1.

WORDS & WORD FORMS

I. Words:
1. Noun
2. Pronoun
3. Verb
4. Adjective
5. Adverb
6. Conjunction
7. Preposition
8. Interjection

II. Word Forms:

1. Noun Derivatives
2. Verb Derivatives
3. Adjective Derivatives
4. Adverb Derivatives

Goals
By knowing and understanding the type of words and word forms & their functions, the
students can be able to:
1. analyze the written or spoken discourse in the sentences of mining context.
2. catch the meaning of the written or spoken discourse in the sentences of mining context
based on its type of words and word forms.
3. apply the type of words and word forms actively both in written language or spoken
language through some exercises and practices in daily activities.

I. WORDS

1. NOUNS
A noun is a word used to name anything, and its function is as subject, object or
complement of a sentence.

A. Proper (with capital letter: Ahmed Badrowi; Pongkor; Bogor; Indonesia; Parang Tritis
Beach)
Examples:
 Mining is very important for Indonesia for several reasons.
 German companies have been at the forefront of underground mining for well over a
century.

LESTA-English for Mining Engineering-2020 1

  Last year, the U.S. Mine Safety and Health Administration approved Tunnel Radio’s
TR-MX-332 methane and CO (carbon monoxide) detection wireless reader.

B. Common (without capital letter: mineral; engineer; industry, university; love; passion)
Examples:
 Schedule demands requiring tunnels to be driven from more than one adit.
 They also participate in the formulation of the contract documents and required
safety and quality control plans.
 Aspects of tunnel engineering and design, geology, geotechnical engineering must be
considered in all stages of design.

a. Gender (male/female: king-queen; man-woman; feminine-masculine; cock-hen)

Examples:
 The man who drills the hole is called the driller.
 The current style in mining is masculine.

b. Concrete (physics: miner; equipment; excavator; machine; track; hole; coal)

Examples:
 The first equipment built was a pneumatic coal cutter.
 Haul trucks could be spotted correctly every time when dumping and loading.

c. Abstract (non-physics: idea; love; honesty; wisdom; advice)

Examples:
 In the term of quality, coal has low ash and sulphur content.
 There are three aspects that are crucial to the overall coal market evolution and
Colombia’s expansion.
 The coal productivity and improvement must contribute to producing a viable
industry.

d. Collective (group: family; furniture; sport; animal; fruit; team; jury)

Examples:
 Eventually as the group become more comfortable with the technology and
equipment, itcan be phased in over time.
 Many machines have GPS and mapping tools that could be used for autonomous
operations.

e. Countable (count: table; girl; building; motor; machine; shirt; son)

Examples:
 The specific selection of sensors depends on a variety of factors based on definition.
 The sensors are fairly expensive, so mining companies would want to use as few of
them as possible on each vehicle.

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 f. Non-countable (non-count: money; sugar; hair; sand; dust; honesty)
Examples:
 Environmental factors, such as rain, snow, dust and fog are also considered before
mining activity will be started.
 Coal and most nonmetallics in this country are often found in flat-lying, bedded
deposits.

2. PRONOUNS
Pronoun is a word used to substitute a noun or a noun-equivalent.

Personal Possessive Reflexive Rela Demon Inde Reci

Sub Ob Adjec Pro tive strative finite procal
ject ject tive noun
I me my mine myself who this each each
other
You you your yours yourself whom that another
one
He him his his himself that these either another

which those everyone

She her her hers herself

It it its - itself every-

thing
We our us ours ourselves

They them their theirs themselves

One one one’s -

Examples:
 The software prioritizes the vehicles and prevents them from ever coming near each
other.
 In the word of gold miner:”If you have something underground, you have to develop
it. And if you have already developed it, you have to double the processing capacity.”
 According to Carbocol’s projections for the Colombiaan coal industry’s potential for
the period 1999 tp 2010, Colombian exports would reach 49.5 million t in 2005 and
70.5 million t in 2010.

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3. VERBS
A verb is that part of speech which expresses action (to dig, to drill, to explode, to
estimate), state of being (am, become).
A popular definition of verbs states that the verb asserts, or predicates.

a. Transitive (with Object: to drink, to watch, to read, to open, to close, etc.)

Examples:
 The coal industry has achieved impressive productivity gains.
 Coal technology providers will face the extraordinary challenge and the rewards of
paving the way for coal in the future.

b. Intransitive (without Object: to shine, to come, to sit, to boil, to sleep, to fall)

Examples:
 The domestic and offshore coal industries compete on a level playing field in
Europe.
 Many coal producers have succeeded to lower costs and remain competitive in the
current market.

c. Regular (+ -ed / + -d / + -ied: walked; closed; studied, etc.)

Examples:
 The outcome confirmed suspicions that, in fact, the mine employees did not know
enough about safety in their jobs.
 These modules were distributed to all supervisory staff at the mine for self-study.

d. Irregular (change: to write – wrote – written)

Examples:
 Once the shift foremen have undertaken the training, they would be made to
implement their new skills in their section.
 Therefore, although the current role of the safety officer would become obsolete in
this scenario, another role emerges.
 The efforts put into health and safety of the employees at the mine are to ensure
that this reduction in accidents continues.

e. Finite (=ordinary verb: has a subject, tense, number)

Examples:
 The construction of five coal pits was completed by the end of 1999, and
S1=N P1=V (past tense/passive voice)
coal production has already started.
S2=N P2=V (present perfect tense/active voice)

 As far as steam coal demand is concerned, nobody questions the fact

S1=N P1=V(present/pv) S2=N P=V(present/av) O=N
that the Asian market is heading towards a record year in terms of growth.
S3=N P=V(present Cont/av)

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  Earthquake warning system for mines could enhance worker and equipment
S=N P=V(Future/av) O1=N
safety.
O2=N

f. Infinite (=verbals: no subject/subject not real S)

Examples:
 It is no surprise that the origin of Turkey’s modern mining sector dates back to
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the founder of the Republic of Turkey.
 There are four stages of mining: prospecting, exploration, development, and
exploitation.
 This is the most critical issue for coal exporters in Nothern Hemisphere.

g. Auxiliary (to be, to have, to do, modal)

Examples:
 The unit operations of mining are the basic steps employed to produce mineral
from the deposit, together with the auxiliary steps involved.
 Each mining organization has a minimum acceptable rate of return.
 In preparing a mineral deposit for exploitation, development in underground
mining requires certain considerations that surface mine development does not.
 The underground mining cannot compete with surface mining today in its share of
US mineral production.

h. Linking Verb (not express action: seem, turn, taste, feel, smell, appear)
Examples:
 The supervisor became suspicious when the workers didn’t appear at drilling area.
 I feel that the demanding of steam coal will help us increasing the productivity.

4. ADJECTIVES
An adjective is a word used with a noun or other substantive as a modifier to describe
or define it.

A. Descriptive
a. size: big, short, high
b. Shape: round, square, ellipse
c. Colour: blue, green, yellow
d. Smell/Odor: Camphoric =Mothballs, Musky Perfume/Aftershave, Roses =Floral,
Pepperminty=Mint Gum, Etheral = Dry Cleaning Fluid, Pungent=Vinegar, Putrid =
Rotten Eggs
e. Taste: delicious, yummy
f. Temperature: hot, warm, cool, cold
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 Examples:
 Sulphur has strong smell.
 The color of coal is black.
 The big machine to excavate the ground is called excavator.
 In tin mining today, workers excavate tunnels horizontally from a vertical shaft.

B. Limiting
a. Quality: smart, handsome, funny, gentle
b. Quantity: some, little, all
c. Numeral:
- Definite: cardinal (one, two, three), ordinal (first, second, third), multiplications
(single, double/twofold, threefold, four times, five times, etc.)
- Indefinite=not exactly: few, enough, any
d. Demontrative:
Definite: this, that, these, those
Indefinite: singular: a, an, another, a certain; plural: any certain, such, some, any
other
e. Proper: English (England=N), Dutch (Holland=N), Javanese (Java=N), Canadian
(Canada=N)
f. Interrogative: what, which, whose
g. Possesive: my, our, her, his
h. Distributive: each, every, either, neither

Examples:
 Since the first applications, slope monitoring radar has been used extensively.
 The basic principle of the Turkish mining code was left untouched.
 The main focus of the new rules falls on exploration activities.
 What of the role of the Safety Officer if the foreman is doing that job?
 As small mines have closed, their reserves have become less and less saleable to
surviving mine operators.
 In the US, the surface mines of the Powder River Basin set the price that every
other domestic producer much match, beat or go out of business.

Sometimes noun is modified by more than one adjective, so the order of adjectives must be
as follow: determiners (a,an, that, both, etc), opinion adjectives (or quality: nice, beautiful,
excellent), fact adjectices (or descriptive: age, colour, size, etc).

Determiner Opinion Fact Noun

a hard large round metallic steel
a strong unpleasant smell
an intelligent young mining engineer
many difficult autonomous mining questions

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 If the fact adjectives are more than two, so the order of them must be as follow:

1 2 3 4 5

how how what where what is it

big old colour from made of

Examples:
 Coal is a hard, black substance which is dug from the earth in pieces, and can be
burnt to produce heat or power, or a single piece of this.
 Many large organizations are vertically integrated, conducting their own
exploration, mining, processing, and marketing.
 Sulphur is a pale yellow element which exists in various physical forms.
 It burns with a blue flame and a strong smell and is used in medicine and
industry.
 In an era of high metals prices and increasingly stringent environmental
standards, mine operators want less leaks and longer life from their pad and
pond liners.

5. ADVERBS
An adverb can modify a verb, an adjective, another adverb, a phrase, or a clause.
An adverb indicates manner (gladly, happily, carefully), degree (far, just, more, very, too,
all, enough, quite, rather), time (now, immediately, today, ago, then, before), place
(above, below, near, here, there), cause or reason (hence, therefore, then, consequently),
and answers questions such as how, when, where, how much.

a. Primary: hence, how, never, since, soon, then, there, thus, twice, too, where,
whence.
Examples:
 He started working for the mining company when he left college, and has
been there ever since (= and is still there).
 The enrollment data on metallurgical engineering may be combined with
materials engineering and thus may require interpretation.

b. Derivative: midway, meantime, sometimes, straightway, aboard, ahead, apart,

indeed, today, hereafter, forever, thereby, however, whenever, wherever.

Examples:
 However, the maximum achievable in one-pass mining is usually no more
than about 60 per cent and is oftenmarkedly less.
 Nevertheless, general trends in enrollment at the undergraduate and
graduate levels and changes in programs are available and worth noting.
LESTA-English for Mining Engineering-2020 7
 c. Flat: bright, deep, fast, first, hard, high, ill, late, long, loud, low, quick, right,
sharp, strong, thick, wide.
Examples:
 The number of nickelprojects and investment in pipeline declined so fast
as a result of the bleak outlook for the nickle market.
 They attempted to drill deep down penetrating the ground.
 It won’t take long when all of the mining activities done by sophisticated
autonomous huge machines.

6. CONJUNCTIONS
A conjunction is a word or a word-equivalent used to join words, phrases, or clauses; and
in continuous discourse, the conjunction may be employed to join sentences or even
paragraphs.
a. Co-ordinating Conjunctions: FANBOYS (for, and, but, or, yet, so)

Examples:
 The process itself involve the ore being slurried with hot water and slvent,
with the solvent dissolving the bitumen.
 Bitumen is a black viscous mixture of hydrocarbons obtained naturally or as a
residue from petroleum distillation, used for road surfacing and roofing.
 At first we were asked for a one-page manager, where everything is compiled
on a single sheet of paper so that a manager can look at it and make
informed decisins.

b. Subordinating Conjunctions: after, although, as, because, before, how, if, once,
since, than, that, though, till, until, when, where, whether, and while.
Examples:
 Coal producers in the Atlantic basin are starting to witness the development of
the market where the long-due price correction will pave the way for a sound
and viable industry in the long term.
 This present further proof, if any were needed, that large amounts of coal are
still being left in the ground.
 Soft mine bottomis not disturbed, since the weight of the 38t machine is
distributed equally to provide ground pressure of only 151KPa, (21.9psi).

7. PREPOSITIONS
A preposition is a particle used with a noun or pronoun to form a phrase, which phrase
usually performs the function of an adjective or an adverb.

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 The most common prepositions are about, above, across, after, against, along, among,
around, at, before, behind, below, beneath, beside, between, beyond, but, by, despite,
down, during, except, for, from, in, inside, into, like, near, of, off, on, onto, out, outside,
over, past, since, through, throughout, till, to, toward, under, underneath, until, up,
upon, with, within, and without.

Examples:
 The term digability was coined by English coal miners as a term to help with
equipment selection in the 1970s.
 Competition for existing water supplies, combined with rising regulatory and social
scrutiny of mine water management plans, brings prospects of higher project costs
and longer development timetables.
 However, it is currently very difficult for investors to integrate water information into
their investment decision making process, primarily due to a lack of adequate and
consistent information about corporate water issues.

8. INTERJECTIONS
An interjection is a word added to a sentence to convey emotion. It is not grammatically
related to any other part of the sentence.
You usually follow an interjection with an exclamation mark. Interjections are uncommon
in formal academic prose, except in direct quotations.

Examples:
 Ho-ho, these plants use trickling filter technology! Wow, it’s ideally suited for
operation in Africa.
 What a wonderful achievement, Off-Earth Mining as the technology to mine in space
exists! It could be developed.
 Hey! Mind your head! Put that safety helmet on before entering mining area!

LESTA-English for Mining Engineering-2020 9

II. WORD FORMS
Word form or derivative word is the formation of a word from another word or from a root in
the same or another language, sometimes that word can be added with any affixes, such
prefixes or suffixes.

Prefixes, such as: A-, Un-, Dis-, Il-, In-, Ir-, Im-, Non-, Mis-, give a negative meaning.
 Atheism → tidak bertuhan
 Anarchy → tidak mematuhi aturan/ anarkis
 Unclean → tidak bersih
 Unusual → tidak biasa
 Disadvantage → rugi/ tidak untung
 Disbelieve → tidak percaya
 Illegal → tidak legal/ tidak syah
 Illimitable → tidak terbatas
 Inaccurate → tidak tepat
 Incomplete → tidak komplit/ tidak lengkap
 Irrasional → tidak rasional/ tidak masuk akal
 Irremovable → tidak dapat dipindah
 Immobile → tidak bergerak
 Impatient → tidak sabar
 Non-fiction → tidak fiksi/ bukan fiksi
 Non-stop → tidak berhenti/ tanpa berhenti
 Mispronounce → salah melafalkan
 Misunderstand → salah mengerti

Examples:
 One possible disadvantage that is heard as to why more women are not in executive
management roles for mining companies is because there is a lack of women with
experience in the industry.
 Previously, uranium production from those regions was considered unprofitable at
best, and nearly impossible due to the severe climate.

The following table shows other prefixes with the meanings and examples.

Prefix Meaning Example

A- at, in, on, to Ahead, asleep, afoot, aground
Amphi- About, around, on both, sides Amphitheater, amphibious
Ana- Again, up, against Anachronism, analogy, analogue
Anti- Opposed, against Antonym, anticlimax, antidote, anti-war
Arch- Chief, primitive Architect, archbishop, archangel
Auto- Self Autocrat, automobile
Be- By, in Because, beside
Cata- Down, downward Catalepsy, catastrophe
Dia- Through, between Dialogue, diagram, diagonal, diameter

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Ec- From, out of Eccentric, ecstatic
Epi- Upon, beside Epidemic, epilogue, epileptic
Eu- Good, happy, well Euphony, eugenic, euthanasia
For- Against, not Forbid, forbear
Fore- Before Foretell, foreground, forehead
Hetero- Different Heterogeneous, heterodox
Homo- The same Homogeneous, homonym, homosexual
Hyper- Extreme, over, above Hypersensitive, hyperbole
Hypo- Under, below Hypodermic, hypothesis
Infra- Under, beneath Infra-red, infra-dig
Inter- Between, among International, interchange
Intra- Inside, within Intramural, introvert, introspect
Mal-/male- Bad Malefactor, malformed
Meta- After, beyond, Metathesis, metaphysics, metabolism
Mis- Error, defect, wrong Mistake, misbehavior, misconduct
Multy- Much, many Multiply, multitude, multicolor
Neo- New Neologism, neoclassical
Ob-/o-/oc- Against, out Obstruct, obsolete, omit, occult, oflend,
/of-/op- opposite
Out- Beyond, completely Outbreak, outdo, outside,
Para- Beside Paraphrase, paradox, parallel
Per- Through, throughout Persist, pertinent
Peri- About, around Perimeter, periscope, peripatetic
Poly- Many Polygamy, polygon,polyclinic
Pro- To, towards, before Prologue, program
Pro- Forward, in favor of Proceed, project, pronoun, provoke
Re- Again, back Repeat, return, remind, recall
Retro- Back, backward Retroactive, retrospect, retrogress
Sine- Without Sinecure, sine-die
Sub-/suc-/ Under, beneath Submarine, succumb, suffer, suggest,
suf-/sug-/ supplant, suspect
sup-/sus-
Super- Above, over Superimpose, superficial, surpass
Syn-/sym-/ With, together Synonym, synopsis, symmetry,
syl- symphaty, syllogism, syllable
Trans- Across, over Transport, transfer, transmit
Tri- Three Triangle, triumvirate
Ultra- Beyond, outside, unusual, Ultramodern, ultraconservative,
extreme ultramarine
Under- Beneath, less than Underwrite, undertow, underrate
Uni- One Unity, uniform, unilateral, university
Up- High Upshot, uplift, upset
With- From, against Withstand, withdraw, withhold

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Here are some suffixes that are able to signify part of speech.

1. Noun Derivatives
Nouns can be derived from:

a. Verbs + suffixes (-tion, -action, -sion )

 To add → addition → tambahan
 To connect → connection → hubungan
 To describe → description → gambaran
 To possess → possession → kepunyaan

b. Verbs + suffixes (-al, -se, -ment, -iture, -ance)

 To refuse → refusal → penolakan
 To propose → proposal → usulan
 To govern → government → pemerintah
 To pay → payment → pembayaran
 To expend → expense → pembiayaan
 To accept → acceptance → penerimaan

c. Verbs + suffixes (-er, -or, -ent, -ant)

 To drill → driller → pengebor
 To detect → detector → alat pendekteksi
 To expedite → expedient → rencana/tindakan
 To supplicate → suppliant → pemohon

d. Adjectives + suffixes (-ness, -ce, -ity, -cy)

 Lazy → laziness → kemalasan
 Fragrant → fragrance → bau harum
 Rapid → rapidity → kecepatan
 delicate → delicacy → kelezatan

e. Adjectives + suffixes (-an, - ist)

 Public → publican → pemilik tempat minum
 Public → publicist → wartawan/penulis berita
 Gymnastic → gymnast → ahli senam

Examples:
 By investing heavily in the development of uranium mining operations, Russia in the
coming years will compete for the position of the world’s top producer.
 A recent study examined leadership and profitability, as it relates to the cost to produce
1 lb of copper in Arizona.

LESTA-English for Mining Engineering-2020 12

 The government plans to involve the state-owned corporation Russian Technologies in
this project to handle development and production of all necessary equipment and other
technologies in order to improve the effectiveness of mining.

2. Verb Derivatives
Verbs can be derived from:

a. Nouns + suffixes (-ize, -ate)

 Memory → to memorize → mengenang
 Rational → to rationalize → merasionalkan
 Different → to differentiate → membedakan
 Grade → to graduate → menamatkan

b. Nouns + prefixes (en-, in-, a-)

 Danger → to endanger → membahayakan
 Joy → to enjoy → menikmati
 Force → to in-force → memperkuat
 Grain → to ingrain →melekatkan
 Sure → to assure → menjamin
 Certain → to ascertain → memastikan

c. Adjectives + suffixes (-ize, -en, -fy)

 General → to generalize → mengambil kesimpulan
secara umum
 Rational → to rationalize → merasionalkan
 Sharp → to sharpen → menajamkan
 Wide → to widen → melebarkan
 Just → to justify → membenarkan
 Simple → to simplify → menyimpulkan

Examples:
 Transformational leaders provide vision and strategy that empowers employees to solve
problems.
 Fortunately, advances in blasting technology are helping blasters minimize the chances of
that happening.
 The voluntary contribution scheme had some possitive effects, but it strengthened the
bilateral relationship between companies and the comminities.

LESTA-English for Mining Engineering-2020 13

3. Adjective Derivatives
Adjectives can be derived from:

a. Nouns + suffixes (-full, -less, -ious, -y)

 Hope → hopeful → penuh harapan
 Sorrow →sorrowful → penuh penderitaan
 End → endless → tanpa akhir
 Price → priceless → tak berharga
 Danger → dangerous → berbahaya
 Fame → famous → terkenal
 Cloud → cloudy → berawan
 Wind → windy → berangin

b. Nouns + suffixes (-al, -ic, -ish, -ary, -ed)

 Nature → natural → alami
 Critic → critical → genting/kemelut
 Artist → artistic → berkualitas seni
 Fever → feverish → demam/gelisah
 Imagination → imaginary → hanya dalam angan-angan
 Curse → cursed → terkutuk/celaka

c. Verbs + suffixes (-able, -ible, -ive)

 To reverse → reversible → dapat dibalik
 To sense → sensible → berakal sehat
 To manage → manageable → dapat dikelola
 To repair → repairable → dapat diperbaiki
 To include → inclusive → termasuk semua
 To protect → protective → bersifat melindungi

Examples:
 Available geological information must also be consulted, at an early time to
determine if sufficient information is available to make a reliable determination of
feasibility or if supplementary information must be obtained.

 Consequently, it is only possible and effective to construct a very crude rock mass
classification upon which preliminary estimates of rock support requirements can be
based.

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4. Adverb Derivatives
Adverbs can be derived from:

a. Adjective + suffixes (-ly)

 Hopeful → hopefully → dengan penuh harapan
 Quick → quickly → dengan cepat
 Slow → slowly → dengan perlahan

b. Adjective + suffixes (-ward)

 Back → backward → menuju arah belakang
 In → inward → menuju arah dalam
 Out → backward → menuju arah luar

c. Nouns + suffixes (-wise, -ways)

 Clock → clockwise → searah jarum jam
 Length → lengthways → sejajar
 Length → lengthwise → sejajar
 Side → sideways → dari, menuju arah samping
 Side → sidewise → dari, menuju arah samping

Examples:
 This process involves progressively collecting more detailed design data, specific to
the site conditions and needs of the project.

 For an open pit mine, there will usually be considerable geological information on the
property generated during the exploration program.

 The water filters downwards through the rock for hundreds of feet.

LESTA-English for Mining Engineering-2020 15

 EXERCISES

A. Identify the type of words of the underlined word in the following sentences.

1. Mining may be defined as the removal of minerals from the earth’s crust.
2. Almost every facet of mineral working can create an undersirable visual impact.
3. Underground mines of all types may have headframes and haulage.
4. A further important factor is the height of the plant.
5. The nature of the available wastes has an important bearing upon the bank design.
6. If the bank can be designed to act as noise baffles, this is advantageous.
7. Monitoring thus requires that these matters be carefully specified.
8. Whether or not these benefits are achieved, depend largely upon the original nature.
9. However, economics and demand dictate that mining is carried out on a greater scale.
10. Fresh rock exposures created by surface mining are often highly visible.

B. Identify the type of word forms of the underlined words in the following
sentences.

1. Mineral producers aim to maximize the profitability of their operations.

2. Mineral producers will balance the costs of additional processing against any advantages
gained from selling higher-value products.
3. Management and control of the risks associated with mining investments require special
methods.
4. The assets in a mining investment are more difficult to quantify than those in many other
investments.
5. The presence of certain impurities may render valueless an otherwise attractive deposit.
6. Inaccurate or incomplete characterization of a mineral deposit can have serious
consequences.
7. The advantages of hydraulic drills over pneumatic drills are the fewer moving parts and
the significantly higher penetration rates.
8. The depth of percussive drilling with top hammer drills is limited to approximately 76 m
(250 ft), due mainly to losses in energy transfer at joints in the drill string.
9. Drilling rigs for underground mining applications can be divided into face drilling and
production (or long-hole) drilling rigs.
10. An explosive is defined as a compound or a mixture of compounds, which, when initiated
by heat, impact, friction, or shock, undergoes a rapid decomposition, releasing
tremendous amounts of energy in the form of heat, gas, and shock.

LESTA-English for Mining Engineering-2020 16

C. Find any word forms in the following passage, then determine the type of word
forms found.

A feasibility study of a mining project is an appraisal of the commercial viability of that

project, which accounts for engineering, economic, permitting, and environmental variables.
Like mineral property evaluations, feasibility studies require the dedicated participation of a
diverse group of skilled professionals. In addition to an understanding of geology, mining,
mineral processing, metallurgy, and chemistry, the feasibility study team must also
comprehend cost estimation, construction and project management, civil engineering,
electrical engineering, permitting and other legal requirements, economics, and finance.

To control costs and to cater to the progressive increasemin geological confidence and
understanding of the modifying factors, feasibility studies are usually conducted in stages. If
a study at the first stage produces favorable results, indicating the property may be exploited
profitably, a more detailed (and costly) study will be conducted, resulting in an increased
certainty of the project economics. Some mining companies have internal experts who
conduct feasibility studies, while others rely on engineering firms or consultants to fulfill this
function. In all cases, feasibility studies are conducted to defined standards, stating the
requirements for a study at a given level of certainty. Although these standards vary
somewhat, in all cases the notion is the same: increasing the detail increases the certainty
but costs more money.

D. Complete the following passage by choosing the right words in the brackets.

Fossils are an important component of sedimentary rocks. First and foremost, they
can be used (1) ...... (from//with//to//for) biostratigraphic purposes to determine the(2) .......
(relatival//relativity//relatively//relative) age of the rock succession and for correlations with
successions (3) ...... (anywhere//somewhere//elsewhere//everywhere). The identification of
fossils to the species level is not easy and in most cases is best left to the specialist. However,
there are (4) ...... (variant//vary//various//variety) fossil handbooks and the Treatise of
Invertebrate Paleontology which can be used to identify fossils.
Fossils are of great use in the environmental interpretation of sedimentary rocks, and in this
context many useful observations can be (5)....... (made//make//makes// making) in the
field by the non-specialist (6)....... (by//thru//with//onto) a keen eye. Fossils can tell you
about the water (7) ....... (deepen//depth//deeps//deep), level of turbulence, (8) ......
(saline//salinity//salinization//salt) and sedimentation rate; they can record palaeocurrent
directions and give information on palaeoclimatology. In some cases the whole environmental
interpretation of a sedimentary succession may depend on the presence of just a few fossils,
and (9) ....... (occasionally//frequently//habitually// repeatedly) an interpretation has been
shattered by the discovery of new fossils. Field observations on fossils should consider their
distribution, preservation (taphonomy) and relation to the sediment, their associations and
(10) ...... (diversity//diversion//diverse// diversify).

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E. Find the synonim of the following underlined words with the expressions provided
in the bracket.

Minerals precipitated from pore waters within the sedimentary (1) pile
(dispersant//accumulation//diffusion// disolvent) during burial diagenesis constitute a fourth
category of (2) constituents (total//entity//component//aggregate). These secondary, or (3)
authigenic (futile mineral//hollow substance//absurd stuff//raw material), constituents may
include silicate minerals such as quartz, feldspars, clay minerals, and glauconite and
nonsilicate minerals such as calcite, gypsum, barite, and hematite. They may be added during
burial to any type of sedimentary rock but are never the (4) dominant
(main//trivial//minor//negligible) constituents of sedimentary rocks. Depending upon the
relative (5) abundance (richness//shortage//scarcity//
inadequacy) of siliciclastic, chemical/biochemical, and carbonaceous constituents, we
(6) recognize (decide//discriminate//distinguish//differentiate) three fundamental types of
sedimentary rocks : siliciclastic (terrigenous) sedimentary rocks, chemical/ biochemical
sedimentary rocks, and carbonaceous sedimentary rocks. Each of these major groups of
sedimentary rocks can be further (7) subdivided (coalesce// amalgamate//merge//split) on
the basis of grain size and/or mineral composition. Thus, the siliciclastic sedimentary rocks
are divided by grain size into conglomerates/breccias, sandstones, and mudrocks (shales),
each of which can be classified on a still finer
(8) scale (variableness//balance// inconstancy//instability) on the basis of composition. The
chemical/ biochemical sedimentary rocks are divided by composition into carbonates, (9)
evaporites (organic remains//mineral deposits//chemical residue// natural materials), cherts,
ironstones and iron-formations, and phosphorites. Carbonaceous sedimentary rocks may be
separated by composition into oil shales, impure coals, coals, and (10) bitumens
(tar//petrol//paraffin//diesel oil).

F. The following sentences are incorrect. Find the incorrect portions and correct
them.

1.A gassy mine are more regulated by the Federal Mine Health and Safety Act.
2.There are no rules governing the size of the shaft for exploration developed.
3.Some companies choose more small drilled shafts to speed shaft shinking.
4.The size of the opening should be taylored to accomodated the specified purpose.
5.Almost slopes utilize roof bolting and/or shotcrete with a concrete portal.
6.Each stope is first undercut along the entire stope long.
7.There are two parallel drill drift at the top of each stope.
8.The perimeter holes has only half the burden compared to the other holes.
9.To achieve minimum fan drilling, the holes are drilling parallel to the inclination of the
orebody.
10. The overlying ore in the crater area will to be blasted with small borehole from the
mucking level.

LESTA-English for Mining Engineering-2020 18

G. The following words have been omitted from the notes. Write them in by choosing
the correct words in the box.

contracts control demand distributors flexibility open-plan

on-the-spot outlets range strategies structure subsidiaries

Acoording to our consultant, the real reasons for Kotmasu’s success are its
management, production and sales strategies. Komatsu adapts its image to each market,
using mainly the names of local ________ 1). It produces a wide ________ 2) of products.
It does not specialize in computers. It ________ 3) out manufacturing to suppliers around
the world. This gives it total market _______ 4), and it can easily swicth products if _______
5) in one market becomes low. Its management _______ 6) is much slimmer than ours.
Everyone works in the same _______ 7) office, which is perfect for _______ 8) decision
making. Strict quality ________ 9) and careful management of supplies to retail ________
10) give Komatsu good reputation with distributors and consumers.

H. The following words have been omitted from the notes. Write them in by choosing
the correct words in the box.

forecast feasible distribution share cost

potential competition regulations revenue

At present our ________ 1) of the UK market is 18 %. Our sales ________ 2) for the
UK are much lower than BEUMER’s. We know that Europe is a huge________ 3) market.
However, BEUMER does not appear concerned that there is _______ 4) from other companies.
BEUMER insists that the _______ 5) of selling throughout Europe would be too high. Firstly,
they stress _______ 6) systems differ from country to country. Secondly, they point out
_______ 7) are not the same in every country. BEUMER does not believe selling outside the
UK is _______ 8). They believe ________ 9) could double if VDMA sells in Europe

LESTA-English for Mining Engineering-2020 19