

We’re happy to work with you to choose the right generator for your
commercial needs. But building a good understanding of their capabilities
beforehand will save you time, effort, and resources. Here’s what you need to
know.

What Makes a Commercial Generator Different than a Residential Generator?

Not all generators are created equal. Generators used as backup, or standby
power for a typical home are generally smaller, portable, and can cope with
the light-to-moderate power needs that your home would demand.

Commercial generators, on the other hand, are designed to fully power a

business or commercial site during loss of power, and to run continuously and
indefinitely until that power is restored.

They include automatic operation, meaning that the generators engage

automatically when the power goes out, and shut down when it returns. This
ensures there are minimal gaps in which your computers, refrigerators,
engines, etc., will stop running.

Also different from residential generators, commercial generators usually

include an automatic voltage regulator, which ensures continuously-controlled
voltage (preventing surges and dips in power that can damage equipment or
stall operations).

Determining What Size Generator You Need

Choosing the right size generator to suit your needs is the most important part
of your decision. Underestimating your power needs can not only slow or stop
your operation – it can damage important equipment.

We’ve put together a handy information sheet to walk you through all of the
details, which we recommend you download and read. But in the meantime,
here are a few of the critical factors that go into your decision.
Voltage Dip

Different pieces of equipment have different tolerances for voltage dip, and
the starting load of an electric motor can be as much as six times its running
load.

Since that starting load can affect your generator’s regulator system by
reducing the available voltage, you need a generator large enough to handle
the maximum allowable voltage drop. You’ll need to consult the
manufacturer’s spec sheet for your equipment to determine what the
allowable drop in input voltage is.

Frequency Dip

Generators have a nominal frequency (60Hz in North America). But,

extremely heavy loads, especially on start up, can reduce engine speed,
affecting that frequency. The maximum transient drop in speed and frequency
of what the system can handle both need to be taken into account.

Ambients

Any combustion engine requires a certain amount of air to function properly.

Your altitude, humidity, and temperature range will all affect how well (or
poorly) your generator operates.

Generator manufacturers provide guidelines for what percentage of power

reduction you can expect when ambient conditions exceed the nominal rating.

Application

Generators come in either prime or standby. Your commercial application will

determine your backup power needs: whether you require continuous
operation from generator power, or if you need only temporary coverage
during main power interruption.

How We Can Help

Knowing when to ask for help is key to any large enterprise, and ensuring
your business has continuous power coverage is no exception.

Large operations typically require an engineering plan be drafted for your

commercial generator selection, and your engineer’s supervision during the
install. Start by working with your own staff, or contracting a professional
engineering firm, to make sure you understand your system’s needs and
comply with regulations.

Once you’ve assessed your system’s needs, our pros can walk you through
which products will make the best fit for your business.
You can view more about the generators we offer here on our website, and
make sure to reference our extended generator sizing information sheet as a
reference. With the right knowledge ahead of time, keeping production up and
running during the next power outage will be no problem.

Kohler Knows Power

A matter of seconds is all it takes for Kohler generators to have your business
automatically powered, so you won’t suffer from downtime.