1|Innovative Methods of Teaching Social Studies

INNOVATIVE METHODS OF TEACHING SOCIAL STUDIES-PEER TUTORING AND SELF

DIRECTED LEARNING

BY

BISINA AUGUSTINE. E-MAIL:austen.ng@gmail.com

INTRODUCTION

Over the course of the last several decades, researchers have made notable progress in understanding the
process of human development and learning. While the principle focus of investigation has, in many
cases, been with respect to child development and learning, what has been learned has been utilized to
better understand pedagogy and andragogy. As such, it is not surprising to find that in recent years,
theories of learning have been developed and used for further research into human development across
the life span. With the realization that adult learning theory is notably different from theories which
attempt to describe learning in childhood and adolescence, there is a clear impetus to understand how
learning theory contributes to the larger context of understanding innovative methods of teaching and
learning such as constructivism, peer tutoring, self directed learning, concept mapping, inquiry based
learning, experiential learning and project based learning..

PEER TUTORING

A peer tutor is anyone who is of a similar status as the person being tutored such that in an
undergraduate institution this would usually be other undergraduates, as distinct from the graduate
students who may be teaching, while in a secondary school this is usually a student from the same class
or higher. Peer tutoring is a type of instructional strategy in which students are taught by their peers,
who have been trained and supervised by the classroom teacher (Lehigh University, 2010). It involves
having students work in pairs, with another student of the same age or grade, and can be used to aid in
the instruction of a few specific students or on a classwide basis. Outhred and Chester (2010),opined that
the basic rules to establishing a successful peer tutoring program is a clear objective, thorough planning
and evidence gathering activities.

Peer tutoring as a strategy is meant to supplement the teacher-directed instruction in the classroom and
not to replace it. Peer tutoring, specifically on a class-wide basis, has been shown to be an extremely
powerful way to improve student academic, social, and behavioral functioning beyond that which occurs
through typical teacher-directed instruction. When implemented in combination with teacher-directed
instruction, peer tutoring has been shown to improve student achievement, grades, engagement,
retention of information, decrease and/or prevent problem behavior, and prevent school failure better
than teacher-directed instruction alone (Lehigh University, 2010; Wikipedia, 2008).

STEPS FOR IMPLEMENTATION

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1. Selection of tutoring pairs or “dyads”: This step involves putting students together into
pairs: Dyad selection does not have to be structured at all; kids respond well with peer tutoring
regardless with whom they are paired, even if high achievers are paired with low achievers.
The only important guideline in dyad selection is to avoid putting best friends together as well
as pairing worst enemies together. Students are less likely to be productive in these cases.

 Students may be paired with peers who achieve at the same levels or different from their own.
However, a good method of pairing is to list the students in the class from highest to
lowest achievers. This does not have to be very precise but just a general ranking. - Divide the
list in half, giving two groups of students. -each group is numbered. For example, a class of 28
students, will provide two groups of 14 students, ranked lowest to highest. which means a 1-14
group and a 15-28 group. -the highest student with the lowest student is paired for that group.
For example, students 1 and 14 will be paired, 15 and 28 will be paired, 14 and 27, 13 and 26,
etc. in a class with an odd number of students, one group of 3 students is created and in the
instance of an absentee on a given day the group of 3 students is “mix and match”.

 Dyads should be change every 2-3 weeks to prevent the students from developing patterns of
behavior or responding. Changing dyads allows for a “fresh start” and can provide the
opportunity for a student to become better acquainted with someone else thereby fostering a
chain of synergy among the group.

2. Task Structure: Deciding How and When to Use Peer Tutoring: Even though peer tutoring
can work for a large number of lessons, academic activities, and skills, there are some instances
when peer tutoring may not be the best instructional strategy.

 Peer tutoring is well suited for the review and practice of previously learned or familiar material.
For example, an excellent time to use peer tutoring would be following a teacher-directed lesson
on the civil war. Following the lesson, the students would get into their tutoring pairs and review
the facts presented in the lesson.
 Peer tutoring is particularly well suited for tasks and activities involving a lot of structure. For
example, reviewing or learning facts, spelling words, vocabulary words, and factual questions
pertaining to a lecture e.g. “What year did the Civil War end? are excellent activities to use for
peer tutoring because they involve the simple presentation of discrete information, with “right-
or-wrong” answers. An example of a more unstructured activity in which peer tutoring may
not be the best option might be asking the class to generate expressive thoughts relating to
a chapter they have read. Peer tutoring works best when the material is concrete (i.e. math
facts) and/or factual (i.e. questions have a right or wrong answer). In these cases, material does
not always have to be familiar or previously learned. In the case of peer tutoring in spelling,
math facts, or vocab words, students can introduce new material (i.e. new spelling words) as long
as they are competent with the peer tutoring procedure.

3. Conducting Training Sessions: Successful peer tutoring programs depend on well trained
students who know exactly what is expected of them BEFORE they do it.
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 It is good to conduct 4-8 training sessions, 15 minutes each, on the peer tutoring procedure
before they begin tutoring.
 Training typically begins with the teaching of the Feedback/Error Correction procedure
 Demonstrate how peer tutoring will look. Go through a lesson with another teacher or a student
as the tutee. Be sure to “model” appropriate tutor and tutee behavior.

4. Preparing the Tutoring Materials: Peer tutoring will go more smoothly and students will learn
more if they have clear, simple materials to use. Usually, this can simply be a prepared
worksheet or a deck of flashcards.

When students are to tutor each other on factual or comprehension questions, a simple worksheet might
work best. Each question the students are to ask/respond to is listed. There are columns to mark correct
and incorrect responses. The correct answers to the questions are listed at the bottom. While tutoring, the
tutor would cover the answer key with his/her hand or a post-it note. E.g.

Question Correct Incorrect

1 Who was the first Executive President of Nigeria?

2 Who was the Head of States of Nigeria during the Civil War?

3 How many years in a row can a person be president?

True or False: You can be president of Nigeria if your parents are

4
Americans

Answer key
1. Alhaji Shehu Shagari
2. General Yakubu Gowon
3. 8
4. False. Only people with Nigerian parentage can be president.

5. Teaching the Feedback/Error Correction Procedure: The Feedback/Error correction

procedure is what ensures that the tutoring “flows” along smoothly, while ensuring that learning
will be maximized through reinforcement and immediate error correction.

 Tutor reads the question to the tutee. Or the tutor presents the problem on a flash card or says
the word.
 The tutee responds.
 If the tutee responds correctly:
- Tutor checks the "correct" column next to the question or word.
- Tutor says "You're right!"
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- Tutor awards the appropriate amount of points

- Tutor goes on to next question
 If the tutee responds incorrect:
- Tutor checks the “incorrect” column
- Tutor repeats the question and provides the correct answer;
 The tutor DOES NOT say “nope” or “you’re wrong”. He/she just simply repeats the question
and provides the answer.
- Tutor asks the question again
-tutor repeat procedure until tutee responds correctly, before moving on to the next
question.

6: Develop System to Request Help: Sometimes students may get stuck on a question. Prior to starting
peer tutoring, it is good to decide on a way to request help from the teacher. This may simply consist of
having both tutor and tutee raise their hands. Or, tutoring pairs could be provided with red “help” cards
to hold up when they need the teacher’s assistance. The sooner the students get help for a question or
confusion is clarified, the faster they can move on to the next question.

7. Behavior Management and Reward System: Appropriate behavior management begins with
specifying clear rules and expectations prior to peer tutoring, and rewarding positive, cooperative, and
appropriate behaviors during tutoring.

 Make sure that the material the students are tutoring each other on is well within the students’
instructional level. Material that is difficult may give rise to problem behavior due to frustration.
Likewise, material that is too easy may give rise to problem behavior due to boredom. Thus,
material should be challenging to the students, but not too difficult. The advantage of peer
tutoring is that you can tailor the difficulty of the material to the achievement level of the
individual dyads.
 During training sessions, be sure to demonstrate appropriate behavior. Also, demonstrate
rewarding the “models” for their appropriate behavior during the demonstration
 Effective peer tutoring procedures use points students can earn toward rewards. It is best to
reward students with points for following the tutoring procedure and working cooperatively, not
necessarily for getting correct answers to the tutoring questions. Bonus points can be given for
performance on the material being tutored.
 A point system can be a part of the tutoring, based on performance. Here, tutees earn 2 points for
a correct answer on the first try, and 1 point for a correct answer after an error.
 Students are highly motivated when a game format is used. - Once the students are in their
dyads, divide the entire class into two teams.- At the end of the tutoring session, have the dyads
tally the number of points each had earned, both for their responses to
tutoring items as well as points for following the procedure. The point totals for each dyad go
into their team score.The team with the most points wins a reward
 A “Mystery Motivator” reward system can be a very effective way of increasing motivation.
Using this strategy, the teacher, front of the class, writes a number on a slip of paper (without the
students seeing the number), and seals it in an envelope. The envelope is then placed in a
prominent position (i.e. taped to the blackboard, on a bulletin board, etc.). At the end of the
tutoring session, the dyads tally the number of points they earned in their tutoring performance,
as well as the bonus points they earned for following the procedures. The teacher then opens the
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envelope and reads the number. The dyads that achieved that many or more points than the
number get a prize.

8. Close Teacher Monitoring: When students are in their dyads and are using the peer tutoring
procedure, teachers will have more free time on hands. However, teachers should avoid taking this
opportunity to catch up on paperwork or do other activities unrelated to the student activity. This time
should be spent by “floating” around the classroom and monitoring the students while they tutor each
other. Teachers can take this time to reward pairs that are working cooperatively and following the
procedure, answer questions, and provide corrective feedback.

Use a timer. Typically, peer tutoring sessions are best when they are 15-20 minutes in length. Set the
timer for half of the total time. When the timer goes off, have the students switch roles (tutor and tutee),
and continue until the end of the tutoring period.

BENEFITS OF PEER TUTORING

 Students have more opportunities to respond to academic material. In other words, they have
more opportunities to practice what they are learning by talking about what they are learning,
reading out loud, and writing.
 Students receive feedback and error correction immediately and more frequently. In large group
or teacher-directed settings, it is impossible to provide feedback and error correction to every
student for every response. With peer tutoring, students receive feedback and correction
immediately for every response.
 Students are engaged in active learning, not passive learning. For example, when using peer
tutoring, students are actively asking each other questions, responding with answers, correcting
mistakes, and providing positive feedback, as opposed to simply watching and listening to the
teacher (passive learning). Active learning has been shown to be more effective in promoting
student achievement.
 Many students tend to learn more and experience more engagement and “on-task” behavior
when instruction is at a brisk pace. Peer tutoring allows for a faster pace as students are more
frequently responding to academic material than in a large-group setting. Peer tutoring also
allows for students to be matched based on their learning style, in other words, students who
learn better at a slower pace may be paired together, as can be students who learn better at a pace
that is more brisk, thus allowing for individual adaptation in instruction.
 Students are more “on-task” and motivated to learn, which means they are less likely to engage
in behaviors that are disruptive or problematic.
 Peer tutoring provides students with valuable opportunities to practice their social skills in a
structured environment, whereby the teacher can directly monitor social interaction and provide
feedback as necessary.
 Peer tutoring programs are helpful, teachers can develop and implement their own peer tutoring
procedures in their classrooms and adapt it to incorporate a wide variety of material, such as
reading, spelling, writing, math, science, social studies, and history.
 Good peer tutoring programs are reciprocal, meaning both students in a learning pair (or “dyad”)
have turns playing the role of the tutor (or teacher) and tutee (or learner) during the same tutoring
session. This prevents negative feelings of always having to be the learner, as well as prevents
feelings of superiority in always being the teacher.
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 Peer tutoring “works” because it is a structured, systematic procedure. Students are not simply
paired together and told to tutor each other.
 Peer tutoring is usually considered less threatening and intimidating. There are many benefits for
both the peer tutor and tutee in this relationship, one aspect of this is that the tutor can establish a
rapport with the tutee in a way that a teacher cannot. A peer tutor may have taken the same class
recently, or have taken similar classes.
 Peer tutor is seen by the tutee as being more at their own level, advice given by the tutor may be
accepted more readily than advice from a teacher. Another key reason for this is that a peer tutor
does not give any grade on the paper, whereas a teacher serving in a tutor role may still be
perceived as someone who grades papers.
 Peer tutors can be trained through on-the-job training, as well as through formal workshops. New
tutors can be paired with more experienced tutors for their first few tutorials, and after the tutors
are satisfied that the new tutors can operate alone they can give one-on-one tutoring. A key
aspect of tutor training is the reflection on tutorials with other tutors. This reflection looks at
what could have gone better as well as the tutor's progress in giving tutorials.
 In higher education tutorial settings, the benefits of peer tutoring programs also extend to class
tutors. Using grounded theory techniques, the following underlie their experiences: role
exploration, sharing responsibility, regulation of the peer tutored groups and harnessing the peer
tutors’ role.
 Training can be separated from regular tutor training as a subject that contains special difficulties
that must be dealt with on their own. Tutoring in an Online Writing Lab can also be separated
from normal training.

CONSTRAINTS IN NIGERIA

Constraints to the use of peer tutoring in Nigeria include:

 Low level of awareness/lack of knowledge of basic peer tutoring skills among social studies
teachers
 Absence of peer tutoring education in teacher education programmes
 The structured time table in Nigerian schools do not provide time for peer tutoring as every
academic week is usually loaded with timed lesson periods
 The Nigerian education which is hub at passing examination does not encourage peer tutoring

RECOMMENDATION

In view of the immense benefits associated with peer tutoring as an innovative method of
teaching/learning social studies it is recommended that:

 Peer tutoring education be incorporated into teacher education programmes at the colleges of
education and all faculties of education in degree awarding institution across the nation to give
training teachers appropriate training in the use of peer tutoring strategy so as to cater for the
inadequacies in the area of pedagogical skills.
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 School authority particularly school administration should encourage teachers to use peer
tutoring through demonstration support and appropriate scheduling of standard time table and
regular organization of staff development programmes to promote teachers efficiency.
 Peer tutoring should be encouraged in schools and made to form part of the schools continuous
assessment in social studies as a way of de-emphasizing the emphasis placed on passing
examination in Nigerian schools.
 Social studies time table in schools should have periods for innovative teaching/learning method
as a way of creating time for learners to practice peer tutoring and other innovative methods of
teaching and learning in social studies.

CONCLUSION

A peer tutoring program gets a wide range of different students to work together, produces positive
results in testing, and help to promote school spirit. All of this can be very beneficial for the students, as
a positive and useful experience in secondary schools and can prepare them for a successful experience
in university and beyond since peer tutoring has a long term effect. As long as both the teachers and the
students are able to work together properly, a peer tutoring system that can provide tutors will be
successful.
The first thing to do is make sure that there is actually interest in implementing a peer tutoring program.
Without the support from the students both giving and receiving the tutoring, there is no real hope of
success. Peers who can become tutors is a great concept but it requires active participation from
everyone involved in order for it to work. The best thing to do is to research; Conduct surveys, run a
couple of trial sessions with interested candidates, and involve the teachers and administrators from the
beginning to make sure that everyone is on the same page. Payment is not always found in peer school
tutoring programs, but it can provide positive results. Payment can be in the form of money, given to the
student by the school, not the student being tutored; or it can be in the form of other types of rewards.
This could be anything from cafeteria food to points that build up to be used in field trips without
payment. Maximum success will result from a financial investment made by the school.

The ultimate end of a well-run peer tutoring program is a group of students who have the satisfaction of
helping others and being paid for their academic abilities, and a group of students who have not fallen
through the cracks and are able to reach their own scholastic goals. This of course can be measured in
the increase of grades and test scores by those receiving the tutoring, and by the feedback provided by
both groups of students. Peer tutoring has a great chance of succeeding but the students involved will
need the support of the teachers or adults in charge at the school.
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SELF DIRECTED LEARNING

INTRODUCTION

Experience has shown that as children grow, they have an increasing desire for autonomy. Self directed
learning or autodidactic may be one way of harnessing that natural desire to help achieve a meaningful
learning experience that will last through adulthood.

Self-directed learning, which has its roots in adult education, is an approach that has also been tried with
learners in elementary and secondary schools. The earliest novels to deal with the concept of
autodidacticism were the Arabic novels, Philosophus Autodidactus, written by Ibn Tufail in 12th-
century Islamic Spain, and Theologus Autodidactus, written by Ibn al-Nafis in 13th-century Egypt. Both
deal with autodidactic feral children living in isolation from society on a desert island and discovering
the truth as they grow up without having been in contact with other human beings. Autodidacticism
(also autodidactism) is self-education or self-directed learning. An autodidact is a mostly self-taught
person, as opposed to learning in a school setting or from a full-time tutor or mentor. Self-teaching and
self-directed learning are not necessarily lonely processes. Some autodidacts spend a great deal of time
in libraries or on educational websites. Many, according to their plan for learning, avail themselves of
instruction from family members, friends, or other associates, although strictly speaking this might not
be considered autodidactic, unless the emphasis is placed on collecting specific information as opposed
to being guided in a general course of study by a teacher figure (Wikipedia, 2010).

SELF DIRECTED LEARNING

Constructivism appears to provide a clear explication of the developmental stage of the learner with
respect to the issue of self-directed learning. The concept of self-directed learning was pioneered by
Malcolm Knowles in the late 1960s. Merriam (2001) in her examination of Knowles’ original theory,
reports that Knowles utilized five specific assumptions about adult learning. These assumptions argue
that the adult learner is someone who: “has an independent self-concept and who can direct his or her
own learning; has accumulated a reservoir of life experiences that is a rich resource for learning; has
learning needs closely related to changing social roles; is problem centered and interested in immediate
application of knowledge; and is motivated to learn by internal rather than external factors”

Garrison (1997) in his investigation of self-directed learning argues that this process is predicated upon a
collaborative constructivist perspective on the process of learning. As defined by Garrison, the
collaborative constructivist approach is “A collaborative perspective has the individual taking
responsibility for constructing meaning while including the participation of others in confirming
worthwhile knowledge. Meaningfulness and worthwhileness reflect the cognitive and social
perspectives of an educational experience. Lawson and Mazmanian (2005) make the argument that the
overall readiness of the adult to engage in self-directed learning must be taken into consideration before
this paradigm is employed. Willey (2002) Self-Directed learning is any increase in knowledge, skill or
performance pursued by any individual for personal reasons employing any means, in any place at any
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time at any age. Willey argued that self directed learning moved from Teacher-Directed Learning in
which teachers or other authorities choose what is learned, why it is to be learned, how it is to be
learned, when, where and at what age.

TEACHER’S ROLE IN SELF DIRECTED LEARNING

 Engaging Students in Role discussion: One of the most important tasks of the teacher is to raise
student awareness of their roles in learning. Taylor (1995) suggests engaging students in
discussion on topics from the Self-Directed Learning. Lyman (1997), who works with readers,
suggests generating similar discussion through the use of questions designed to help learners
become aware of what good readers do and how to become one. Among the examples he
provides are: Did you read better today than yesterday? Could you keep the ideas in your book
straight in your mind? Were there words you did not know? How did you figure them out?
 Inclusion of Learners in Decision Making: Learner participation in decision-making is another
fundamental aspect of the Self Directed Learning approach. Taylor advocates involving students
in decisions concerning what is to be learned, when and how it should be learned, and how it
should be evaluated. In addition, every proponent of SDL emphasizes the importance of allowing
learners to pursue their own interests so that learning becomes more meaningful. Morrow, et al.
(1993) report that when writers are allowed to choose their own topics, they write more often and
they write longer pieces. Students do not have to be given total freedom, however. Teachers
could, for instance, establish a thematic framework within which students are given choices
(Guthrie, et al., 1997; Temple & Rodero, 1995).
 Capitalize on Learner’s Strong Point: Lyman (1997) and Bolhuis (1996) stress that teachers
who want to encourage SDL must free themselves from a preoccupation with tracking and
correcting errors, a practice that is ego-threatening (Guthrie, et al. 1996). Lyman and Bolhuis
advocate greater tolerance of uncertainty and encourage risk-taking, and capitalizing on learners'
strong points instead of focusing on weaknesses, as it is more beneficial for learners to achieve a
few objectives of importance to them than it is to fulfill all the objectives that are important to
the teacher. Leal (1993) advocates allowing learners to explore ideas through peer discussions -
even without fully intact answers - a process that can yield new and valuable insights. Corno
(1992) suggests allowing learners to pursue personal interests without the threat of formal
evaluation. Even if they make mistakes while doing so, the activities will sustain their interest,
transcend frustration, and eventually break barriers to achievement. According to Lyman,
Uninterrupted Sustained Silent Reading may be one way of accomplishing this objective in the
reading classroom.
 Encourage Reflection and Revision: To establish the habit of self-monitoring, teachers need to
encourage learners to reflect on what they did and to revise attempted work (Corno, 1992).
Keeping journals is one way of maintaining a record of the learning process.
 Reality and Collaboration: Since SDL stresses meaningful learning, Temple and Rodero
(1995) advocate a situated learning approach, in which teachers bring real-life problems into the
classroom for learners to work on. Task must be grounded in reality, the rationale being that if
the tasks are meaningful, learners will work on them willingly. Learners should also be allowed
to collaborate with the teacher in determining deadlines and other regulations.
 Model Learning Strategies: Teachers need to model learning strategies such as predicting,
questioning, clarifying, and summarizing, so that students will develop the ability to use these
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strategies on their own. Teachers also need to allow individual learners to approach a task in
different ways using different strategies (Many, Fyfe, Lewis, & Mitchell, 1996).

BENEFITS OF SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING

 Learners monitor, evaluate and regulate their cognitive learning strategies: Self Directed
Learning views learners as responsible owners and managers of their own learning process. It
integrates self-management and management of the context, including the social setting,
resources, and actions with self-monitoring process whereby the learners monitor, evaluate and
regulate their cognitive learning strategies (Bolhuis, 1996; Garrison, 1997).
 Self directed learning recognizes the significant role of motivation and volition in initiating and
maintaining learners' efforts. Motivation drives the decision to participate, and volition sustains
the will to see a task through to the end so that goals are achieved (Corno, 1992; Garrison, 1997).
 In Self directed learning control gradually shifts from teachers to learners. Learners exercise a
great deal of independence in setting learning goals and deciding what is worthwhile learning as
well as how to approach the learning task within a given framework (Lyman, 1997; Morrow,
Sharkey, & Firestone, 1993).
 In self directed learning teachers scaffold learning by making learning 'visible.' They model
learning strategies and work with students so that they develop the ability to use them on their
own (Bolhuis, 1996; Corno, 1992; Leal, 1993).
 Self directed learning is, ironically, highly collaborative. Learners collaborate with teachers and
peers (Guthrie, Alao & Rinehart; 1997; Temple & Rodero, 1995).
 Self directed learning develops domain-specific knowledge as well as the ability to transfer
conceptual knowledge to new situations. It seeks to bridge the gap between school knowledge
and real-world problems by considering how people learn in real life (Bolhuis, 1996; Temple &
Rodero, 1995).
 The benefits of SDL are best described in terms of the type of learners it develops. The literature
on SDL asserts that self-directed learners demonstrate a greater awareness of their responsibility
in making learning meaningful and monitoring themselves (Garrison, 1997). They are curious
and willing to try new things (Lyman, 1997), view problems as challenges, desire change, and
enjoy learning (Taylor, 1995
 Self-directed learning allows learners to be more effective learners and social beings. Guthrie, et
al. (1996) noted that the self-directed learners in a Concept-Oriented Reading Instruction (CORI)
program demonstrated the ability to search for information in multiple texts, employ different
strategies to achieve goals, and to represent ideas in different forms (drawing and writing).
Morrow, et al. (1993) observe that with proper planning and implementation, self-directed
learning can encourage students to develop their own rules and leadership patterns.

TECHNIQUES, TOOLS, AND RESOURCES FOR THE SELF-DIRECTED LEARNER

A. Planning Tools

 The Learning Contract Plan/Learning Contract Design: The learning contract is a device
whereby one can plan and personalize any learning experience. It can take on many shapes and
forms ranging from audio tapes, to outlines, to descriptive statements, to elaborate explanations
of process and product, to electronically submitted forms.
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 Self Diagnostic Form: A self diagnostic form is an instrument designed to assist in assessing
personal levels of competence and need related to possible areas of study. Such information
typically helps in identifying and developing many of the professional competencies required to
understand a particular topic of interest or need and often is used as a precursor to construction
of a learning contract.
 Self Analysis as a Learner: This involves carrying out an analysis of self or others as a learner. It
includes determining such factors as the ways one learn best, developmental patterns or social
roles which impact on learning efforts, subject areas which one like best, strengths and
weaknesses as a learner, and what, if any would change to improve learning performance.
 Self-Assessment Exercise: This exercise helps to gain an understanding of and practice with a
self-diagnosis process. A model of desired behaviors or required competencies pertaining to
learning about a particular topic is created and any gaps identified in current competency levels
becomes the basis for planning future learning.
 Analyzing Your Thinking Skills and Intelligence Types: Various thinking skill types and personal
intelligence types and the nature of the information typically foundational to each type. A self-
assessment of how thinking approaches and/or personal intelligence fit the various types is
determined and can then determine some of the implications for future learning activities
studied.
 Determining Your Learning Style: Several self-administered and self-scoring instruments are
available to help identify learning style.
 Determining Your Teaching Style: The PALS ( Principles of Adult Learning Scale) instrument is
a device that measures the various things that a teacher or trainer does when working with adult
learners.
 Determining Individual Change Style: The "Change Styles Questionnaire" is an instrument
developed to assess how an individual's self-directed and problem solving approaches or
preferences coalesce to create various individual change styles. Knowledge about such styles
helps individuals and teachers or trainers find ways of dealing with learning and changes in the
workplace and other settings.
 Constructing a Gantt Chart: Critical Path Analysis (CPA) and the creation of a Gantt Chart is a
useful tool for planning, scheduling, and managing various self-study activities.

B. Individual Study Techniques

 Mind Mapping/Concept Mapping: Mind mapping is a visually oriented technique designed to

allow you to see or make connections among widely disparate elements of some subject you are
studying. You are shown how to use interconnecting arrows, branching ideas, and personal
patterns to expand your knowledge about a particular topic. In this technique you also learn how
to develop mind or concept maps to pinpoint the various misconceptions or nuance of meaning
that you may hold so that your interpretation skills are increased.

Concept mapping is a technique for representing knowledge in graphs. Knowledge graphs are
networks of concepts. Networks consist of nodes (points/vertices) and links (arcs/edges). Nodes
represent concepts and links represent the relations between concepts. Concept mapping can be done
for for several purposes:

 to generate ideas (brain storming, etc.);

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 to design a complex structure (long texts, hypermedia, large web sites, etc.);
 to communicate complex ideas;
 to aid learning by explicitly integrating new and old knowledge;
 to assess understanding or diagnose misunderstanding.

The concept mapping technique was developed by Prof. Joseph D. Novak at Cornell University in the
1960s. This work was based on the theories of David Ausubel, who stressed the importance of prior
knowledge in being able to learn about new concepts. Novak concluded that "Meaningful learning
involves the assimilation of new concepts and propositions into existing cognitive structures".

 Using Probes in Learning: Probes are ideas, questions, and insights you develop while you are in
the process of learning something about a new topic or field. You learn how to use dialogue,
conversation, and questioning that turns learning something new from a passive to an active
process. Developing propositions and revised propositions become a part of your learning
repertory.
 Vee Diagramming/Vee Heuristic Technique: The Vee diagramming/heuristic technique is a
problem solving aid in helping you see the interplay between what you already know and
knowledge you are producing or attempting to understand. You learn how to use a Vee to point
to events or objects that serve as foundations for any knowledge being developed or learned.
 Learning from TV and Radio, Exercising,Memory Enhancement Techniques, Learning with
Computers, Using Self-Paced Modules, Using Communication Technology, Self-Directed
Learning Modules, Learning from Your Experiences,The Use of Penetrating Questions,
Designing a Personal Learning Project,Correspondence Study, Constructing a Planning/Design
Model, Improving Writing Skills, Analyzing a Theory, Creating a Theory Log, Reading a Book
Proactively,Using Human Resources Proactively,Learning Through Intuition and Dreams,
Reflecting on Learning at Home or the Workplace, Analyzing Your Thinking Skills,Enhancing
Your Questioning Skills,Enhancing Your Coaching Skills,Enhancing Your Understanding of
Various Teaching Techniques.

C. Group and Community Study Techniques: Such as study group activity, debates,
discussion groups or discussion networks, study clubs/study circles, using the educative community,
community study. there are a variety of resources existing in any community that can be used to meet
various of your education or training needs, by using various community study techniques such as; using
another person as a resource for learning, obtaining feedback from others, agency visit which is an
interview schedule you could use to examine an agency and determine its potential for self-directed
learning. here is a guide for analyzing the potential within an agency for learner control, mini-internship,
interviewing adult learners,using a library and the web, attending a conference, using museums/art
galleries, travel as a learning event, networks and networking, study tours, directed learning.

CONSTRAINTS IN NIGERIA

Constraints to the use of self directed learning in Nigeria include:

 Low level of awareness/lack of knowledge of basic self directed learning skills among social
studies teachers
 Absence of self directed learning education in teacher education programmes
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 The structured time table in Nigerian schools do not provide time for self directed learning as
every academic week is usually loaded with rigidly structured lesson periods
 The Nigerian education which is hub at passing examination does not encourage self directed
learning.

RECOMMENDATION

In view of the immense benefits associated with self directed learning as an innovative method of
teaching/learning social studies it is recommended that:

 Self directed learning education be incorporated into teacher education programmes at the
colleges of education and all faculties of education in degree awarding institution across the
nation to give training teachers appropriate training in the use of self directed learning strategy so
as to cater for the inadequacies in the area of pedagogical skills.
 School authority particularly school administration should encourage teachers to use self directed
learning through demonstration support and appropriate scheduling of standard time table and
regular organization of staff development programmes to promote teachers efficiency.
 Self directed learning should be encouraged in schools and made to form part of the schools
continuous assessment in social studies as a way of de-emphasizing the emphasis placed on
passing examination in Nigerian schools.
 Social studies time table in schools should have periods for innovative teaching/learning method
as a way of creating time for learners to practice self directed learning and other innovative
methods of teaching and learning in social studies.

REFERENCES

Abdullah, M.H. (2001),Self-Directed Learning. ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading, English, and

Communication Digest #169 EDO-CS-01-10 December 2001

Bolhuis, S. (1996). Towards Active and Selfdirected Learning. Preparing for Lifelong Learning, with
Reference to Dutch Secondary Education. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American
Educational Research Association (New York, NY, April 8-12, 1996).

Buzan, T. (1995). The MindMap book. (2 ed.). London, UK: BBC Books.

Corno, L. (1992). Encouraging Students to Take Responsibility for Learning and Performance.
Elementary School Journal; v93 n1 p69-83 Sep 1992. [EJ453441]

Garrison, D.R. (1997). Self-directed learning: Toward a comprehensive model. In Adult Education
Quarterly, Fall 97 v 48 n 1, p18, 16 p.

Guthrie, J.T, (1996). Growth of Literacy Engagement: Changes in Motivations and Strategies during
Concept-Oriented Reading Instruction. Reading Research Quarterly; v31 n3 p306-32 Jul-Sep 1996.
[EJ530522]
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Guthrie, J.T., Solomon, A. & Rinehart, J.M. (1997). Engagement in Reading for Young Adolescents.
Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy; v40 n6 p438-46 Mar 1997. [EJ547197]

Hiemstra, R ( 2010) Techniques, Tools, And Resources For The Self-Directed Learner

Hunt, L.C.,(1997). The Effect of Self-Selection, Interest, and Motivation Upon Independent,
Instructional, and Frustrational Levels. Reading Teacher; v50 n4 p278-82 Dec-Jan 1996-97. [EJ547089]

Knowles, M. S. (1975).Self-directed learning. Chicago: Follett.)

Leal, D.J. (1993). The Power of Literary Peer-Group Discussions: How Children Collaboratively
Negotiate Meaning. Reading Teacher; v47 n2 p114-20 Oct 1993. [EJ470287]

Lehigh University (2010)Strategies for Teachers: Peer Tutoring,College of Education Centre for
Promoting Research to Practice.

Many, J.E., Fyfe, R., Lewis, G. & Mitchell, E. (1996). Traversing the Topical Landscape: Exploring
Students' Self-Directed Reading-Writing-Research Processes. Reading Research Quarterly; v31 n1 p12-
35 Jan-Mar 1996. [EJ521366]

Morrow, L.M.(1993). Promoting Independent Reading and Writing through Self-Directed Literacy
Activities in a Collaborative Setting. Reading Research Report No. 2. [ED356455]

Outhred, T, and Chester, A. (2010). The Experience of Class Tutors in a Peer Tutoring Programme: A
Novel Theoretical Framework, Australasian Journal of Peer Learning, 3(1), 12-23. Retrieved from:
http://ro.uow.edu.au/ajpl/vol3/iss1/3

Taylor, B. (1995). Self-Directed Learning: Revisiting an Idea Most Appropriate for Middle School
Students. Paper presented at the Combined Meeting of the Great Lakes and Southeast International
Reading Association, Nashville, TN, Nov 11-15. [ED395287]

Temple, C., & Rodero, M.L. (1995). Active Learning in a Democratic Classroom: The "Pedagogical
Invariants" of Celestin Freinet (Reading around the World). Reading Teacher; v49 n2 p164-67 Oct
1995. [EJ515907]

Wiley, (2002). The Self-Directed Learning Handbook. Maurice Gibbons; Personal Power Press
International

Wikipedia (2008) Peer Tutor; The Online Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved from http://www.wikipedia.org.
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