Chapter 11 Biology 11

CHAPTER The Respiratory System
11
Specific Expectations
In this chapter you will learn how to . . .
• E1.1 evaluate the importance of various
technologies to our understanding of
internal body systems
• E1.2 assess how societal needs

lead to scientific and technological
developments related to internal
systems
• E2.1 use appropriate terminology related

to animal anatomy
• E3.1 explain the anatomy of the

respiratory system and the process of
ventilation and gas exchange from the
environment to the cell
• E3.4 describe some disorders related to

the respiratory system
As a high-performance professional triathlete, Lisa Bentley

is well acquainted with the joys and rigours of training and
competition. She is an 11-time Ironman champion, including
winning the 2007 Ironman Canada competition. Lisa also deals
with another challenge—she has cystic fibrosis. Cystic fibrosis is
an often fatal disease that affects the respiratory system and causes
severe breathing problems and frequent lung infections. In Canada,
60 percent of people with cystic fibrosis are diagnosed within the
first year of life, and 90 percent are diagnosed by the age of 10.
In the 1960s, most children with cystic fibrosis did not live long
enough to attend kindergarten. Today, however, half of all Canadians
with the disease are expected to live into their 40s and beyond. Lisa
attributes her success to her positive attitude, her commitment to a
strict health routine, and her intense training program. Already in
her 40s, Lisa was proud to be an Olympic Torchbearer during the
2010 Winter Olympic Games.
440 MHR • Unit 4 Animals: Structure and Function

Launch Activity
Modelling Your Lungs

Your lungs expand and contract like a balloon inside your chest as you
breathe in and out. What causes these movements? How do changes in
the volume of your lungs affect the flow of air into and out of your body?
In this activity, you will study a model to answer these questions.
Procedure
1. The diagram below shows a model of the human lungs (the balloons)
within the chest cavity (the air-tight chamber). With a partner or in a
small group, carefully examine the design of the model and the labels
in the diagram. Discuss with your partner or group how you could
cause the balloons in the model to inflate.
2. If possible, obtain materials to build this model (or a similar model of
human lungs) and test your ideas.
rubber stopper
air-tight chamber
glass tubing
bell jar
balloons
rubber membrane
handle to pull rubber

membrane down
Questions
1. Describe what happens to the balloons as the volume of air inside the
air-tight container changes.
2. Would the balloons inflate if the system were not air-tight? Explain
your answer.
3. Make a flowchart to show how air moves into and out of the balloons.
Start with the downward movement of the rubber membrane.
4. Based on this model, how do you think your lungs fill with air?
Chapter 11 The Respiratory System • MHR 441

SECTION
The Function of Respiration
11.1
Key Terms Most of the cells of your body need a continual supply of oxygen (O2) to carry out
cellular respiration. This process releases energy from glucose inside cells and produces
respiratory system
carbon dioxide as a waste product. The resulting chemical energy is used to perform
respiration
cellular activities. The main function of the respiratory system is to ensure that oxygen
inspiration is brought into the body and made available to each cell that needs it, and that carbon
expiration dioxide can leave each cell and be removed from the body. Respiration is the general
gas exchange term that is used to describe this overall process.
ventilation
diffusion gradient Respiration and Gas Exchange
diaphragm
There are several stages in human respiration, and each stage has specialized structures
spirograph to facilitate it, as shown in Figure 11.1. The first stage in respiration, breathing, involves
tidal volume two basic processes: inspiration (breathing in, or inhaling) and expiration (breathing
inspiratory reserve volume out, or exhaling). Inspiration moves air from outside the body into the lungs inside the
expiratory reserve volume body. Expiration moves air from the lungs back to the outside of the body.
vital capacity
residual volume
human lungs capillary
O2
respiratory O2
organ cells
O2
O2
CO2 CO2
respiratory system CO2
the group of organs
that provides living blood
cells blood
things with oxygen CO2
from outside the body
body
and disposes of waste
tissue
products such as
carbon dioxide
respiration all of the
processes involved in
bringing oxygen into
the body, making it
available to each cell,
and eliminating carbon Figure 11.1 Breathing is the process by which air enters and leaves the lungs. External
dioxide as waste respiration is the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the inside of the lungs and
inspiration the action the blood. Internal respiration is the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood
of drawing oxygen-rich and the body’s tissue cells.
air into the lungs
expiration the action The second stage of respiration, external respiration, is the exchange of oxygen and
of releasing waste air carbon dioxide between the inspired air inside the lungs and the blood. This stage of
from the lungs the respiratory process performs the vital function of gas exchange. Gas exchange
gas exchange the is the delivery of oxygen from the lungs to the blood, and the elimination of carbon
transfer of oxygen from
inhaled air into the
dioxide from the blood to the lungs. The third stage, called internal respiration, is the
blood, and of carbon exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood and the body’s tissue cells.
dioxide from the blood The fourth and final stage in human respiration is cellular respiration. As you have
into the lungs; it is the learned, cellular respiration is the series of energy-releasing chemical reactions that take
primary function of
place within the cells. It is the sole means of providing energy for all cellular activities.
the lungs
You will explore all of these stages in greater detail over the course of this chapter.

Activity 11.1 Carbon Dioxide in Inhaled and Exhaled Air
This is a teacher demonstration that will be conducted by

your teacher with the help of selected student volunteers.
mouth piece
In this activity you will observe the difference between
the concentration of carbon dioxide in inhaled and air rubber exhaled air
exhaled air. glass tubing connector
Safety Precautions
• Be sure to use a disposable mouthpiece with this

apparatus.
• Limewater irritates the skin. Rinse your hands thoroughly
with water if limewater comes into contact with your skin.
• Use extreme caution when working with glass tubes as
they can snap or break easily. limewater limewater
• When setting up your apparatus, ensure that the glass
tube connected to the mouthpiece is not submerged in
the limewater; otherwise, you risk inhaling the limewater. 3. Your teacher will pinch shut the branch of the Y-tube that
leads to the “exhaled” flask, and inhale deeply through the
Materials mouthpiece of the Y-tube, drawing air from the “inhaled”
• disposable mouthpiece flask.
• wooden splint
• limewater 4. Your teacher will then pinch shut the branch of the Y-tube
• 2 labels (or 2 pieces of masking tape) that leads from the “inhaled” flask, open the branch of the
• lighter tube that leads to the “exhaled” flask, and exhale through
• glass jar with lid, or Erlenmeyer flask with stopper the Y-tube into the “exhaled” flask.
• 2 Erlenmeyer flasks with two-holed stoppers 5. This procedure will be repeated until you see a change
• 2 glass tubes in the limewater in one or both flasks. Record your
• rubber Y-tube observations.
Procedure Questions
Your teacher has set up the apparatus similar to that shown 1. What can you infer from your results about the difference in
in the diagram. gas content of inhaled and exhaled air during respiration?
1. Your teacher will first light a wooden splint and hold it in
an Erlenmeyer flask until the flame goes out. 2. What was the purpose of the burning splint
demonstration at the start of this activity?
2. About 2 or 3 mL of limewater is added to the flask, the
stopper is inserted, and the flask is gently shaken. 3. Name any variables that might not be accounted for in
Record your observations. this activity.
Respiratory Surfaces
There are two main requirements for respiration. First, the area of an animal’s body ventilation the
where gases are exchanged with the environment, called its respiratory surface, must be process of drawing, or
large enough for the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide to occur quickly enough pumping, an oxygen-
to meet the body’s needs. Second, respiration must take place in a moist environment, containing medium over
a respiratory surface
so that the oxygen and carbon dioxide are dissolved in water.
Instead of using lungs, some animals exchange gases through their outer body
surface, gills, or trachea, as shown in Table 11.1 on the following page. As with
nutrients, the gases involved in respiration are transported to and from the cells of SuggestedInvestigation
an animal’s body by the circulatory system. (You will study the circulatory system in ThoughtLab Investigation
greater detail in Chapter 12.) To increase the efficiency of respiration, all organisms 11-A, Exchanging Gases
use ventilation. Ventilation is the process of moving an oxygen-containing medium through the Body Surface
(water or air) over the respiratory surface (such as the gills, trachea, or lungs).

Table 11.1 Types of Respiratory Surfaces in Animals
Description of Respiratory Surface Example
Outer Skin Cross section of
Some animals, like the earthworm, do not have specialized gas respiratory surface
(the skin)
exchange organs. They use their entire outer skin as a respiratory
surface. Oxygen diffuses into a network of thin-walled capillaries just
below the skin, and carbon dioxide diffuses out. Animals that breathe Capillaries
through their skin usually have a high ratio of respiratory surface to
body volume. They must live in damp places or in water to keep their
respiratory surface (their skin surface) moist. Some amphibians are CO2
also “skin breathers.” O2
earthworm
Gills
Fish and many aquatic invertebrates, such as clams, mussels, crayfish,
and crabs, exchange gases through gills. Gills are extensions or folds
in the body surface that increase the surface area through which
gases are exchanged. Oxygen from the water diffuses across the gill Body Capillary
surfaces into capillaries, and carbon dioxide diffuses out into the surface
external environment. Since aquatic animals are surrounded by CO2
water, they have no problem keeping their respiratory surfaces moist.
O2
Respiratory surface (gill)
fish
Tracheal System
Body
Insects exchange gases through a tracheal system, which is an surface Respiratory
internal system of branching respiratory tubes called tracheae. The surface
tracheae connect body cells directly to the environment outside the (spiracles)
insect’s body by even smaller tubes called spiracles. Oxygen enters
the body through the spiracles and diffuses into the tracheae. Carbon
dioxide then diffuses out of the body in the opposite direction. Since Body cells
gas is exchanged directly with the body cells, the insect’s circulatory
system is not involved in transporting oxygen. O2
CO2
insect
Lungs
Due to their larger size and higher activity levels, most land animals
require much more oxygen than could be delivered by gills or a
tracheal system. Mammals, birds, reptiles, and most amphibians Body CO2
surface O2
exchange gases through an internal respiratory system consisting
of a trachea (or windpipe) that branches into lungs. The lungs are
sacs lined with a moist epithelium. Folds in the lining of the lungs Respiratory
increase the surface area for diffusion. Oxygen diffuses across the surface CO2 O2
epithelium into the capillaries, and carbon dioxide diffuses in the (inside lungs)
opposite direction into the external environment.
rabbit Capillary
Learning Check
1. What gases are exchanged during the process of 5. What are four types of respiratory surfaces
respiration? that organisms use for gas exchange? Identify
2. Describe the two basic processes involved in an organism for each type of respiratory surface.
breathing. 6. Predict what would happen if the gills of fish
3. What is cellular respiration? were composed of very thick tissue instead of
very thin tissue.
4. What are the two main requirements for respiration?

Gas Exchange in Aquatic Environments
Aquatic environments contain oxygen in the form of dissolved gas. Many aquatic
diffusion gradient
organisms, such as fish, lobsters, clams, and molluscs take in oxygen through gills. Gills describes the
are physical adaptations that enable organisms to carry out gas exchange in aquatic relationship in which
environments. A fish exchanges gases by taking water into its mouth and ventilating a dissolved substance
(or pumping) it over the gills. As water flows across the gills, dissolved oxygen in the moves from a region
of high concentration
water diffuses into the blood circulating through the surrounding capillaries. At the to a region of low
same time, carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood, across the gill tissue, into the water concentration
and is carried out of the fish’s body when the water passes out of the gill openings.
Another adaptation used by fish is a counter-current exchange mechanism.
Figure 11.2 shows how blood flows through the gills in the opposite direction to
the flow of oxygen-containing water. Oxygen diffuses along a gradient, called a
diffusion gradient, meaning that the oxygen molecules move from a region of high
concentration to a region of low concentration. Because blood and water flow in
opposite directions, the diffusion gradient of the oxygen is kept high.
gills
water and
gill oxygen Figure 11.2 Counter-
current flow in the gill of
a fish provides a greater
diffusion of oxygen from
water and the water into the fish’s
carbon dioxide bloodstream. The light
blue arrows represent
deoxygenated water flowing over the gill,
artery artery blood while the dark blue arrows
from gills to gills
represent blood flow
water flow through the blood vessels
and through capillaries in
oxygenated the gill tissue.
blood blood vessel
Explain how a counter-
current system increases
the uptake of oxygen.
Gas Exchange on Land

Air-breathing vertebrates such as reptiles, birds, and mammals rely on lungs for gas
exchange. In the previous paragraphs you learned that all organisms use some process
of ventilation to increase the efficiency of respiration. In the next section, you will learn
more about the structures and movements involved in breathing.
The Mechanics of Breathing

In air-breathing vertebrates, the respiratory system is a specialized system that provides
diaphragm a sheet of
a passageway for air to move from outside the body to inside the body, where gas muscle that separates
exchange occurs. Air does not just flow into and out of the lungs on its own, however. the thoracic cavity from
The brain acts as a respiratory control centre to co-ordinate breathing movements and the abdominal cavity
regulate the breathing rate. It also monitors the volume of air in the lungs and the gas
levels in the blood.
Two sets of structures—the muscular diaphragm and the rib muscles—control the
air pressure inside the lungs. Changes in air pressure cause air to move into and out of
the lungs. The diaphragm is a dome-shaped layer of muscle that separates the region of
the lungs (the thoracic cavity) from the region of the stomach and liver (the abdominal
cavity). The rib muscles, or intercostal muscles, are found between the ribs and along
the inside surface of the rib cage. (See Figure 11.3 on the following page.)

Air Pressure in the Lungs
With regular signals from the brain, the diaphragm and the intercostal muscles work
together at the same time to move air into and out of the lungs, as shown in Figure 11.3.
The air pressure within the lungs is under the control of these two structures.
Inhalation begins when the external intercostal muscles and the diaphragm contract,
and the diaphragm moves down. This action expands the rib cage upward and outward,
and the floor of the chest cavity moves downward. Since the chest cavity is airtight,
its volume increases. The increase in volume means that the same amount of air is
contained in a larger space. When the molecules of a gas are farther apart, as they are
when the volume of the chest cavity increases, the gas molecules exert less outward
pressure. As a result, the air pressure in the thoracic cavity decreases.
The lungs are suspended in the chest cavity and are sensitive to changes in the air
pressure of the cavity. As the air pressure in the cavity decreases, the walls of the lungs
are drawn outward into the chest cavity and the lungs expand. This expansion causes
the air pressure in the lungs to be lower than the air pressure outside the body. Since air
moves from regions of higher pressure to regions of lower pressure, air rushes into the
lungs from the external environment.
The opposite muscle movements expel air from the lungs. Exhalation begins
when the diaphragm and the rib muscles relax, thus reducing the volume of the chest
cavity. As a result, the volume of the lungs decreases, the air pressure inside the lungs
increases, and air moves from the lungs to the lower-pressure environment outside the
body. In other words, a change in air pressure causes air to move from an area of high
pressure (the lungs) to an area of lower pressure (outside the body).
air Inhalation
rib cage intercostal

muscles
diaphragm
Rib cage moves up and out. Pressure in lungs decreases,

Diaphragm contracts and moves down. and air comes rushing in.
air Exhalation
rib cage
intercostal
muscles
diaphragm
Rib cage moves down and in. Pressure in lungs increases,

Diaphragm relaxes and moves up. and air is pushed out.
Figure 11.3 During inhalation, the intercostal muscles contract, lifting the rib cage upward and
outward. At the same time, the diaphragm contracts and pulls downward. As the lungs expand,
air moves in. During exhalation, the intercostal muscles relax, allowing the rib cage to return to
its normal position. The diaphragm also moves upward, resuming its domed shape. As the lungs
contract, air moves out.

Learning Check
7. Describe two adaptations that enable organisms to 11. How might a tear in the intercostal muscles affect
carry out gas exchange in aquatic environments. your breathing? Refer to Figure 11.3 to assist in
8. What respiratory challenge do land animals face your explanation.
that aquatic animals do not? 12. Breathing or pulmonary ventilation occurs in two
9. Explain why inspiration is considered the active stages: inhalation and exhalation. Describe the steps,
phase of ventilation and expiration the passive phase. in order, that occur during inhalation.
10. What two structures control air pressure inside the
lungs?
Respiratory Volume
Take a deep breath. How does this feel different from your normal breathing? Think
about your breathing rate after you have physically exerted yourself in some way. Your
breathing rate after physical exertion is probably faster than your normal breathing
rate. Under normal circumstances, your regular breathing does not use the full capacity
of your lungs. When your body needs more oxygen, however, the volume of air that is
drawn into your lungs can increase. The following activity illustrates this.
Activity 11.2 Measuring Respiratory Volumes
In this activity, you will measure your own respiratory 5. Calculate your inspiratory reserve volume by subtracting
volumes using a device called a spirometer. your tidal volume from your inspiratory capacity. Record
your inspiratory reserve volume.
Safety Precautions
6. Calculate your vital capacity by adding your inspiratory
• If you suffer from any respiratory problems, inform your
reserve volume, expiratory reserve volume, and tidal
teacher. He or she will decide whether you should perform
volume. Record the value as your calculated vital capacity.
this activity.
• Do not inhale or exhale to the point where you feel faint. 7. Reset the spirometer. Inhale as deeply as you can, and
then exhale deeply into the spirometer, forcing out as
Materials much air as you can. Do this all in one breath. Record the
• swimmer’s nose plug (optional) value as your recorded vital capacity.
• spirometer with disposable mouthpiece
Questions
Procedure 1. Compare your calculated vital capacity with your
Before you begin this activity, read the information recorded vital capacity. Explain any difference.
on the next page. 2. Compare your inspiratory reserve volume to your
1. Set the spirometer gauge to zero and insert a clean expiratory reserve volume. Explain any difference.
mouthpiece. If you are using a nose plug, put it on.
3. Compare your respiratory volumes with those of other
2. Begin by taking a few relaxed breaths. Then inhale students by creating a class data table. How much
normally, put the mouthpiece into your mouth, and variation do you see? Are there patterns in this variation,
exhale normally into the spirometer. Record the value such as differences between males and females, or
as your tidal volume. differences based on height, body size, or age? What
factors could contribute to differences in respiratory
3. Reset the spirometer to zero. Inhale and exhale normally. volumes? If time permits, design an investigation to
At the end of the normal exhalation, put the mouthpiece test the effects of two of these factors.
into your mouth and exhale as fully as you can all in one
breath. Record this value as your expiratory reserve volume. 4. How might athletes use information about their vital
capacity? Predict how respiratory volumes relate to
4. Reset the spirometer to zero. Inhale as deeply as you can, athletic performance.
and then exhale normally into the spirometer without
forcing the exhalation. Record this value as your
inspiratory capacity.

The Spirograph
The graph in Figure 11.4, called a spirograph, represents the amount of air that moves
spirograph a graph
representing the into and out of the lungs with each breath, as measured by a device called a spirometer,
amount (volume) and as shown in Figure 11.5. (The terms that are used to describe the features of a
speed (rate of flow) of spirograph are explained below.)
air that is inhaled and
exhaled, as measured • Tidal volume is the volume of air that is inhaled and exhaled in a normal breathing
by a spirometer movement when the body is at rest.
tidal volume the • Inspiratory reserve volume is the additional volume of air that can be taken into the
volume of air inhaled lungs beyond a regular, or tidal, inhalation.
and exhaled during
normal breathing • Expiratory reserve volume is the additional volume of air that can be forced out of
inspiratory reserve the lungs beyond a regular, or tidal, exhalation.
volume the volume of • Vital capacity, or total lung volume capacity, is the total volume of gas that can be
air that can be taken into
moved into or out of the lungs. It can be calculated as tidal volume + inspiratory
the lungs beyond the
regular tidal inhalation reserve volume + expiratory reserve volume.
expiratory reserve • Residual volume is the amount of gas that remains in the lungs and the passageways
volume the volume of the respiratory system even after a full exhalation. This gas never leaves the
of air that can be
respiratory system; if it did, the lungs and respiratory passageways would collapse.
expelled from the lungs
beyond the regular tidal The residual volume has little value for gas exchange because it is not exchanged with
exhalation air from outside the body.
vital capacity the total
maximum volume of air A Typical Spirograph
that can be moved into 6000
and out of the lungs
during a single breath
inspiratory
residual volume the 4800 reserve volume
Volume of Air in Lungs (mL)
volume of air that

remains in the lungs
after a complete vital
3600 capacity
exhalation total
2900 lung
tidal volume volume
2400
expiratory
Figure 11.4 This reserve
spirograph shows typical volume
values for human vital 1200
capacity: the maximum
residual residual
volume of air that can be volume volume
moved into and out of
0
the lungs during a single Time (seconds)
breath.
Figure 11.5 A spirometer measures

the volume of air that is inhaled and
exhaled over a period of time.

Section 11.1 RE V IE W
Section Summary
• Organisms in different environments have specialized • In humans, inspiration and expiration involve
breathing structures that are adapted to exchange gases co-ordination between the diaphragm, the intercostal
with their external environment. muscles, and the rib cage.
• Fish use a counter-current exchange mechanism to • Vital capacity, the maximum volume of air that can be
efficiently exchange gases with the water that moves moved into and out of the lungs during a single breath,
over their gills. can be represented with a spirograph.
• All oxygen-breathing, terrestrial animals must maintain
a moist respiratory surface for gas exchange to occur.
Review Questions
1. K/U Summarize the functions of the respiratory 9. K/U The air you exhale contains approximately
system. 16.5 percent oxygen and 4.5 percent carbon dioxide.
2. C Use a flowchart to demonstrate gas exchange The air you inhale contains 21 percent oxygen and
in the gills of fish. 0.04 percent carbon dioxide. What is the explanation
for these differences between exhaled and inhaled air?
3. T/I How does the respiratory surface in the rabbit,
shown below, compare with the respiratory surfaces of 10. A Practitioners of some forms of exercise teach
earthworms, fish, and insects? that special breathing techniques can help to relieve
stress and improve physical (and emotional)
well-being. For example, one school of yoga
recommends first inhaling normally and exhaling
Body CO2 deeply, and then inhaling deeply and exhaling
surface O2
normally. Infer the effect on the body after a few
minutes of this breathing exercise.
Respiratory
surface CO2 O2 11. K/U Referring to what you have learned about
(inside lungs)
measuring respiratory volumes, answer the following
Capillary questions:
a. Identify the three volumes of air that make up an
4. T/I During an investigation to test for the presence
individual’s vital capacity.
of carbon dioxide in inhaled and exhaled air, limewater
became cloudy in the flask labelled “inhaled.” Is this b. Explain the purpose of the residual volume of air in
the result you would expect? Explain. the lungs.
5. K/U Which structure is able to obtain oxygen more 12. T/I How would you calculate the total volume of
efficiently, the fish gill or the human lung? Explain. your lungs?
6. A Humans have lungs inside their bodies while 13. C Draw a concept map to represent how the
wood lice have gills under their body. Based on this following terms relate to each other:
information, what environmental restrictions do you • respiration
think wood lice have that humans do not? • inspiration
7. T/I Winter air can be very cold and dry. How would • expiration
the air entering your lungs be different if you breathed • gas exchange
through your mouth instead of your nose while • cellular respiration
walking on a cold winter day? 14. A A person in a car accident suffered a chest
8. C Use a cycle chart to describe the mechanics of injury that resulted in a collapsed lung. Why would
breathing. removing the air from the thoracic cavity help the lung
to re-inflate?

SECTION
The Human Respiratory System: A Closer Look
11.2
Key Terms In humans, the lungs are the main organs of respiration. Because the lungs are located
deep within the body, a suitable passageway is necessary for air to move from outside
pharynx
the body to the respiratory surface inside the body. This passageway is called the
trachea
respiratory tract. As you can see in Figure 11.6, the respiratory tract consists of several
glottis structures and extends from the nose to the lungs.
larynx
bronchus The Passage of Air through the Upper Respiratory Tract
bronchiole
Air enters the respiratory system through the nostrils. Air can also enter through the
alveolus
mouth, especially if breathing is rapid, as it is during strenuous exercise. Inside the
hemoglobin
nasal passages at the back of the nose, air is warmed, moistened, and cleansed of dust
and other small particles. Very thin bones, called turbinate bones, project into the nasal
passages and increase the surface area of these chambers. A thin membrane covering
pharynx the
passageway just behind the turbinate bones secretes mucus, which moistens the air and traps particles of dust,
the mouth that connects bacteria, and other foreign matter. Figure 11.7 shows the ciliated cells that are found in
the mouth and nasal the membrane. These cells have waving, hair-like projections that move the trapped
cavity to the larynx and particles into the nose or throat where they can be expelled by sneezing or coughing.
esophagus
trachea the tube that
carries air from the nasal nasal passages pharynx
passages or mouth to
the bronchi and then to
the lungs; also known as
the windpipe nostril
glottis the opening glottis

epiglottis
of the trachea through larynx
which air enters the
larynx trachea bronchus
lung
thoracic cavity
bronchioles diaphragm
Figure 11.6 The structures of the respiratory tract form a pathway for air to move from outside
the body into the lungs. Waste gases move through the same pathway in the opposite direction
to be expelled from the body.
A dense network of capillaries in the lining of the turbinates supplies warm blood to
the nasal passages. This heats the air in the nasal passages to body temperature and
protects delicate structures in the lower respiratory tract from damage by cold air.
The warm, moist, cleaned air passes from the nasal passages through the pharynx, or
Figure 11.7 Hair-like throat. At the base of the pharynx, behind the tongue, is the entrance to the trachea, or
cilia line the mucous windpipe. This opening is called the glottis. The glottis can be closed by the epiglottis,
membranes of the nasal
cavity. The cilia trap foreign
which is shown in Figure 11.6. The epiglottis is normally upright to allow air to pass
particles from the air so freely into the trachea. When you swallow food, however, the epiglottis covers over the
they do not enter the lungs. glottis to prevent food from entering the trachea and passing into the lungs.

The Larynx
Between the glottis and the trachea, air passes through the larynx, or voice box. This
larynx the structure
structure is made of cartilage, which is a tough, firm connective tissue. The larynx between the glottis
is used for sound production in mammals. The vocal cords consist of two folds of and the trachea that
membrane stretched across the larynx. During normal breathing, muscular tissue contains the vocal cords
holds the vocal cords apart, allowing air to pass freely through the larynx. To make bronchus the
sounds, the vocal cords are moved closer together so that pressure from air expelled passageway that
branches from the
from the lungs causes the cords to vibrate. The pitch of the sound varies with the length trachea to the lungs
of the vocal cords. A long cord produces a low sound, and a shorter cord produces a
bronchiole the
higher sound. At puberty, the vocal cords of males grow quickly, which often causes a passageway that
“breaking” quality in the voice. The breaking sound disappears once the vocal cords branches from each
have finished growing. bronchus inside the lung
into increasingly smaller,
From the larynx, incoming air moves down the trachea. This flexible tube is
thin-walled tubes
strengthened and held open by semicircular loops of cartilage. The trachea is about
alveolus a tiny sac,
10 to 12 cm in length and runs from the throat to about the middle of the chest. There, with a wall that is one
it splits into two branches, as you can see in Figure 11.6. cell thick, found at the
end of a bronchiole;
The Lower Respiratory Tract respiratory gases are
exchanged in this sac
The two tubes that branch from the trachea are called bronchi (singular bronchus).
One bronchus enters each lung. In humans, the lungs are divided into regions called
lobes. The right lung has three lobes and the left lung has two, leaving space for the
heart in the thoracic cavity. Each lung is surrounded by a thin, flexible, double-layered
sac, called the pleural membrane. The outer layer of this membrane is attached to the
inside of the chest wall and the inner layer covers the lungs. The thin space between
these two layers contains a lubricating fluid that allows the layers to slide easily against
each other during the movements of breathing.
Inside the lungs, each bronchus subdivides many times to form a network
of microscopic tubules called bronchioles. Each bronchiole eventually ends in a
grape-like cluster of tiny sacs called alveoli (singular alveolus). There are an estimated
500 million alveoli in an average-size adult human lung. Surrounding each alveolus is
a network of fine capillaries, as shown in Figure 11.8. The walls of the alveoli and the
walls of the capillaries are only one cell thick. It is across these very thin membranes
that the respiratory system and the circulatory system interact, as oxygen from the air
diffuses into the blood and carbon dioxide from the blood diffuses into the lungs.
bronchiole Figure 11.8 Each bronchiole

ends in several clusters of
blood alveoli. Surrounding each
flow alveolus is a fine network of
capillaries that are part of
the circulatory system. Gas
blood flow exchange occurs between
(oxygen-poor blood) the blood in the capillaries
and the air in the alveolus, so
that blood leaving the lungs
alveoli has a high oxygen content.
blood flow
(oxygen-rich blood)
capillary network of
lung one alveolus

Learning Check
13. What are the functions of the nasal passages? 17. In a medical emergency, a physician may insert a
14. How and why is air warmed as it is inhaled through tube down a person’s trachea to help him or her
the nose? breathe. Infer why the patient would be unable to
talk while they have a tube in their trachea.
15. Compare long vocal cords to short vocal cords in
terms of the voice pitch they produce. 18. Explain the purpose of the epiglottis. Describe what
would happen if the epiglottis did not function
16. Infer what happens when an individual’s trachea
properly.
collapses.
A Detailed Look at Gas Exchange in Humans

During external respiration, the thin walls of the alveoli and the capillaries allow gases
to diffuse through their cell membranes easily, as shown in Figure 11.9. The air that
enters the alveoli after inhalation has a higher concentration of oxygen than the blood
in the capillaries next to the lungs (oxygen in the blood in the capillaries has diffused
out into the tissue cells). As a result, oxygen diffuses out of the alveoli into the blood
in the capillaries. The blood in the capillaries has a higher concentration of carbon
dioxide than the air in the alveoli because the blood that diffuses into the capillaries is
returning from the body tissue cells. Thus, the carbon dioxide diffuses into the alveoli
from the capillaries. The carbon dioxide is then exhaled into the air.
A Cross-section of lung tissue B Cross-section of muscle tissue
O2
muscle cell
O2 CO2
O2 O2
CO2
CO2
CO2
O2
O2
CO2 O2
CO2 O2
air space
CO2 in alveolus O2
tissue
capillary
CO2 alveolus
lung capillary
Figure 11.9 External respiration (A) occurs between the alveoli and the capillaries next to them.
Internal respiration (B) occurs between the capillaries and the body tissues.
Once oxygen and carbon dioxide have been exchanged between the capillaries and
the alveoli, the blood in the capillaries begins its journey back to the heart and then
on to the tissue cells. There, oxygen diffuses from the blood into the tissue cells and is
exchanged for carbon dioxide once again.

Activity 11.3 Breathing Rate and Oxygen Demand
In this activity, you will investigate how exercise affects your 6. Next, measure and record the subject’s resting breathing
respiratory and circulatory systems, and infer how these rate. The resting breathing rate is the number of
systems are related. complete breaths per minute while the subject is sitting
at rest. Count the number of times the subject breathes
Safety Precaution (one inhalation and one exhalation) in 30 s. Multiply
• Students with respiratory problems or heart problems that number by 2 to get the number of breaths in 1 min.
should not be subjects in this activity. Record this as the subject’s resting breathing rate.
7. Repeat step 6 two more times. Record your results
Materials in your table. Add the three values for breathing rate
• graph paper • stopwatch together, and divide by 3. This will give you the subject’s
average resting breathing rate.
Procedure
1. Select 10 classmates as subjects for this activity. You will Part 2: Measuring Heart Rate and Breathing Rate
work in small groups, with one subject in each group. after Exercise
2. Read through this activity before you begin. 8. Have your subject walk in place at a normal pace for
5 min. Then record the number of heartbeats per minute
Part 1: Measuring Resting Heart Rate and Breathing Rate and the number of breaths per minute.
3. Create a data table for your data and calculations.
9. Have your subject walk briskly in place for 5 min. Then
4. First, measure and record the subject’s resting heart record the number of heartbeats per minute and the
rate, or the number of heartbeats per minute while the number of breaths per minute.
subject is sitting at rest. Find your subject’s resting heart
10. Plot your results on graph paper. Each coordinate point
rate by taking his or her pulse. Locate the artery in his
should indicate breaths per minute on the horizontal
or her wrist and gently press your index finger and one
axis and heartbeats per minute on the vertical axis.
or two other fingers against the artery. (Do not use your
thumb, because it has its own pulse.) Questions
Use the stopwatch to count the number of pulses in 30 s. 1. What is the relationship between the two dependent
Multiply by 2 to get the number of heartbeats in 1 min. variables—heart rate and breathing rate? Use evidence
Record this as the subject’s resting heart rate. from your graph to support your answer.
5. Repeat step 4 two more times. Record your results in 2. An increased breathing rate increases gas exchange in
your table. Add the three resting heart rates together. the lungs. Why is this increase in breathing rate related
Divide this number by 3 to get the subject’s average to heart rate?
resting heart rate.
How Blood Transports Respiratory Gases hemoglobin an iron-

During respiration, both oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2) are transported via containing protein
the bloodstream. About 99 percent of O2 that reaches cells is carried by hemoglobin, found in red blood cells,
which binds to and
which is a protein in red blood cells (see Figure 11.10). The remaining 1 percent of O2 transports oxygen from
is dissolved in the watery blood plasma. the lungs to the rest of
the body
Oxygen
Oxygen
from lungs
Oxygen bonded released to
with hemoglobin tissue cells Figure 11.10 Hemoglobin
Red blood molecules binds with oxygen from the
cell lungs and transports it to
the body’s tissues. There,
the hemoglobin releases
Hemoglobin enough oxygen to meet
molecules
the needs of the cells.
When CO2 leaves the tissue cells and diffuses into the capillaries, it enters the
red blood cells. About 23 percent of CO2 is carried in the blood by hemoglobin. The
remaining CO2 (77 percent) is carried in the blood fluids. When CO2 reaches the lungs,
it diffuses into the air in the alveoli and is exhaled.

Section Summary
• The human respiratory tract consists of the nasal • Gas exchange occurs between the alveoli in the
passages, the pharynx, the glottis, the epiglottis, the respiratory system and the capillaries of the circulatory
larynx, the trachea, the bronchi, and the bronchioles, system.
which terminate in the alveoli. The bronchioles and • The hemoglobin in red blood cells transports oxygen
alveoli are found inside the lungs. from the lungs to the body’s tissues.
• Before any air enters the respiratory system it must be • Respiratory centres in the brain regulate and control
warmed, moistened, and cleaned of small particles, so breathing rate to maintain specific levels of oxygen and
that it does not damage the lungs. carbon dioxide in the blood.
Review Questions
1. K/U What is the function of the following in the 8. K/U Sketch the following diagram into your
nasal passages? notebook. Identify the structures indicated by the
a. mucus letters A to K.
b. cilia
2. T/I Infer whether singers produce a high note by
A
increasing or decreasing the tension in their vocal B
D C
cords, and justify your answer. E
3. C Using the image below, create a flowchart that F
G
indicates the pathway that an inhaled breath takes
H
through each part of the respiratory tract.
K
alveoli
I J
9. A Arterial blood is bright red, but venous blood is

darker. Infer from this why blood oozing from a cut
always appears to be bright red.
10. A Most birds have thin-walled air sacs that fill
most of the body cavity not occupied by other organs.
Inspired air passes through the bird’s lungs, into these
air sacs, and back through the lungs again on
expiration. In what ways might this system be more
4. K/U Describe how the structure of the pleural efficient than the mammalian lung?
membrane allows the lungs to contract and relax 11. K/U How is oxygen transported in the blood?
smoothly during inspiration and expiration.
12. K/U Identify two ways in which carbon dioxide is
5. K/U Identify two characteristics of the alveoli that transported in the blood.
facilitate gas exchange and infer why alveoli are
13. T/I You are shown two samples of blood, one of
important in this process.
which is a brighter shade of red than the other. What
6. C Explain how diffusion is involved in external prediction can you make about the oxygen content in
respiration. Draw a diagram to support your answer. the two samples?
7. T/I Some biologists refer to the system of bronchi 14. C Use a graphic organizer such as a flowchart to
and bronchioles as the bronchial tree. Why is this a show the sequence of events that occurs when carbon
suitable metaphor? dioxide diffuses out of the blood.

SECTION
Respiratory System Disorders
11.3
Like the digestive system, the respiratory system directly links the internal environment Key Terms
of the body with the environment outside the body. The quality of both environments
tonsillitis
plays a key role in the health of the respiratory system. Changes in the environment
laryngitis
outside the body, as well as personal lifestyle choices, can have a significant effect on
how well the respiratory system functions and, by extension, on how well the whole pneumonia
body functions. bronchitis
asthma
Disorders of the Upper Respiratory Tract emphysema
cystic fibrosis
The most common throat ailments are caused by viruses and bacteria carried in the
carcinoma
air. Tonsillitis is a bacterial or viral infection of the tonsils, which are two oval-shaped
organs located in the pharynx at the back of the throat, as shown in Figure 11.11. The metastasis
function of the tonsils is to help prevent bacteria and other harmful substances from computed axial tomography
entering the respiratory system. Symptoms of tonsillitis include red and swollen tonsils, (CAT or CT)
a sore throat, fever, and swollen glands in the neck. Tonsils tend to be naturally large two-photon microscopy
in children but they shrink with age. Severe tonsillitis may be treated by surgically bronchoscopy
removing all or part of the tonsils. However, removing tonsils can increase the risk of
throat infections later in life. tonsillitis an infection
Laryngitis is an inflammation of the larynx caused by an infection or allergy, or by of the tonsils caused by
a virus or by bacteria
overstraining the voice, such as by prolonged yelling. Recall that the larynx contains
laryngitis an
the vocal cords. When the larynx is inflamed, the vocal cords cannot vibrate as they
inflammation of the
usually do. People with laryngitis may “lose” their voice, or speak in a hoarse whisper. larynx that can cause the
This condition is usually not serious and clears up on its own after a few days. voice to become raspy
or hoarse
Disorders of the Lower Respiratory Tract
Several serious lower respiratory disorders can damage the bronchi and lungs. The Tonsils
Public Health Agency of Canada estimates that over three million Canadians of all ages
are affected by chronic respiratory diseases. There are several main causes of respiratory
disorders. Some are caused by exposure to infectious pathogens, such as viruses,
bacteria, and fungi. The other main cause is exposure to air pollutants that block parts
Tongue
of the respiratory tract, obstructing the airflow or impeding the exchange of gases.
Figure 11.12 summarizes four of the most common disorders of the lower respiratory
tract: pneumonia, bronchitis, asthma, and emphysema. Figure 11.11 The tonsils are
often considered the body’s
Pneumonia mucus Bronchitis first line of defence. However,
Alveoli fill with Airways are inflamed by protecting the body, the
thick fluid, making due to infection tonsils themselves can often
gas exchange (acute) or due to an
difficult. irritant (chronic). become infected, causing
Coughing brings inflammation and abscesses
up mucus. (collections of pus).
Asthma Emphysema
Airways are inflamed Alveoli burst and
due to irritation, and fuse into enlarged
bronchioles air spaces. Surface
constrict due to area for gas
muscle spasms. exchange is reduced.
Figure 11.12 These four common disorders affect various parts of the lower respiratory tract.

Pneumonia
When the alveoli in the lungs become inflamed and fill with fluids, this is known as
pneumonia a
disease that causes pneumonia. Pneumonia interferes with gas exchange, and the body becomes starved
inflammation in one for oxygen. There are two main types of pneumonia: lobular pneumonia and bronchial
or both lungs; it is pneumonia. As shown in Figure 11.13, lobular pneumonia affects a lobe of the lung, and
usually caused by a viral bronchial pneumonia affects patches throughout both lungs.
infection or a bacterial
infection Lobular Pneumonia Bronchial Pneumonia
Figure 11.13 Lobular pneumonia involves only a single lobe of the lungs, and is most often
caused by a bacterial infection. Bronchial pneumonia affects patches of both lungs in the areas
around the bronchi or bronchioles.
There are several causes of pneumonia. The main causes are bacterial infection
and viral infection. Lobular pneumonia is caused by the bacterium Streptococcus
pneumoniae. This bacterial infection can spread out of the lungs, by way of the
bloodstream, and affect other tissues. There is a preventative vaccine, called the
pneumococcal vaccine, which provides long-term protection from the bacterium.
Viral pneumonias are usually less severe than bacterial pneumonias, and they can
be treated with anti-viral medications. Viral pneumonias may be followed, however,
by a secondary bacterial infection. This secondary infection must be treated separately
with antibiotics or with preparations that have antibiotic properties. People who have
AIDS (whose immune systems cannot respond strongly) often experience a rare type
of pneumonia that is hardly ever seen in people with strong immune systems.
Bronchitis
When the bronchi become red, inflamed, and filled with mucus, which the person
bronchitis a respiratory
disease that causes expels by coughing, this is known as bronchitis.
inflammation of the A short-term form of bronchitis, called acute bronchitis, is usually caused by a
mucous membranes of bacterial infection and can be treated with antibiotics.
the bronchi; it is classified Chronic bronchitis is a long-term disorder caused by regular exposure to
as either acute (due to
infection) or chronic concentrations of dust or chemical compounds (often in the workplace), or cigarette
(due to an irritant) smoke. Because the exposure takes place over a long period of time, the cilia lining
the bronchi are gradually destroyed.
Without the cleansing action of the cilia, the bronchi grow increasingly inflamed
and vulnerable to infection. Mucus accumulates in the bronchi, causing the person
to develop a persistent cough in an attempt to clear it. Chronic bronchitis is referred
to as a chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and is one of a few lung
diseases that is usually caused by smoking. COPD cannot be cured, but it can be
treated by quitting smoking, taking medications, and participating in specialized
exercise programs.

Asthma
Inhaled irritants such as pollen, dust, and smoke can often trigger an inflammation
asthma a lung
of the bronchi and bronchioles, known as asthma. The inflammation narrows the air disease that causes
passages of the bronchi and bronchioles, thus reducing airflow. People with asthma chronic inflammation
experience wheezing, coughing, tightness in the chest, and shortness of breath. During of the lungs and
an asthma attack, muscles around the airways contract and cells in the airways may overproduction of
mucus in the lungs
increase mucus production, which further blocks airflow.
Asthma often starts in childhood. Although it cannot be cured, it can be managed.
Many people who have asthma use a hand-held inhaler, a device that delivers
medication deep into the lungs. There are two common types of inhaler, as shown in
Figure 11.14. A metered dose inhaler, like the one in Figure 11.14 (A), is a pressurized
canister fitted to a mouthpiece. The person fits on the mouthpiece, triggers the release,
and inhales a measured amount of liquid medication in a fine mist to relieve symptoms.
A dry powder inhaler, like the one in Figure 11.14 (B), does not use a propellant to push
the medication out of the container. Instead, the person obtains a fine, powdered dose
of medication using a deep, slow, inhalation.
A B
Figure 11.14 (A) An aerosol inhaler delivers a metered dose of medicine to the lungs in a short
burst while the person inhales deeply. (B) A disk inhaler delivers a dose of fine, dry powdered
medicine to the lungs as the person inhales slowly and deeply.
Asthma medications act by relaxing the bronchiole muscles and reducing

inflammation, thus opening up the airways. People with asthma can monitor their lung
capacity to give advance warning of reduced airflow. Lung capacity can be measured by
exhaling into a peak flow meter, such as the one shown in Figure 11.15.
Figure 11.15 The peak

flow meter is a small,
hand-held device that
measures lung volume
and can show when lung
volume is decreasing,
compared with normal
volumes. This is an early
warning that an attack is
coming and medication
is needed.

Emphysema
A respiratory disorder in which the walls of the alveoli lose their elasticity is known as
emphysema a chronic
respiratory disease that emphysema. This loss of elasticity reduces the respiratory surface for gas exchange and
affects the ability of the causes an oxygen shortage in the tissues. Exhaling becomes difficult because the small
lungs to expel air airways collapse during exhalation, trapping air in the lungs and blocking the airflow.
The most common cause of this condition is smoking.
Like chronic bronchitis, emphysema is classified as a COPD (chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease). Emphysema is incurable, although the symptoms can be relieved
by using an inhaler to open up the bronchioles and a low-flow oxygen tank to boost
the supply of oxygen to the body. The best way to slow the progression of emphysema
and improve the person’s quality of life is for them to stop smoking and avoid airborne
irritants, such as dust and second-hand smoke.
Cystic Fibrosis
The mutation of a single gene causes a multi-system disease known as cystic fibrosis.
cystic fibrosis a genetic
disease that causes a This genetic condition causes cells lining the airways to release thick, sticky mucus
thick build-up of mucus that clogs the lungs, leading to difficulty in breathing. The mucus traps disease-causing
in the lungs, resulting in agents, making it difficult to clear bacteria that cause lung infections. (The mucus
infection, inflammation, also blocks the ducts of the pancreas, preventing digestive enzymes from reaching
and damage to the lung
tissues the intestines to digest food.) There is no cure for cystic fibrosis, but symptoms can
be relieved by medicines that thin the mucus and antibiotics that reduce bacterial
infections.
The normal version of the gene responsible for cystic fibrosis causes cells to
produce a protein that helps govern the cell’s balance of salt and water. The mutated
version of this gene causes the production of a slightly different protein, which does
not function in the same way. Therefore, the lack of the normal protein causes cells
to secrete the extra thick, sticky mucus. Gene therapy is being explored as a potential
life-saving treatment for people with cystic fibrosis. One form of gene therapy that has
been explored is to treat patients with copies of the normal gene. This was first done in
1993, using a modified virus to carry the gene into the patient’s cells.
Newer methods of gene therapy are being tested, using capsules, sprays, and
nose drops to deliver the unmutated gene to cells lining the airways to the lung. Tiny
bubbles, called liposomes, in the sprays and drops contain DNA without the cystic
fibrosis mutation. The bubbles fuse with the outer surfaces of cells that line the airways,
and the DNA passes through the membranes into the cells. The added DNA instructs
the cells to make the essential protein lacking in people who have cystic fibrosis.
Learning Check
19. What is the function of the tonsils? 21. Name and describe four common disorders of the
20. A friend of yours went to a rock concert over the lower respiratory tract.
weekend. She had a great time singing along with 22. What causes cystic fibrosis?
the band but she found that she could only whisper 23. Why does bronchitis affect a person’s ability to
the next morning. What might be the problem? breathe?
Explain how you reached your conclusion.
24. Explain the connection between smoking and
respiratory health.

Lung Cancer
Lung cancer is a disease in which uncontrolled cell growth and division occurs in the
carcinoma a tumour
lungs. As the lung cells continue to grow and divide in an uncontrolled way, they can made up of rapidly
create a rapidly growing mass of cells that form a tumour, or carcinoma, as shown multiplying cells
in Figure 11.16. Carcinomas can grow as large as 8 cm, significantly reducing the metastasis the spread
respiratory surface of the lungs. Cancerous cells can also break away from a tumour of cancerous cells from
and travel, thus spreading cancer to other parts of the lungs and to other organs and their original site to
other parts of the body
tissues. The spread of cancer from its original site is called metastasis. The cancerous
cells that spread are called metastatic cells.
carcinoma of the lung

respiratory
epithelial cells
reserve cells
metastatic
connective cells
tissue
blood vessel blood vessel
smooth muscle
Figure 11.16 A carcinoma develops as a large ball of cancer cells on the respiratory surface of
the lungs. Metastatic cells that break away from this tumor can be carried throughout the body,
spreading cancer.
Because lung tissues are located deep within the thoracic cavity, lung cancer is SuggestedInvestigation
difficult to detect in its early stages and difficult to treat. Symptoms include a persistent
ThoughtLab Investigation
cough, difficulty breathing, chest pain, and loss of appetite. An X ray of the chest does
11-B, Smoking and the
not show the presence of tumours until they are already quite large and beginning to Respiratory System
spread. About 80 percent of people die within five years of diagnosis, making lung
cancer the leading cause of cancer deaths for men and women in Canada.
The main cause of lung cancer is smoking tobacco, since tobacco smoke is a
carcinogen (a cancer-causing agent). Figure 11.17 compares a healthy lung to the lung of
a heavy smoker. Lung cancer in some people may also be caused by persistent exposure to
• second-hand tobacco smoke or other pollutants in the air
• the radioactive gas radon, which is found naturally in some rocks and soils and can
enter buildings through cracks in the foundations
• asbestos, a fibrous, heat-resistant mineral once commonly used as insulation in
buildings and in brake linings
Figure 11.17 (A) Healthy
A B lungs have bright red
tissue. (B) The black lung
tissue indicates that this
person was a heavy smoker.
The pale yellow blotches
are solid tumours, or
carcinomas.

Diagnosing Respiratory System Disorders
The main tool used to detect serious respiratory system disorders such as lung cancer
computed axial
tomography a is a specialized X ray technique called computed axial tomography (CAT or CT scan).
specialized X ray CT scans are conducted by a CT scanner, as shown in Figure 11.18 (A). During a CT scan,
technique for imaging the person lies on a special bed while a rotating X ray device takes multiple images of
organs and other tissues the body through 360 degrees. These images are processed by a computer to produce
in the body; also known
as a CAT or CT scan a complete set of cross-sectional pictures of the body’s interior, including soft tissue,
bone, and blood vessels. In some CT scans, a dye is used to highlight a particular organ
or tissue.
An example of a single cross-sectional image is shown in Figure 11.18 (B). This
technique provides images of parts of the body that cannot be seen on a standard
chest X ray. It allows physicians to make an earlier and more accurate diagnosis of
lung cancer and to plan treatment. From a CT image, a physician can confirm the
presence of a tumour and measure its size, its precise location, and its relationship to
the surrounding tissue.
A B
Figure 11.18 (A) The CT scanner takes about 1000 photographs in one complete rotation.
(B) This CT scan shows the chest, with both lungs and the heart in between them (the white
area near the centre of the image).
Spiral CT scanning is a newer technology that was developed in the mid-1980s. The
scanner rotates continuously around the body in a spiral path as shown in Figure 11.19.
Spiral CT scanning produces clear, detailed views of blood vessels and internal tissues,
such as those within the chest cavity. This enables a doctor to detect lung cancers
earlier, while they are at a more curable stage. Spiral CT scanning is also particularly
helpful in the case of severe chest injuries, such as those resulting from car accidents.
Figure 11.19 (A) A
conventional CT scanner A B
creates images by
photographing vertical
“slices” of the body as it
slowly passes through
the machine. (B) A spiral
CT scanner photographs
spiral cross sections of the
body as it passes through
the machine. The spiral
scanning method is quicker
than conventional CT scans.
This reduces the amount
This technique provides images of a spiral sequence of cross sections through the
of time that the person is body that can be reconstructed using computer software into three-dimensional images
exposed to the X rays. of organs and tissues, as shown in Figure 11.20. The additional information increases
the chance that even carcinomas as small as 2 to 3 mm across will be detected.

Figure 11.20 The data from a spiral CT scan create a series of images of the body tissues
that can be used to make 3-dimensional pictures of areas inside the body, such as the lungs.
Two-photon Microscopy
Two-photon microscopy (TPM) is an imaging technology that uses special
two-photon
microscopes that emit photons (particles of light) to penetrate samples of biological microscopy a
tissue. In traditional light microscopy, it is not possible to look into solid tissue. In technique that uses
TPM, a fluorescent “marker” added to the tissue sample allows the scientist to target photons to form images
a particular point in the sample. TPM produces a three-dimensional image of cells in of living tissue up to a
depth of 1 mm
the body without having to physically extract a sample. This technique not only gives
bronchoscopy a
information about cell structure, but also reveals how biochemical processes take place technology for viewing,
in living cells. For example, TPM has been used to observe how different drugs applied diagnosing, and treating
to the skin are absorbed and used by the tissues. Researchers are also exploring this the tissues and organs of
technology as a way to locate and analyze rare types of cancerous cells. the respiratory system
Bronchoscopy, or bronchial endoscopy, uses a special type of endoscope to
examine the trachea and lungs to diagnose lung disorders. While the patient is under
general anesthesia, the doctor inserts the bronchoscope through the mouth or nose
and down into the lungs. Special attachments to the bronchoscope allow doctors to
take samples of mucus and tissue for biopsy, remove tumours, and repair damaged
blood vessels. Bronchoscopy is also frequently used to diagnose asthma.
Activity 11.4 You Diagnose It
Imagine that you have been working on a team at a medical Procedure

clinic that specializes in helping people with respiratory 1. Review the symptoms for these two people. With your
problems. It is summertime, and there is smog in the hot team, list all of the possible respiratory disorders that
humid air. Your team has collected the following information could be causing their symptoms.
about two people who recently visited your clinic
complaining of having trouble breathing. Questions
Person A: Male, age 15, is a non-smoker. He is complaining 1. Create a table that lists the symptoms of the most
of wheezing and trouble breathing. He started common respiratory disorders. Is it clear which
having episodes in which he had difficulty respiratory disorders these individuals are suffering
breathing last summer, but the problem seemed from?
to go away in the winter.
2. Create an information sheet for each person, listing
Person B: Female, age 35, smokes 10 to 15 cigarettes per day. what they should do to reduce their symptoms. What
She has started having trouble exhaling and gets behaviours should they change? How would these
tired very easily. She is also coughing a lot and changes improve their respiratory health?
bringing up mucus when she coughs.

Learning Check
25. What is metastasis? 29. What are two things that people can do to reduce
26. What is a carcinogen? their risk of developing lung cancer?
27. What does a CT scan do? 30. How does two-photon microscopy (TPM) differ
from traditional light microscopy?
28. Why is bronchoscopy a useful tool for diagnosing
respiratory disorders?
A Summary of Diagnostic Technologies

Table 11.2 summarizes the various diagnostic technologies that doctors use to detect
and diagnose the most common lower respiratory tract disorders.
Table 11.2 Diagnostic technologies for respiratory system disorders
Respiratory Disorder Diagnostic Technologies
Pneumonia • chest X ray
• lab tests on blood and sputum (phlegm, mucus)
• spirometry
• bronchoscopy (in severe cases)
• removal of fluid from pleural membrane (via needle)
Chronic bronchitis • chest X ray to look for lung damage
• blood gas analysis to measure O2 and CO2 in lungs
• lab tests on sputum (phlegm, mucus)
• high-resolution CT scan
• spirometry
• other lung function tests
Asthma • physical exam, listening to lungs with stethoscope
• chest X ray
• lab tests on blood and sputum (phlegm, mucus)
• allergy (skin prick) tests
• spirometry
• measuring peak flow with a peak flow meter
• tests to determine over-responsiveness of airways
Emphysema • chest X ray to look for lung damage
• blood gas analysis to measure O2 and CO2 in lungs
• spirometry
• other lung function tests
Cystic fibrosis (CF) • “sweat” test to measure salt content in sweat (high salt content,
along with other symptoms, can confirm cystic fibrosis)
• genetic tests, such as DNA from a cheek swab or blood sample
• chest X ray to look for inflammation or scarring of lungs
• sinus X ray to look for sinusitis, a complication of CF
• lung function tests to measure size of lungs, how much air can be
inhaled and exhaled, and how well lungs deliver oxygen to blood
• sputum culture to look for Pseudomonas bacteria
Lung cancer • chest X ray
• CT scan
• blood tests to look for lung cancer “markers” in the blood
• biopsy of lung tissue by needle aspiration
• examination and biopsy by bronchoscopy
• bone scan to rule out metastasis to the bones
• surgical inspection by opening the chest and examining lungs with
an endoscope

Technologies for Treating Lung Cancer
There are three main techniques for treating lung cancer: radiation, chemotherapy, and
surgery. All treatments involve either killing or removing cancerous cells. The choice of
treatment depends partly on the type and extent of the cancer and the age and health of
the patient.
Radiation therapy uses X rays or other types of radiation to destroy cancer cells.
Radiation therapy can be given externally or internally for lung cancer. The most
common type of external therapy is delivered by high-dose radiation from a machine.
Sometimes radiation is delivered internally, through a thin plastic tube inserted into the
lungs during bronchoscopy. A small amount of radioactive material is passed through
the plastic tube right to the site of the cancer. The tube is removed after treatment.
Radiation treatment may be used in combination with chemotherapy, and after surgery.
Chemotherapy is a treatment in which drugs that destroy cancer cells are either
taken by mouth or injected into the body. Chemotherapy is used in more advanced
stages of cancer. The drugs work by stopping or slowing the growth of cells that are
dividing rapidly. However, chemotherapy drugs can also harm healthy cells that
divide quickly, such as cells in the skin, the mouth, and the digestive tract. As a result,
chemotherapy often causes side effects such as loss of hair, nausea, and mouth sores.
Lung surgery involves removing the area of the lung that contains tumours. This
may involve a small part of the lung, a lobe of the lung, or an entire lung. If all of the
cancerous cells are successfully removed, the person will be free of cancer. If some
metastatic cells remain in the body, however, the cancer may begin to spread again after
the operation.
Laser surgery involves using lasers to destroy lung tumours, which helps to reduce
damage to the lungs, minimizes scarring, and speeds up the healing process. A laser
emits a high-energy beam of light that can be precisely focused on a tumour with
minimal impact on surrounding tissues. The energy heats the target cells until they
burst. The heat also seals blood vessels and reduces blood loss and swelling. In the late
1980s, surgeons modified a YAG (yttrium aluminum garnet) laser to emit a particular
wavelength and to use a heat-dispersing attachment so that the laser can be used in
lung surgery, as shown in Figure 11.21.
Figure 11.21 With a YAG laser, physicians can vaporize tumours as small as 1 mm in diameter
and rapidly seal small holes in airways and blood vessels. This greatly reduces the need for
removing surrounding healthy lung tissue from cancer patients.

Section Summary
• Human respiratory health is affected by infections, the • Technologies for treating lung cancer include radiation,
environment, and lifestyle. chemotherapy, traditional surgery, and laser surgery.
• Disorders of the lower respiratory tract both cause and • Recent advances in medical technologies allow for early
can be caused by damage to the bronchi and the lungs. detection of cancer and a reduced number of biopsies
• Technologies for diagnosing disorders of the respiratory through the use of two-photon microscopy.
system include CT scans, spiral CT scans, and
bronchoscopy.
Review Questions
1. A Evaluate this statement: “Tonsils, like the person would have each symptom. Focus your
appendix, are extraneous organs that should be answers on the respiratory system only.
removed if they become infected.” State whether you
agree with it, and justify your position.
2. T/I In densely populated areas, weather forecasters
often predict whether a toxic gas called ozone will form
on a given day. Ozone is an irritant to delicate tissues
that are exposed to it. Which groups of the population
should pay particular attention to this forecast, and why?
3. C Draw a cause-and-effect map to show one way
in which chronic bronchitis is triggered and what its
effects are.
4. K/U Describe emphysema and explain why a person A colour-enhanced X ray reveals the scarred
with this disease is treated using a low-flow oxygen lung tissue of a person with asbestosis.
system.
10. A Given that X rays are a form of radiation,
5. A A patient who has broken a rib finds it painful
explain why the dentist asks you to wear a lead apron
to take large, deep breaths. If the patient also has
that covers at least your torso before taking an X ray
asthma, what kind of hand-held inhaler might a doctor
of your teeth.
recommend? Explain your answer.
11. K/U Why do lung cancer patients have such a low
6. K/U What are two advantages of a spiral CT scanner
survival rate?
compared to a conventional CT scanner?
12. K/U Explain why laser surgery is more successful
7. A The Canadian Cystic Fibrosis Foundation chose
than traditional surgery for lung cancer patients.
the slogan “Breathing Life into the Future” for a recent
ad campaign. Analyze why the slogan is appropriate for 13. C Create a main idea web to display at least five
this organization. pieces of information about the computed axial
tomography (CT) scanner.
8. C Use a flowchart to demonstrate how a tumour
forms in the lungs and leads to the formation of 14. K/U Explain why chemotherapy kills normal cells as
tumours in other parts of the body. well as cancerous cells.

9. T/I Asbestosis (also called pulmonary fibrosis) is a 15. A Why might radiation therapy and chemotherapy
serious, chronic, non-cancerous respiratory disease. be used on a patient even after a tumour has been
Inhaled asbestos fibres aggravate lung tissue, which surgically removed?
causes scar tissue to form. Scarred lung tissue does not 16. T/I Liposomes are artificial microscopic bubbles
expand and contract normally and cannot perform gas that can be used to deliver DNA to target cells or
exchange. Predict three symptoms that an individual organs. What might be an advantage of using this type
with asbestosis would display, and explain why the of delivery system to treat cystic fibrosis?

ThoughtLab 11-A
INVESTIGATION
Skill Check
✓
Initiating and Planning
Performing and Recording
Exchanging Gases through the Body Surface
Amphibians such as frogs and salamanders have very permeable (porous), moist
✓ Analyzing and Interpreting
skin. When they are on land, they can use this surface, in addition to using their
✓ Communicating
lungs, to exchange respiratory gases. Fish, reptiles, and even mammals also
exchange gases through their body surface, but to a very limited extent. In this
Materials activity, you will analyze data to compare the percentage of gas exchange that
• graph paper takes place through the skin of various animals.
• coloured pencils
Pre-Lab Questions
1. What is the primary source of information for the first part of this lab?
2. What are two important characteristics of a good respiratory surface?
3. What characteristics of the respiratory system restrict where an organism is
able to live?
Question
How do animals that live in different habitats meet their needs for efficient gas
exchange?
Organize the Data

Construct a table to organize the data shown in the graph below. Use different
colour codes to categorize each animal in your table as an amphibian, a reptile,
a fish, or a mammal. If you are not sure how to categorize an animal, use a
reference resource to find out.
Go to Organizing Data in a Table in Percentage of Gas Exchange through the Skin of Selected Animals
Appendix A for help with constructing
your table.
Lungless salamander
(Ensatina eschscholtzii)
Bullfrog
(Rana catesbeiana)
Mudpuppy
(Necturus maculosus)
Southern mask turtle
(Sternotherus minor)
European eel
Type of Animal
(Anguilla anguilla)
Boa constrictor
(Constrictor constrictor)
Green lizard
(Lacerta viridis) O2
Goldfish CO2
(Carassius carassius)
Big brown bat
(Eptesicus fuscus)
Brown trout
(Salmo trutta)
Human
(Homo sapiens)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Percentage of Gas Exchange through the Skin

Analyze and Interpret Extend Further
1. Which category of animal has the greatest exchange of
gas through its skin? 8. INQUIRY Amphibians can exchange gases through
2. Suggest an explanation for your answer to question 1. their skin (called “cutaneous respiration”) and their
lungs almost equally well. The importance of each
3. Which category of animal takes in oxygen through
respiratory surface may change at any given time with
its skin but does not release carbon dioxide through
changes in the environment, such as temperature.
its skin?
Study the graph below and answer the following
4. Suggest an explanation for your answer to question 3. questions based on the data shown there.
5. Which mammal has the highest percentage of gas
Mean Cutaneous Gas Exchange for
exchange through its skin? a Salamander at Different Temperatures
6. Suggest an explanation for your answer to question 5.
Conclude and Communicate 80 Cutaneous O2
Oxygen Exchange
7. Create a table to list the following:
μ litres /g/hr
60
• the four different types of animals shown in the
graph 40
• the main structures used for gas exchange by each

20
type of animal
• the animals’ habitat—on land, in water, or both 0
10 20 30
Temperature °C
a. Describe how the uptake of oxygen through the

skin changes with increasing temperature.
b. Is more oxygen absorbed through the skin at 15°C
or at 25°C?
c. What is the approximate percentage of the
salamander’s total oxygen uptake obtained through
the skin at 15°C?
d. What is the approximate percentage of the
salamander’s total oxygen uptake obtained through
the skin at 30°C?
9. RESEARCH Frogs, toads, and salamanders are
classified as amphibians, meaning that they can survive
on land and in water. Seals, sea lions, and walruses are
amphibious animals with respiratory systems adapted
for water. They also spend time lying on rocky islands
and beaches. Research what distinguishes amphibians
from amphibious mammals in terms of their habitats
and how each group of animals meets its needs for
gas exchange. Create a Venn diagram that shows the
similarities and differences between the two groups.

ThoughtLab 11-B
INVESTIGATION
Skill Check
✓
Initiating and Planning
Performing and Recording
Smoking and the Respiratory System
There are more than 4000 chemicals in tobacco smoke. At least 10 percent of
✓ Analyzing and Interpreting
these cause cancers of the mouth, lungs, and other body organs. In this activity,
✓ Communicating
you will add to your understanding of body systems by conducting research to
explore the effects of smoking on the respiratory and other body systems.
Materials Note: For many Aboriginal peoples, tobacco is a sacred plant used as a
• reference books key part of many traditional ceremonies. The focus of this activity is on the
• computer with Internet access recreational use of tobacco in society, not its ceremonial use.
Focus your research on Pre-Lab Questions

these questions 1. Besides lung cancer, what other respiratory diseases can be caused by
• By law, which chemicals in smoking?
tobacco smoke must be listed 2. In what specific part of the respiratory system does lung cancer usually
on tobacco products? In what begin?
concentrations are they present, 3. What are some of the reasons that people start smoking?
and what are their effects? (For
example, ammonia is a chemical Question
found in cigarette smoke in How does smoking affect the respiratory system and other body systems?
concentrations ranging from
50 to 130 μg/cigarette. Ammonia Organize the Data
is a fatal poison in large enough Working alone or in small groups, plan a public-awareness product such as
amounts in the body.) a poster, pamphlet, or multimedia presentation. Decide what audience your
public-awareness product will address. Use your knowledge of the path of
• What other chemicals are found
inhaled smoke through the respiratory system in your work. Make sure your
in tobacco smoke? List at least
research answers the questions listed on the left.
five, and give their concentrations
and effects. Analyze and Interpret
• How can tobacco chemicals 1. List three harmful effects of smoking on the respiratory system and three
appear in other body organs harmful effects on other body systems.
such as the bladder, heart, and 2. Because smoking has clearly identified health risks, why do you think
reproductive organs? people smoke? Give at least two reasons.
• What are examples of long-term 3. Identify at least two technologies developed to assist people who choose to
and short-term effects of quit smoking.
smoking?
• In what ways is tobacco smoke Conclude and Communicate
particularly harmful for women 4. Based on the information that you gathered in your research, explain what
who are pregnant? causes smoker’s cough.
• What technologies are available
to assist people who choose to Extend Further
quit smoking?
6. INQUIRY When smokers quit smoking, their risk of developing lung
cancer lessens over time. What are some of the immediate health benefits of
quitting?
7. RESEARCH Conduct research to find out what causes smoking to become
addictive.

STSE
Case Study
MRI Imaging in Ontario
What Strategy Might Ensure Equal Access for All?
Scenario
The goal of universal health care in Canada is to provide the Many rural patients are at a disadvantage when it comes
same level of high-quality care to all who live in Canada. to receiving specialty care, due to unequal access to
There are problems associated with Canadian health care, these imaging services. The root of the problem is the
however, and one of the most significant ones is the sheer distance these patients live from state-of-the-art medical
size of the geographical areas that must be serviced. Most technologies. Not only are these machines expensive to
health-care services are expensive to provide, and it is purchase and operate, but there are also limited numbers of
sometimes difficult for all elements of quality care to be qualified technicians to run them properly. Therefore, even
offered to people living in rural and remote locations. This is if there were more imaging machines located throughout
especially true for more complex health-care needs, such as less densely populated areas of the province,
specialized diagnostics and procedures requiring physicians, it is unlikely that the technical staff would
technologies, and facilities. be available to run the equipment
For most Ontarians, the health care they receive meets effectively and efficiently.
their needs. This includes regular visits to a family doctor, Most MRI scanners are permanently
routine screenings and tests to diagnose health issues, and located in urban hospitals, but MRI
preventative measures to ensure ongoing good health. technology is also available in mobile units
However, if you are an Ontarian who needs care involving that can move from location to location in
high-tech imaging technologies, such as a magnetic order to provide service to rural areas.
resonance imaging (MRI) scan, things may be different. The total cost of an MRI machine ranges
MRI is a non-invasive technology that can produce three- from $2–4 million, depending on whether it
dimensional views of organs, tissues, and bones. These images is a fixed or mobile model, and on the brand
provide valuable information about internal body systems. of machine. As well, the cost of situating the
This imaging equipment is expensive to buy, operate, and machine varies. Permanent locations need to
maintain, so it is usually available only in large urban centres be custom built or renovated with shielded walls
where there is high demand for this medical service. to accommodate the technology and to protect
people and equipment outside the room from
Mobile MRI imaging units can be transported from location the large magnetic forces that are used to operate
to location, providing service to multiple rural locations. the MRI machine. Mobile machines need specially
The trailer containing the MRI scanner must be parked on built trailers, reinforced concrete pads to park on,
reinforced concrete pads due to its heavy weight. and special docks to connect to a larger facility.
They also need to be sited properly so they do not
interfere with other activities occurring nearby.
The table on the next page shows typical costs and
characteristics of the two different
types of MRI machines.
Mobile MRI units usually have smaller scanning rooms

than fixed MRI clinics, but the quality of the scanning
equipment, and the images produced, are just as good.

Research and Analyze
1. Research the pros and cons of the two ways of
providing MRI scanning technology described on
the opposite page. Determine the advantages and
disadvantages of using fixed imaging machines
in urban locations compared to using mobile
machines in rural locations.
2. Research the number of MRI scans being

performed in Ontario and the average wait time
for this imaging technology. The province sets
wait time targets for different health procedures. Is
the current wait time for MRI imaging procedures
d MRI Machines within the provincial guidelines?
A Comparison of Mobile and Fixe
Mobile Fixed 3. Rural residents are often at a disadvantage
MRI Machine MRI Machine compared to city dwellers when they require
4 1 MRI images. They must travel longer distances to
Number of sites served
2080 2080 access the technology. This often requires more
Number of patients scanned per time off work, additional expenses for travel and
year (1 scan/hour, 8 hours/shift,
accommodation, and more disruption of their
5 days/week, 52 weeks/year)
60 km 240 km daily routine. Analyze whether increased use of
Average distance patients must mobile MRI units would allow rural patients to incur
travel the same costs and experience the same level of
4 hours 10 hours
Average time needed per patient convenience as most urban patients in order to
(including travel and wait time) access scanning technologies.
$2 300 000 $1 800 000
Equipment costs (machine plus
tractor and trailer)
$0 $620 000 Take Action
Building costs (room renovation
1. Plan In a group, discuss the issues surrounding
and shields)
$360 000 $0 mobile versus fixed MRI machines. What are the
Siting costs (concrete pads and differing points of view with respect to the relative
docks)
$790 000 benefits of each approach? What are the key issues
$ 890 000
Operating costs (staff, supplies, to consider to create a strategy that would provide
and maintenance) equal access to MRI technology for people living
$3 550 000 $3 210 000
Total costs outside urban centres? Go to Analyzing STSE Issues
other factors listed in in Appendix A to learn more about the societal
In addition to the economic costs and decision-making process. Share the results of the
issues associated with
the table, there are other, less tangible,
ile units require the use of research and analysis you conducted in questions
MRI technologies. For example, mob 1 to 3 above.
to travel from one location
non-renewable fossil fuels in order
ected by road and weather
to another. Mobile units are also aff 2. Act Decide on a strategy your group would
ates may be challenging in
conditions; travelling in northern clim recommend to the provincial government to
living far from urban centres
winter. On the other hand, patients help make the benefits of imaging technologies
er conditions to get to fixed
must often travel through difficult wint available to more people who do not live in
adds to their travel time and
MRI machines in urban centres. This large urban centres. Write a letter to the Minister
the associated expenses. of Health and Long-term Care outlining your
strategy. Ensure that the letter provides a detailed
explanation of how your strategy will help improve
access to MRI technology for rural patients.
Support your position with information from
credible sources.

Chapter 11 SUMMARY
Section 11.1 The Function of Respiration
Respiration is the process by which gas exchange KEY CONCEPTS

occurs, providing oxygen to meet the body’s energy • Organisms in different environments have specialized
needs, and releasing carbon dioxide as a waste product. breathing structures that are adapted to exchange gases
with their external environment.
KEY TERMS
• Fish use a counter-current exchange mechanism to
diaphragm residual volume
efficiently exchange gases with the water that moves over
diffusion gradient respiration
their gills.
expiration respiratory system
expiratory reserve volume spirograph • All oxygen-breathing, terrestrial animals must maintain a
gas exchange tidal volume moist respiratory surface for gas exchange to occur.
inspiration ventilation • In humans, inspiration and expiration involve co-ordination
inspiratory reserve volume vital capacity between the diaphragm, the intercostal muscles, and the
rib cage.
• Vital capacity, the maximum volume of air that can be
moved into and out of the lungs during a single breath, can
be represented with a spirograph.
Section 11.2 The Human Respiratory System: A Closer Look
The human respiratory system is made up of specialized KEY CONCEPTS

organs that are adapted to perform gas exchange in our • The human respiratory tract consists of the nasal passages,
terrestrial environment. the pharynx, the glottis, the epiglottis, the larynx, the
trachea, the bronchi, and the bronchioles, which terminate
KEY TERMS in the alveoli. The bronchioles and alveoli are found inside
alveolus hemoglobin the lungs.
bronchiole larynx
• Before any air enters the respiratory system it must be
bronchus pharynx
warmed, moistened, and cleaned of small particles, so that
glottis trachea
it does not damage the lungs.
• Gas exchange occurs between the alveoli in the respiratory
system and the capillaries of the circulatory system.
• The hemoglobin in red blood cells transports oxygen from
the lungs to the body’s tissues.
• Respiratory centres in the brain regulate and control
breathing rate to maintain specific levels of oxygen and
carbon dioxide in the blood.
Section 11.3 Respiratory System Disorders
Technological advances enable doctors to diagnose KEY CONCEPTS

and treat respiratory system disorders such as chronic • Human respiratory health is affected by infections, the
bronchitis, asthma, emphysema, cystic fibrosis, and environment, and lifestyle.
lung cancer. • Disorders of the lower respiratory tract both cause and can
be caused by damage to the bronchi and the lungs.
KEY TERMS
asthma emphysema • Technologies for diagnosing disorders of the
bronchitis laryngitis respiratory system include CT scans, spiral CT scans, and
bronchoscopy metastasis bronchoscopy.
carcinoma pneumonia • Technologies for treating lung cancer include radiation,
computed axial tomography tonsillitis chemotherapy, traditional surgery, and laser surgery.
(CAT or CT) two-photon microscopy • Recent advances in medical technologies allow for early
cystic fibrosis detection of cancer and a reduced number of biopsies
through the use of two-photon microscopy.

Chapter 11 REVIEW
Knowledge and Understanding 6. Which of the following is a technique or a piece of

Select the letter of the best answer below. technology that is used in treating lung cancer?
a. spiral scanning
1. If the esophagus and trachea were completely separate
in humans, which of the following would not be b. MRI scan
needed? c. laser surgery
a. swallowing d. CT scan
b. a nose e. two-photon microscopy
c. an epiglottis 7. The voice box is made of cartilage and is responsible for
d. a diaphragm the production of sound, as well as the manipulation of
e. All of these are correct. pitch and volume. The voice box is also known as the
a. glottis
2. Inhaled air passes through which of the following
structures last? b. pharynx
a. bronchus c. epiglottis
b. trachea d. trachea
c. pharynx e. larynx
d. bronchiole 8. Two thin membranes surround the lungs. What are
e. larynx these membranes called?
a. pericardial membranes
3. With respect to a counter-current exchange
mechanism, which of the following statements is true? b. pleural membranes
a. Blood and water flow in opposite directions. c. meninges
b. The diffusion gradient of oxygen remains high. d. capsules
c. Oxygen diffuses along a concentration gradient. e. cilia
d. This mechanism is used in some aquatic organisms. Answer the questions below.
e. All of these are correct. 9. Explain how the structure of the mammalian lung
4. Two muscular structures control air pressure inside meets the two basic requirements for gas exchange.
the lungs. Changes in air pressure cause air to move 10. Describe the role of the diaphragm in inhalation and
into and out of the lungs. Inhalation is a result of the exhalation.
a. contraction of the diaphragm and pleural 11. In which disorder does the breakdown of the walls of
membranes the alveoli reduce the surface area for gas exchange?
b. contraction of the diaphragm and intercostal
12. Describe what happens when the pleural membrane
muscles
becomes inflamed.
c. relaxation of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles
13. Why is air warmed and moistened before it enters the
d. relaxation of the diaphragm and pleural membranes
alveoli?
e. relaxation of the diaphragm and contraction of the
intercostal muscles 14. Identify A to F, and explain what this spirograph
represents.
5. Which of the following disorders can be the result of
smoking? 6000
Volume of Air in Lungs (mL)
a. stomach cancer 4800

b. emphysema A
E
c. cancer of the oral cavity 3600
2900 F
d. chronic bronchitis 2400 B
e. All of these are correct. C
1200
D
0
Time (seconds)

Chapter 11 REVIEW
15. An injury to the chest wall can cause the chest cavity to Communication
fill with air, resulting in a collapsed lung. Predict how 24. Draw a concept map that shows how medical
the residual volume in an individual who has suffered technology is used in the treatment of lung cancer.
such an injury would compare with the residual Include the side effects or disadvantages of each
volume in a healthy individual. treatment approach. Go to Usinig Graphic Organizers
16. Explain why a person with cystic fibrosis is prone to in Appendix A for help with drawing concept maps.
repeated respiratory system infections. 25. The development and uses of technology to
maintain human health are based, in part,
Thinking and Investigation
on the changing needs of society. Two-photon
17. A person with a cold secretes more mucus than usual.
microscopes are very expensive and usually only found
The person begins taking cold-relief medications,
in large urban centres. Write a paragraph to convince
which inhibit the production of mucus. What
a wealthy donor to donate a TPM to the children’s
side effects from the medication might the person
hospital in a smaller centre. Use scientific evidence to
experience?
support your ideas.
18. In cold weather, we can often see the water droplets
26. Groups of organs with specific structures
that have condensed from the water vapour in our
and functions work together as systems,
breath. Where is this water from and how did it get
which interact with other systems in the body. The
into the lungs?
fight-or-flight response is how your body responds to
19. Research exercise-induced asthma and write a perceived danger. Your brain triggers the body to
paragraph on your findings. release more energy for immediate use. Do some
20. People often say that a good measure of fitness is how research to learn more about the fight-or-flight
quickly a person’s breathing rate returns to normal response. Using a flowchart, demonstrate the sequence
after any kind of exertion. Design an investigation to of changes that occurs in the body during the fight-or-
test this statement using vital capacity as an indicator flight response, focussing on the response from the
of fitness. respiratory centres.
21. Design a simple way to test the accuracy of a CT 27. Sketch two diagrams that compare external respiration
scanner. and internal respiration.
Use the following information to answer the next question. 28. Graph the following data from a peak flow meter on
the same graph. Determine the rate at which peak flow
In a supervised laboratory experiment, the rate and depth
rates drop every year for smokers and non-smokers,
of respiration for a resting student were determined. In
and suggest an explanation for the difference after
experiment A, the student ran in place for 30 s and then
10 years.
immediately sat down and relaxed, and respiration rate and
depth were again determined. Experiment B was the same Peak Flow Rates by Age
as experiment A, except that the student held his breath Age Non-Smoker (L/min) Smoker (L/min)
while running in place. 20 300 300
22. Predict the differences in respiration you would 21 297 285
observe in these two experiments, and explain the 22 294 271
basis for your predictions. 23 291 258
23. You have gone to see your doctor because you have a 24 288 245
sore throat, runny nose, post-nasal drip, and a cough. 25 285 233
Your doctor diagnoses your symptoms and tells you 26 282 221
that you have a viral infection called pharyngitis.
27 279 210
a. Conduct research to identify the parts of the
28 276 200
upper respiratory tract that are affected by viral
29 272 190
pharyngitis.
b. Explain the symptoms of this disease with respect to
the protective mechanisms of the respiratory system.

29. “A lung is an inside-out gill.” Make one list of the ways 37. Label the diagram and identify where gas exchange
in which this statement is true, and another list of the occurs.
ways in which this statement is false. How can you C
summarize your findings in a single sentence? A
blood
30. Summarize your learning in this chapter using flow
a graphic organizer. To help you, the Chapter 11

Summary lists the Key Terms and Key Concepts. pulmonary
artery
Go to Using Graphic Organizers in Appendix A to help B
pulmonary vein
you decide which graphic organizer is appropriate.
31. “Diffusion is not an effective mechanism for gas
exchange in multicellular organisms.” Explain why 38. You are walking through town when you come to a
this statement is neither entirely true nor entirely construction site where waste material is being burned.
false, using examples of different kinds of respiratory You want to minimize the amount of smoke you inhale
systems. as you pass the site, but the distance is too far for you
to simply hold your breath. Will the total amount of
Application smoke you inhale be greater if you take occasional
32. You are shown a photograph of the alveoli in a lung. deep breaths, or more frequent shallow breaths? Or
You notice that the lung is discoloured and the alveoli will it make any difference? Explain your answer.
seem to look more like shapeless bags than like grape
39. Breathing is partially under voluntary control, which
clusters. What can you infer about the person to whom
explains why you can hold your breath. However,
this lung belonged?
when the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood
33. A friend tells you that some sharks will die if they stop becomes too high, breathing is triggered involuntarily.
moving because they use ram ventilation. Infer what a. Given this information, explain why some
ram ventilation is, and therefore whether the statement swimmers and divers breathe very quickly and
is true. Explain your reasoning. hyperventilate before they dive.
34. What is one reason associated with respiration that b. What problem could this cause?
makes it harder to concentrate in a closed, stuffy room? 40. You are having lunch at a restaurant when a man at the
35. A lifeguard pulls an unconscious swimmer from a pool next table begins choking. A bystander rushes over,
and begins mouth-to-mouth resuscitation. Before long, stands behind the man, and wraps her arms around
the swimmer begins breathing again. him. Then, holding her hands together, just below
a. What took place in the swimmer’s respiratory the man’s rib cage, she squeezes with a rapid, upward
system to cause his breathing to stop? movement. The rescuer is successful in dislodging the
b. How does artificial resuscitation restart his obstruction that caused the man to choke, but by this
breathing? time the man is unconscious. A medical team with
36. Answer the following questions: resuscitation equipment arrives on the scene. Although
a. Explain why smokers usually wake up coughing in carbon dioxide levels stimulate the breathing centre in
the morning. the brain, why is this man given high levels of oxygen
gas on his way to the hospital?
b. Identify a disease of the lower respiratory system
that could result from smoking, and explain how 41. In the past, scuba divers had to limit the length of
this disease is related to long-term exposure to their dives based on the volume of air in their tanks.
tobacco smoke. Rebreather technology now allows divers to rebreathe
the air that they have breathed out repeatedly. How
must the rebreather device work?

Chapter 11 SELF-ASSESSMENT
Select the letter of the best answer below. 5. K/U The throat is part of the neck that lies in front of
1. K/U The main reason why terrestrial animals need to the vertebral column. It is a common passageway for
use lungs rather than gills for gas exchange is air, food, and water. What is another term for this
a. mammals need more O2 than gills can provide common passageway?
b. gills do not have enough surface area for gas a. larynx d. esophagus
exchange b. epiglottis e. glottis
c. air has a higher O2 content than water c. pharynx
d. gills are not as efficient as lungs 6. K/U Most oxygen is carried by the blood
e. gills need an aquatic environment in order to . Most carbon dioxide is transported by
function the blood .
2. K/U All terrestrial vertebrates—except amphibians— a. bound to hemoglobin, bound to protein
breathe by expanding their lungs, thereby creating b. dissolved in plasma, dissolved in plasma
a. negative pressure within the lungs c. bound to hemoglobin, dissolved in blood fluids
b. positive pressure within the lungs d. dissolved in plasma, bound to hemoglobin
c. neutral pressure within the lungs e. bound to hemoglobin, bound to hemoglobin
d. counter-current pressure within the lungs 7. K/U Complete the following statement by choosing
e. directional pressure within the lungs the correct pair of terms below. The trachea is
3. K/U Refer to this diagram to answer the question reinforced by rings, which prevent it
below. from .
Inhalation
a. muscular, collapsing
b. bony, inflating
c. epithelial, inflating
d. cartilaginous, collapsing
e. epithelial, collapsing
8. K/U Complete the following statement by choosing
the correct pair of terms below. The blood in capillaries
has a(n) concentration of CO2 relative to
the alveoli because it is body tissues.
a. higher, going to
What is the condition of the intercostal muscles and
b. lower, returning from
diaphragm during inhalation?
c. higher, returning from
a. intercostal muscles contract and diaphragm moves up
d. lower, going to
b. intercostal muscles relax and diaphragm moves down
e. unchanged, going to
c. intercostal muscles relax and diaphragm moves up
d. intercostal muscles contract and diaphragm moves 9. K/U Which of the following helps in the
down transportation of oxygen in humans?

e. intercostal muscles relax and diaphragm does not a. hemoglobin d. urea
move b. melanin e. bicarbonate ion
c. keratin
4. K/U Complete the following statement by choosing
the correct pair of terms below. The diaphragm is a 10. K/U Complete the following statement by choosing
-shaped layer of that the correct pair of terms below. During internal
separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity. respiration, oxygen diffuses from the
a. heart, cartilage into the .
b. dome, cartilage a. oxygen-rich tissues, blood
c. triangular, muscle b. blood, oxygen-poor tissues
d. dome, muscle c. oxygen-poor tissues, blood
e. triangular, cartilage d. air, oxygen-poor tissues
e. air, oxygen-rich tissues

Use sentences and diagrams as appropriate to answer the 17. T/I In addition to the harm that smoking causes
questions below. directly, how might smoking predispose the lungs to
11. K/U The human respiratory system is divided into damage by other harmful substances?
the upper respiratory tract and lower respiratory tract. 18. A Deduce whether cases of pneumonia might
Some of the characteristics of the respiratory organs increase or decrease with rising temperature and
are given below. relative humidity.
i. contains vocal cords 19. A Sometimes toddlers threaten to hold their
ii. closes the opening to the trachea breath until they get their way. Explain, in terms of the
iii. leads to a cluster of air sacs control of breathing, why most people can only hold
iv. separates the lungs from the abdominal cavity their breath for less than a minute.
Using the numbers above, match the characteristics 20. A Typical treatments for asthma involve drugs that
with the correct organs. reduce the symptoms. Why is it so difficult to develop a
Characteristics cure for asthma?
Organ Epiglottis Larynx Bronchiole Diaphragm 21. C Use a Venn diagram to compare and contrast
emphysema with asthma.
12. K/U Describe how the arrangement of the trachea,
22. A A 55-year-old male has a persistent cough that
esophagus, larynx, and epiglottis usually prevents food
produces mucus. He states that he is exposed to
from entering the trachea.
airborne irritants, including high concentrations of
13. A Carbon monoxide binds to hemoglobin about dust, in the workplace. He has worked at the same
200 times more strongly than oxygen does. When a place for about 10 years.
carbon monoxide molecule binds to hemoglobin,
a. Which respiratory disorder is this person likely
therefore, it tends to stay bound. Oxygen cannot bind
suffering from? Is there more than one possibility
to hemoglobin that is already bound to a carbon
based on the given information? Explain your
monoxide molecule. Carbon monoxide poisoning can
answer.
lead to the following effects:
b. What else would you need to know to make a
• headaches
complete diagnosis? Explain how you would collect
• dizziness
the information.
• nausea
23. A You are watching a television program in which
• unconsciousness
a doctor must perform an emergency procedure on a
• death
patient who has stopped breathing. The doctor inserts
Effects increase in severity with increased
a sterile plastic tube into the patient’s throat.
concentrations of carbon monoxide in the air. Use your
a. What structure in the throat is the doctor likely
understanding of gas exchange to explain why carbon
targeting?
monoxide is so toxic.
b. Infer how this procedure will help the patient.
14. K/U Explain how oxygen and carbon dioxide are
24. K/U Distinguish between the concepts of respiratory
transported during the process of gas exchange.
efficiency and vital capacity. What is the relationship
15. K/U Describe one disorder of the lower respiratory
between the two?
tract that causes the airways to become narrower and
25. K/U What are two advantages of breathing air,
restricts the lung’s ability to expand normally.
compared to obtaining dissolved oxygen from water?
16. A Design a device that could model an artificial What is a comparative disadvantage of breathing air?
lung. Provide detailed reasoning to support your design.
Self-Check
If you missed
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
question...
Review 11.1, 11.1,
11.1 11.1 11.1 11.1 11.2 11.2 11.2 11.2 11.2 11.2 11.2 11.2 11.3 11.2 11.3 11.3 11.2 11.3 11.3 11.3 11.2 11.1 11.1
section(s)... 11.2 11.2

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Chapter 11 Biology 11

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CHAPTER The Respiratory System

• E1.2 assess how societal needs

• E2.1 use appropriate terminology related

• E3.1 explain the anatomy of the

• E3.4 describe some disorders related to

As a high-performance professional triathlete, Lisa Bentley

440 MHR • Unit 4 Animals: Structure and Function

Modelling Your Lungs

handle to pull rubber

Chapter 11 The Respiratory System • MHR 441

442 MHR • Unit 4 Animals: Structure and Function

This is a teacher demonstration that will be conducted by

• Be sure to use a disposable mouthpiece with this

Chapter 11 The Respiratory System • MHR 443

444 MHR • Unit 4 Animals: Structure and Function

Gas Exchange on Land

The Mechanics of Breathing

Chapter 11 The Respiratory System • MHR 445

rib cage intercostal

Rib cage moves up and out. Pressure in lungs decreases,

Rib cage moves down and in. Pressure in lungs increases,

446 MHR • Unit 4 Animals: Structure and Function

Activity 11.2 Measuring Respiratory Volumes

Chapter 11 The Respiratory System • MHR 447

volume of air that

Figure 11.5 A spirometer measures

448 MHR • Unit 4 Animals: Structure and Function

Chapter 11 The Respiratory System • MHR 449

glottis the opening glottis

450 MHR • Unit 4 Animals: Structure and Function

bronchiole Figure 11.8 Each bronchiole

Chapter 11 The Respiratory System • MHR 451

A Detailed Look at Gas Exchange in Humans

A Cross-section of lung tissue B Cross-section of muscle tissue

452 MHR • Unit 4 Animals: Structure and Function

How Blood Transports Respiratory Gases hemoglobin an iron-

Chapter 11 The Respiratory System • MHR 453

9. A Arterial blood is bright red, but venous blood is

454 MHR • Unit 4 Animals: Structure and Function

Chapter 11 The Respiratory System • MHR 455

456 MHR • Unit 4 Animals: Structure and Function

Asthma medications act by relaxing the bronchiole muscles and reducing

Figure 11.15 The peak

Chapter 11 The Respiratory System • MHR 457

458 MHR • Unit 4 Animals: Structure and Function

carcinoma of the lung

Chapter 11 The Respiratory System • MHR 459

460 MHR • Unit 4 Animals: Structure and Function

Activity 11.4 You Diagnose It

Imagine that you have been working on a team at a medical Procedure

Chapter 11 The Respiratory System • MHR 461

A Summary of Diagnostic Technologies

462 MHR • Unit 4 Animals: Structure and Function

Chapter 11 The Respiratory System • MHR 463

tumours in other parts of the body. well as cancerous cells.

464 MHR • Unit 4 Animals: Structure and Function

Organize the Data

Chapter 11 The Respiratory System • MHR 465

Conclude and Communicate 80 Cutaneous O2

• the main structures used for gas exchange by each

a. Describe how the uptake of oxygen through the

466 MHR • Unit 4 Animals: Structure and Function

Focus your research on Pre-Lab Questions