Ellie Santos

BIOMOLECULES Triose (3 carbon atoms)

“A chemical compound found in living organisms.”
- Any molecule that is produced by living
organisms.
- Most of them are organic molecules (built
around chains of carbon atoms that are
often long).
- describe the molecules required by living
things to build body parts and maintain the
biochemical processes required for life
functions.
- Glyceraldehyde (𝐶" 𝐻$ 𝑂" ) – simplest of all
common aldoses, involved in light-
independent reactions of photosynthesis
Pentose (5 carbon atoms)
- Ribose and deoxyribose
Hexose (6 carbon atoms)
- Fructose, galactose, and glucose

MACROMOLECULES
- molecule containing very large number of
atoms
- usually has a diameter ranging from about
100 to 10,000 angstroms Disaccharides
- polymers (large carbohydrates), built from “di” – two
monomers (repeating units, building block “saccharum” – sugar
of monomers) - Glucose + Fructose = sucrose (table sugar)
- enzymes – speed up chemical reactions - Glucose + Galactose = lactose (milk sugar)
- Dehydration reaction – 2 molecules are *lactose intolerant – people who lack the enzyme
covalently bonded to each other with a loss lactase*
of a water molecule - Glucose + Glucose = maltose
- Hydrolysis – disassembly of monomers,
“water breakage” Oligosaccharides
“oligo” – few
-4 MAJOR CLASSES-
“saccharum” – sugar
Carbohydrates (3-10 sugars)
(CH2O)n – where n is the number of carbons UNITS OLIGOSACCHARIDES FOUND IN
composition Glucose + Raffinose Beans,
- composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen Fructose + cabbage,
Galactose broccoli
- glucose is the building blocks
function
Glucose + Stachyose Green beans,
Fructose + 2 soy beans,
- source of energy Galactose other beans
*our cells convert carbohydrates into fuel molecule ATP 4 Glucose + 5 Galacto- soybeans
through cellular respiration* Galactose
- cell to cell recognition oligosaccharide
- structural framework
- serves as a component Polysaccharides
- most abundant on Earth “poly” – many
Examples: breads, pasta, rice (root crops, grains, “saccharum” – sugar
and fruits) - long polymers (small molecules arranged in a
Clue – names of carbohydrates usually end with the repeating manner) composed of hundreds and
suffix “-ose” thousands of monosaccharides
Monosaccharides - Starch – main energy storage in plants
“monos” – single (photosynthesis)
“saccharum” – sugar - Glycogen – main energy storage in humans
- “simple sugars,” basic unit of carbohydrates (excess stored in muscles)

- Cellulose – found in cell wall of plants
- Peptidoglycan – structural support and
protection in bacteria/one-celled
organisms
- Chitin – exoskeleton and cell walls of fungi
LIPIDS
composition
- composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
- fatty acids are the building blocks
- water-insoluble
- composed of a hydrocarbon chain with one
terminal carboxyl group (COOH). The fragment of
a carboxylic acid not including the hydroxyl (OH)
group is called an acyl group. Under physiological
conditions in water, this acidic group usually has
lost a hydrogen ion (H+) to form a negatively
charged carboxylate group (COO−).
- do not include true molecules, mixed poorly with
water
functions
- thermal insulation
- component of cell membrane
- facilitate absorption of fat-soluble vitamins
Examples: butter, oil, beeswax
Triacylglycerols
- fats/oils
- fatty acids are saturated in fats and unsaturated
in oils
- glycerol – backbone of fat/triglyceride
- oil – liquid fat, does not dissolve & will burn
- fat – water soluble, not polymers, they are
blended by dehydration reaction
- essential fatty acids – are deposited under the
layers of the skin
Phospholipids
- composed of glycerol with a phosphate head
(hydrophilic polar head and 2 hydrophobic
nonpolar tails)
- used to control entrance and exit of substances in
and out of the cell (hydrophilic head, hydrophobic
tail)
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Waxes
- harder and less greasy
- extremely hydrophobic
Cutin
- Waxy mixture of fats and soaps forming the
protective layer of cuticle of plants
Suberin
- A waxy waterproof substance found in the
cell wall
- Cork
Steroids
- characterized by carbon skeleton with 4 fused
rings
- composed of 3 cyclohexane and 1 cyclopentane
ring
- commonly found in vitamins and hormones
(where sex hormones are synthesized)
Cholesterol
- Steroid alcohol sterol made by the liver and
present in all animal cells
- Constituent of cell membranes, type of
liquid in the blood
- Insoluble in blood
- Lipoproteins – carry the cholesterol to
where it should go
- HDL – good cholesterol (takes out LDL)
- LDL – bad cholesterol (forms plaque that
can clog the arteries, which leads to
atherosclerosis)
PROTEINS
composition
- amino acids are the building blocks
- consist of an alpha (central) carbon atom linked to
an amino group, a carboxyl group, a hydrogen
atom, and a variable component called a side chain
- peptide bond: between amino acids
- polypeptide bond: polymer of amino acids
- accounts for 50% of the dry mass of cells
functions
- structural support (collagen, keratin, fibrin)
- transport of materials (hemoglobin)
- regulation of chemical reaction (enzymes)
- regulation of cell processes (insulin)
- help fight diseases (antibodies)
- most functionally diverse
- regularize metabolism by acting as catalysts
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Amino Acids (monomers) – organic molecules with
both amino group and carbonyl group

Models
- Space filling – shows all of the atoms
- Ribbon – only shows backbone of
polypeptide
- Wireframe – shows backbone of
polypeptide chain with side chains

X-ray crystallography
- Used to generate a computer model of an
antibody protein

Sickle-cell disease
- Caused by substitution of one amino acid
(valine) for the normal one (glutamic acid)
- Angular cells clog tiny blood cells

Denaturation
Protein structure - Unraveling of protein, losing its shape
- Globular – spherical
- Fibrous – like long fibers Examples:
*Levels of Protein Structure* Enzymes
- primary: linear chain of amino acids - Globular proteins that combine rapidly with
- secondary: regions stabilized by H bonds between other substances – “substrate”
atoms of the polypeptide backbone Catalysts
- tertiary: 3-D shape stabilized by interactions - Numerous chemical reactions in the body
between side chains trigger and control metabolism
- quarternary: association of 2/more polypeptides - Workhorses that speed up chemical
(some proteins only) reactions without being consumed in
reaction
Pepsin and Trypsin
- Digestion of meat
Urease
- Breaks down urea to produce CO2 and
ammonia
 Ellie Santos
L-asparagine MICROMOLECULES
- Potent weapon for treatment of leukemia - Molecule with a relatively small size
Dextrinase compared to a macromolecule
- Prevents tooth decay
Amylase ***IMPORTANT NOTES***
- Found in saliva to breakdown food - Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen
mechanically make up 96% of atoms
Protein Hormones
- Stimulate target organs that in turn initiate
and control important activities
- Insulin – regulates carbohydrate
metabolism
- Thyroglobulin – overall metabolism
- Calcitonin – lowers blood calcium levels
- Angiogenin – growth of blood vessels

NUCLEIC ACIDS
composition
- nucleotide monomers linked together. Three
parts: nitrogenous base, five-carbon sugar
(pentose), and a phosphate group
- DNA AND RNA
function
- store genetic information
- enables protein production
Deoxyribonucleic acid
- Phosphate deoxyribose sugar backbone
- Nitrogenous bases: adenine, guanine,
cytosine, and thymine
- Provides its own direction for its own
replication
Ribonucleic acid
- Ribose sugar
- Nitrogenous bases: adenine, guanine,
cytosine, and uracil
- Directed by DNA to control protein
synthesis
Ellie Santos