ST.

JOSEPH'S COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

ST. JOSEPH'S INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
(ST.JOSEPH'S GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS)

MA8551 - ALGEBRA AND NUMBER THEORY

CLASS NOTES
UNIT 2 FINITE FIELDS AND POLYNOMIALS

Polynomial rings.
If f ( x ) = a0 + a1 x +
+ an x n +

and g ( x ) = b0 + b1 x +
+ bn x n +

are elements in R[x], then polynomial addition f + g is given in terms of its values
at the points x, i.e., by ( f + g )( x ) and it is given by
( f + g )( x ) := f ( x ) + g ( x ) = c0 + c1 x +
+ cn x n +
, …(1)

where cn = an + bn , and for polynomial multiplication fg , we have

( fg )( x ) := f ( x ) g ( x ) = d 0 + d1 x +
+ d n x n +
, …(2)

where d n = ∑ ai bn−i . Observe that both ci and di are 0 for all but a finite number of
n

i =0
values of i, so the definitions given in (1) and (2) make both f + g and fg
polynomials. Hence the binary operations are well defined.
The polynomial addition in (1) and multiplication in (2) are sometimes called
point wise addition and point wise multiplication of polynomials, respectively
The set of all polynomials in an indeterminate x with coefficients in a ring R is
denoted by R[ x ] , under the two binary operations, viz., polynomial addition and
multiplication is a ring and it is called as a Polynomial Ring
1. If R is a ring under usual addition and multiplication, show that (R[x], +, x) is a
ring of polynomials over R.

Solution: Let f ( x), g ( x) ∈ R[ x]. Then f ( x) + g ( x), f ( x).g ( x) are also polynomials over
R. Therefore R[ x] is close with respect to addition and multiplication of polynomials.
Now let f ( x ) = ∑ ai xi = a0 + a1x + a2 x 2 + a3 x3 + ..... + am x m + ..
g ( x ) = ∑ bi xi = b0 + b1x + b2 x 2 + b3 x 3 + ..... + bm x m + ......
h( x) = ∑ ci xi = c0 + c1x + c2 x 2 + c3 x3 + ..... + cm x m + .....
Commutativity of Addition:
f ( x) + g ( x) = (a0 + b0 ) + (a1 + b1 ) x + (a2 + b2 ) x 2 + ...(am + bm ) x m + .......
= (b0 + a0 ) + (b1 + a1 ) x + (b2 + a2 ) x 2 + ...(bm + am ) x m + .... = g ( x) + f ( x)
 Associative of Addition
[ f ( x) + g ( x)] + h( x) =( ∑ ai xi + bi xi ) + ∑ ci xi
= ∑ ai xi + ( ∑ bi xi + ci xi ) = f ( x) + [ g ( x) + h( x)]
Identity element of Addition
0( x) = 0 + 0 x + 0 x 2 + ...... be the additive identity element of R[ x]
Inverse Element of Addition
− f ( x ) = − a0 − a1 x − a2 x 2 − a3 x 3 − ..... − am x m − .... is the additive inverse element of R[ x]
Associativity of Multiplication
[ f ( x).g ( x)] = (a0 + a1x + a 2 x 2 + ....)(b0 + b1x + b2 x 2 + ....)
= (d0 + d1x + d 2 x 2 + ....) , where di = ∑ aibi
[ f ( x).g ( x)].h( x) = (d0 + d1x + d 2 x 2 + ....) (c0 + c1x + c 2 x 2 + ....)
Now = (e0 + e1x + e 2 x 2 + ....) , where en = the coeff x n in[ f ( x).g ( x)].h( x)
= ∑ d j ck =∑ ai b j ck
Similarly, we show that the coeff xn in f ( x)[ g ( x).h( x)] = ∑ ai b j ck
Thus [ f ( x).g ( x)].h( x) = f ( x)[ g ( x).h( x)] ,since corresponding coefficients in these two
polynomials are equal.
Distributive of multiplication of additive
We have
f ( x ).[ g ( x ) + h ( x )] = ( a0 + a1 x + a 2 x 2 + ....)[(b0 + b1 x + b2 x 2 + ....) + (c0 + c1 x + c2 x 2 + ....)]
If n is the non-negative integer, the coeff xn in f ( x).[ g ( x) + h( x)]
= ∑ ai (b j + ck ) =∑ ai b j + ∑ ai ck
= Coeff of x n in f ( x) g(x) + Coeff of x n in f ( x)h(x)
= Coeff of x n in [ f ( x) g(x) + f ( x)h(x)]
= f ( x).g ( x) + f ( x)h( x)
Similarly, we can prove right distributive law for R[ x]
Hence R[ x] is a ring.
2 If R is an integral domain, then prove that R[ x] is also an integral domain.
Proof: Give that R is an integral domain
By definition of Integral domain R is commutative ring.
Clearly R[x] is a commutative ring.
Let f ( x) = a0 + a1x + a2 x 2 + a3 x3 + ...... + am x m , (am ≠ 0) and
g(x) = b0 + b1x + b2 x 2 + b3 x3 + ...... + bn x n , (bn ≠ 0)
Be any two non-zero elements in R[x].
Since R is integral domain and am , bn ≠ 0 , so as ambn ≠ 0 .
The product of f ( x ) g(x) of f ( x ) and g ( x ) will contain the term
 Therefore f ( x ) g(x) ≠ 0.
Therefore f ( x ) ≠ 0, g(x) ≠ 0 ⇒ f ( x ) g(x) ≠ 0.
R[ x] is an integral domain.
3 If F is a field, then prove that F[ x] is an integral domain and not a field
Proof : given that F is a filed.
Therefore, F is a commutative ring.
Therefore F[ x] is a commutative ring.
Case (1) To prove F is an integral Domain
Let ab ≠ 0, a ≠ 0 in F .
a −1 (ab) = a −1 (0) = 0
(a −1a)b = 0
⇒b=0
Therefore F Is an integral Domain.
Case (2) To Prove F[ x] is an integral Domain
Let f ( x) = a0 + a1x + a2 x 2 + a3 x3 + ...... + am x m , (am ≠ 0) and
g(x) = b0 + b1x + b2 x 2 + b3 x3 + ...... + bn x n , (bn ≠ 0)
Be any two non-zero elements in F [ x].
Since R is integral domain and am , bn ≠ 0 , so as ambn ≠ 0 .
The product of f ( x ) g(x) of f ( x ) and g ( x ) will contain the term am bn x m + n
Therefore f ( x ) g(x) ≠ 0.
Therefore f ( x ) ≠ 0, g(x) ≠ 0 ⇒ f ( x ) g(x) ≠ 0.
F[x] is an integral domain.
Case (3) To Prove F[ x] is not a filed
Let f ( x )( ≠ 0) ∈ F and deg f ( x ) ≥ 1. The unit element of F is the constant polynomial
‘1’.
If possible, there exists a multiplicative inverse of f ( x ) exists and let it be g ( x ) .
∴ f ( x ) g ( x ) = 1 .................(1)
⇒ g ( x ) ≠ 0.
Suppose g ( x ) = 0 , then f ( x ) g ( x ) = 1 ⇒ f ( x )(0) = 1⇒ 0 = 1 which is not possible.
Since F is an integral Domain, we have
deg( f ( x).g ( x )) = deg( f ( x )) + deg( g (x)) ≥ 1.
∴(1) is impossible because deg(1) =0
∴ A non-zero element in F[ x] may not have multiplicative inverse in F[ x]
∴ F[ x] is not field.

Division Algorithm
 Statement : Let F be a field and let f ( x ) and g ( x ) be two polynomials in F ( x ) with
g ( x ) ≠ 0. Then there exists unique polynomials q( x) and r ( x) such that
f ( x ) = q ( x ) g ( x ) + r ( x ) where either r ( x ) = 0 (or) deg r ( x ) < deg g ( x )
Proof:
Let S = {g ( x) − t ( x) f ( x) / t(x) ∈ F[x]}.
If 0 ∈ S , 0 = g ( x). − t (x) f ( x ) ,for some t(x) ∈ F[x] . Then with q(x) = t(x) and r ( x) = 0 , we
have g ( x) = t ( x) f ( x) + r (x).
If 0 ∉ S , Consider the degrees of the elements of S, and let r ( x) = g (x) − q( x) f ( x) be an
element in S of minimum degree. Since r ( x) ≠ 0, the result follows if deg(r ( x)) <
deg(f(x)). If not, let
r ( x) = an x n + an −1x n −1 + ....... + a2 x 2 + a1x + a0 , an ≠ 0
f ( x) = bm x m + bm −1x m −1 + ....... + b2 x 2 + b1x + b0 , bm ≠ 0 with n ≥ m.
Define h( x) = r ( x) − [anbm
−1 n − m
x ] f ( x) = (an − anbm
−1
bm ) x n + (an −1 − anbm
−1
bm −1 ) x n −1 + ..
+ ...... + (an − m − anbm
−1
b0 ) x n − m + an − m −1x n − m −1 + ....... + a1x + a0 .
Then h( x) has degree less than n , the degree of r ( x). More important,
h ( x ) = [ g ( x ) − q ( x ) f ( x )] − [ an bm
−1 n − m
x ] f ( x ) = g(x) − [ q ( x ) + anbm
−1 n − m
x ] f ( x ) , so h( x) ∈ S
and this contradicts the choice of r ( x) as having minimum degree. Consequently
deg(r ( x)) < deg( f ( x)) and we have the existence part of the theorem.
For uniqueness, let g ( x) = q1 ( x) f1( x) + r1 ( x) = q2 ( x) f 2 ( x) + r2 ( x) where r1 ( x) = 0 or
deg r1( x) < deg f ( x) , and r2 ( x) = 0 or deg r2 ( x) < deg f ( x). Then
[q2 ( x) − q1 ( x)] f ( x) = r1( x) − r2 ( x), and if [q2 ( x) − q1 ( x)] ≠ 0, then
deg[q2 ( x) − q1 ( x)] f ( x) ≥ deg ( f ( x)), whereas [r1( x) − r2 ( x)] = 0 or deg[r1 ( x) − r2 ( x)]
≤ max{deg r1( x), deg r2 ( x)} < deg f (x). Consequently q1( x) = q2 ( x), and r1( x) = r2 ( x).
4 Find the remainder and quotient when f ( x ) is divided by g ( x ) .
a ) f ( x), g ( x) ∈ Z7 [ x], f ( x) = 2 x 4 + 5 x 2 + 2; g ( x) = 6 x 2 − 4
b) f ( x), g ( x) ∈ Q[ x], f ( x) = x8 + 7 x5 − 4 x 4 + 3x3 + 5 x2 − 4; g ( x) = x − 3

Solution:
(a) by long division
 5 x 2 + 1 ( = q ( x ))
2x4 + 5x2 + 2
30 x4 + 20 x2
(= 2 x 4 + 6 x 2 )
− − − − − − − − − − −
− x2 + 2
(= 6 x2 + 2)
6x2 + 4
− − − − − − − − − − −
6x2 + 2
6x2 + 4
− − − − − − − − − − −
− 2
(= 5) (= r ( x)

∴ Quotient = 5 x 2 + 1 & Remainder = r ( x) = 5.

(b)
x7 + 3x6 + 9 x5 + 34 x4 + 98 x3 + 297 x2 + 896 x + 2688 (= q ( x ))
x 8
+ 7x 5
− 4x 4
+ 3x 3
+ 5x 2
− 4
x − 3x
8 7

− − − − − − − − − − −
3x7 − 0 x6
3x7 − 9 x6
− − − − − − − − − − −
9 x6 + 7 x5
9 x6 − 27 x5
− − − − − − − − − − −
34 x5 − 4 x4
34 x5 − 102 x4
− − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −
x − 3
98 x4 + 3x3
98 x4 − 294 x3
− − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −
297 x3 + 5 x2
297 x3 − 891x 2
− − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −
896 x2 + 0 x
896 x2 − 2688x
− − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −
2688 x − 4
2688 x − 8064
− − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −
8060 = r(x)
5 If f ( x) = 2 x4 + 5 x 2 + 2 and g ( x) = 6 x2 + 4 , then determine ( f ( x).g ( x) ) in Z7 [ x]

Solution : Given f ( x ) = 2 x 4 + 5 x 2 + 2 ⇒ a0 = 2, a1 = 0, a2 = 5, a3 = 0, a4 = 2 and

g ( x ) = 6 x 2 + 4, ⇒ b0 = 4, b1 = 0, b2 = 6 .
Degree of ( f ( x).g ( x) ) =6
 6  6  5  5  4  4  3 
( )  ∑ 6− k k 
= +  ∑ 5− k k 
 
+  ∑ 4 − k k  x +  ∑ a3− k bk  x3
   
 k =0   k =0   k =0   k =0 
f ( x ). g ( x ) a b x a b x a b

 2   1 
+  ∑ a2 − k bk  x 2 +  ∑ a1− k bk  x + a0 b0
    ( )
 k =0   k =0 
= ( ( 0.4) + ( 0.0) + ( 2.6) + ( 0.0) + ( 5.0) + ( 0.0) + ( 2.0) ) x6 + ( ( 0.4) + ( 2.0) + ( 0.6) + ( 5.0) + ( 0.0) + ( 2.0) ) x5
+ ( ( 2.4) + ( 0.0) + ( 5.6) + ( 0.0) + ( 2.0) ) x4 + ( ( 0.4) + ( 5.0) + ( 0.6) + ( 2.0) ) x3
+ ( ( 5.4) + ( 0.0) + ( 2.6) ) x2 + ( ( 0.4) + ( 2.0) ) x + (2.4)

(
= 12 x 6 + 0 x5 + 38 x 4 + 0 x3 + 32 x 2 + 0 x + 8 (mod 7) )
= ( 5 x6 + 3 x 4 + 4 x 2 + 1)
6 Find all the roots of f ( x) = x 2 + 4 x in Z12 [ x ]
Solution : Given f ( x) = x2 + 4 x
f ( x) = x 2 + 4 x Under Z12 [ x]

f (0) = 02 + 4(0) = 0 f (0) = 0

f (1) = (1) 2 + 4(1) = 5 f (1) = 5

f (2) = (2)2 + 4(2) = 12 f (2) = 12(mod 12) = 0

f (3) = (3)2 + 4(3) = 21 f (3) = 21(mod12) = 9

f (4) = (4)2 + 4(4) = 32 f (4) = 32 (mod12) = 8

f (5) = (5) 2 + 4(5) = 45 f (5) = 45 (mod12) = 9

f (6) = (6)2 + 4(6) = 60 f (6) = 60 (mod12) = 0

f (7) = (7)2 + 4(7) = 77 f (7) = 77 (mod12) = 5

f (8) = (8)2 + 4(8) = 96 f (8) = 96 (mod12) = 0

f (9) = (9) 2 + 4(9) = 117 f (9) = 117 (mod12) = 9

f (10) = (10)2 + 4(10) = 140 f (10) = 140 ( mod12) = 8

f (11) = (11) 2 + 4(11) = 165 f (11) = 165(mod12) = 9

Therefore f ( x) = x 2 + 4 x in Z12 [ x ] has four roots x = 0, 2, 6,8.

Remainder theorem
 Statement : If ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ∈ ‫ ]ݔ[ܨ‬and ܽ ∈ ‫ܨ‬, for any field F then f(a) is the remainder when
f(x) is divided by (x–a).
Proof: given ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ∈ ‫ ]ݔ[ܨ‬and ܽ ∈ ‫ ܨ‬and so ( x − a ) ∈ F [ x ]
By division algorithm , f ( x ) = q ( x )( x − a ) + r ( x ) , where r ( x ) = 0 or deg r ( x ) < deg f ( x )
Here deg f ( x ) = deg( x − a ) = 1 ⇒ deg r ( x ) = 0
∴ r(x)=a constant = r (say)
∴ f ( x ) = q ( x )( x − a ) + r
Take x = a, ⇒ f ( a ) = q ( a )( a − a ) + r = f ( a ) = r
∴ f ( x ) = q ( x )( x − a ) + f ( a )
So Re mainder is f ( a )

Factor Theorem
Statement : If F is a field and ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ∈ ‫ ]ݔ[ܨ‬Then 'a' is a root of f(x) if and only if (x-a)
is the factor of f(x).
Proof: given given ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ∈ ‫ ]ݔ[ܨ‬and ܽ ∈ ‫ ܨ‬and so ( x − a ) ∈ F [ x ]
If ( x − a ) is a factor of f(x), then f ( x ) = q ( x )( x − a ) for some q ( x ) ∈ F [ x ]
Now f ( a ) = q ( a )( a − a ) = 0 . Hence ' a ' is a root of f(x)
Conversly , let ܽ ∈ ‫ ܨ‬be a root of f(x).Then f ( a ) = 0. .
By remainder theorem, there exists q ( x ) ∈ F [ x ] such that f ( x ) = q ( x )( x − a ) + f ( a )
Since f ( a ) = 0 , ⇒ f ( x ) = q ( x )( x − a )
Therefore ( x − a ) is a factor of f(x)
9 What is the remainder when f ( x ) = 2 x3 + x 2 + 2 x + 3 in Z5 [ x ] is divisble by ( x − 2)
Solution :
By Remainder theorem , f (2) = 2(2)3 + (2)2 + 2(2) + 3 = 27 ≡ 2(mod 5)
Therefore the remainder is : 2
10 If f ( x ) ∈ F [ x ] has degree n ≥ 1, then prove that f ( x ) has at most n roots in F .
Proof: We prove this theorem by mathematical induction on the degree f ( x ) .
If f ( x ) has degree 1, then f ( x ) = a x + b, a, b ∈ F , (a ≠ 0) . With f (−a −1b) = 0 , f ( x ) has
at least one root in F .
If c1 and c2 are both roots, then
f (c1) = ac1 + b = 0 = ac2 + b = f (c2 )
By cancellation law in a ring
ac1 + b = ac2 + b ⇒ ac1 = ac2 .
Since F is a field and a ≠ 0 , we have
ac1 = ac 2
⇒ c1 = c 2
So f ( x ) has only one root in F.
Now assume that the result is true for all polynomials of degree k ≥ 1 in F [ x ].
Consider a polynomial f ( x ) of degree k + 1. If f ( x ) has no roots in F , the theorem
follows. Otherwise , let r ∈ F , f ( r ) = 0. By factor theorem, f ( x ) = ( x − r ) g ( x) , where
 g ( x ) has degree k. Consequently , by the induction hypothesis, g ( x ) has at most k
roots in F and f ( x ) has at most k + 1 roots in F .
11 Find all the roots of f ( x ) = x 3 + 5 x 2 + 2 x + 6 in Z [ x] and write f ( x ) as a product of
7
first three degree polynomials
Solution : Given f ( x) = x3 + 5 x2 + 2 x + 6
f ( x) = x 2 + 4 x Under Z7 [ x]

f (0) = 03 + 5(0)2 + 2(0) + 6 = 6 f (0) = 6

f (1) = (1)3 + 5(1)2 + 2(1) + 6 = 14 f (1) = 14 (mod 7) = 0

f (2) = (2)3 + 5(2)2 + 2(2) + 6 = 38 f (2) = 38(mod 7) = 3

f (3) = (3)3 + 5(3)2 + 2(3) + 6 = 84 f (3) = 84(mod 7) = 0

f (4) = (4)3 + 5(4)2 + 2(4) + 6 = 128 f (4) = 128(mod 7) = 2

f (5) = (5)3 + 5(5)2 + 2(5) + 6 = 266 f (5) = 266(mod 7) = 0

f (6) = (6)3 + 5(6) 2 + 2(6) + 6 = 414 f (6) = 414 (mod 7) = 1

Therefore f ( x) = x3 + 5 x2 + 2 x + 6 has four roots x = 1, 3,5 and f ( x ) = ( x − 1)( x − 3)( x − 5)

Characteristics of a ring
Characteristic of a ring is the least positive integer n such that na = 0, ∀ a ∈ R and we
write char (R)= a . If no such positive integer exists, then R is said to be characteristics 0
12 If ( F , +, .) is a field and Char (F) > 0, then prove that Char(F) must be prime.
Proof: Let Char ( F ) = n > 0 . If n is not prime, we write n = mk where m, k ∈ Z + and
1 < m < n, 1 < k < n . By definition of Characteristic, nu = z , the zero of F. Hence
( mk )u = z. But
(mk )u = (u + u + ......u ) = (u + u + u..... + u ).(u + u + u..... + u ) = (mu )(ku )

  


mk summation m summation k summation
With F a field, (mu )( ku ) = z ⇒ ( mu ) = z or ( ku ) = z . Assume without loss of generality,
( ku ) = z . Then for each r ∈ F , kr = k (ur ) = ( ku ) r = zr = z , contradicting the choice of n
as the characteristic of F . ∴ Char ( F ) = n is prime.

13 Prove that a finite field has order pt , where p is prime and t ∈ Z + .

Proof: Give that F is a finite field and Char ( F ) = p , a prime , and let u denote the
unity and z the zero element. Then S0 = {u, 2u,3u,..... pu = z} is a set of p distinct
element in F . If not mu = nu for 1 ≤ m ≤ n ≤ p and ( n − m)u = z with 0 < n − m < p. So for
all x ∈ F ,we now find that (n − m) x = ( n − m)ux = [( n − m)u ] x = zx = z , and this
contradicts to Char ( F ) = p. If F = S0 , then | F |= p ' and the result as follows. If not let
a ∈ F − S0 , then S1 = {ma + nu / 0 < m, n ≤ p} is a sub set of F with | S1 |≤ p 2 . If | S1 |< p 2 ,
then m1a + n1u = m2 a + n2u, with 0 < m1, m2 , n1, n2 ≤ p and at least one m1 − m2 , n2 − n1 ≠ 0 .
 If m1 − m2 = 0, then (m1 − m2 )a = z = (n2 − n1)u, with 0 <| n2 − n1 |< p. Consequently , for
all ∀x ∈ F ,| n2 − n1 | x = | n2 − n1 | (ux) = (| n2 − n1 | u ) x , = zx = z , with 0 <| n2 − n1 |< p
= char ( F ) another contradiction. If n2 − n1 = 0, then (m1 − m2 )a = z, with
0 <| m1 − m2 |< p. Since F is a field and a ≠ z ,we know that a −1 ∈ F , so
with 0 <| m1 − m2 |< p, which is another contradiction.
| m1 − m2 | aa −1 = za −1 = z ,
Hence neither m1 − m2 nor n2 − n1 is 0. Therefore (m1 − m2 )a = (n2 − n1 )u ≠ z. Choose
k ∈Z+ such that 0<k < p and k (m1 − m2 ) ≡ 1 (mod p). Then
a = a(m1 − m2 )k = k (n2 − n1 )u , and a ∈ S0 , one more contradiction. Hence | S1 |= p 2 , and
if F = S1 the theorem is proved. If not, continue this process with an element
b ∈ F − S1. Then S2 = {lb + ma + nu / 0 < l , m, n ≤ p} will have order p3 . Since F is finite ,
we reach a point where F = St −1 for some t ∈ Z + , and | F |=| St −1 |= p t .

Greatest Common Divisor

Let F be a field and f ( x ) , g ( x ) ∈ F [ x ] . A greatest common divisor (GCD) of
f ( x ) and g ( x ) is a non-zero polynomial d ( x) such that (i) d ( x) divides f ( x ) and g ( x ) (ii)
c ( x ) divides f ( x ) and g ( x ) (iii) c( x ) divides d ( x )

14 Find the g.c.d of x + x + 2 x + x + 1 & x − 1 in the ring Q[x]

4 3 2 3

Solution : By actual division

x +1

x4 + x3 + 2 x2 + x + 1
x4 − x
−−−−−−−−−−−
x3 − 1 x3 + 2 x2 + 2 x + 1
x3 − 1
−−−−−−−−−−−
2x2 + 2x + 2

x 4 + x3 + 2 x 2 + x + 1 = ( x3 − 1)( x + 1) + (2 x 2 + 2 x + 2)
Similarly

(x 2 )− (1 2 )
x3 − 1
x3 + x2 + x
− − − − − − − − − − −
2 x2 + 2 x + 2
− x2 − x − 1
− x2 − x − 1
− − − − − − − − − − −
0
  x 1
( x3 − 1) = ( x3 − 1)  −  + 0
2 2
Hence required G.C.D is 2 x 2 + 2 x + 2.
Irreducible Polynomials

Let F be a field and f ( x ) ∈ F [ x ] is of deg ≥2. Then f ( x ) is reducible over F if there

exists g ( x ) and h( x ) ∈ F [ x] such that f ( x ) = g ( x ) h( x ) where deg( g ( x)) ≥ 1
and deg( h ( x )) ≥ 1 If f ( x ) is not reducible then it is called irreducible.

Or

Let F be a field. A polynomial f ( x) ∈ F [ x ] is called irreducible polynomial over F if for

every g ( x ), h( x ) ∈ F [ x ] , f ( x) = g ( x ) . h( x ) ⇒ either g ( x ) (or ) h( x ) has degree 0.

15 Test the polynomial f ( x ) = x 2 + x + 4 in Z11[ x ] is irreducible over

Z11[ x]

Given f ( x) = x 2 + x + 4
f ( x) = x 2 + x + 4 Under Z111[ x ]

f (0) = 02 + (0) + 4 = 4 f (0) = 4

f (1) = (1) 2 + (1) + 4 = 6 f (1) = 6

f (2) = (2)2 + (2) + 4 = 10 f (2) = 10

f (3) = (3)2 + (3) + 4 = 16 f (3) = 16(mod11) = 5

f (4) = (4)2 + (4) + 4 = 24 f (4) = 24(mod11) = 2

f (5) = (5)2 + (5) + 4 = 34 f (5) = 34 (mod11) = 3

f (6) = (6)2 + (6) + 4 = 46 f (6) = 46 (mod11) = 2

f (7) = (7)2 + (7) + 4 = 60 f (7) = 60 (mod11) = 5

f (8) = (8)2 + (8) + 4 = 76 f (8) = 76 (mod11) = 10

f (9) = (9)2 + (9) + 4 = 94 f (9) = 94 (mod11) = 6

f (10) = (10)2 + (10) + 4 = 114 f (10) = 114 ( mod11) = 4

Therefore f ( x) = x3 + 5 x 2 + 2 x + 6 has no roots. Therefore f ( x ) is irreducible.

16 In Z 3 [ x ], s ( x ) = x 2 + x + 2 Show that s(x) is irreducible over Z 3 and construct the

field What is the order of the field? Also Find

Z 3[ x]
< s( x) >
(i ) [ x + 2] [ 2 x + 2] + [ x + 1] (ii ) [2 x + 1]−1
 Solution:
Here Z 3 = {0,1, 2}
s (0) = 2 ≠ 0
s (1) = 1 + 1 + 2 ≡ 1(mod 3) ≠ 0
s (2) = 4 + 2 + 2 ≡ 8(mod 3) ≠ 0
Therefore s(x) has no root in Z 3
Hence s(x) is irreducible in Z 3 [x].

Therefore is a field
Z 3[ x]
< s( x) >
Since deg s(x) = 2 , this field has 9 elements.
This field consists of 9 different equivalence classes
Let f ( x) ∈ z3 [ x] then
f ( x) = q( x) ( x 2 + x + 2) + r ( x)
where r ( x) = 0 or deg r ( x) < deg ( x 2 + x + 2) = 2
∴deg r ( x) is 0 or 1
∴r ( x) = ax + b , and [ f ( x)] = [r ( x)]
Each a and b can take 3 values
1. a=0 , b=0 , then r(x)=0
2. a=0 , b=1 , then r(x)=1
3. a=0 , b=2 , then r(x)=2
4. a=1 , b=0 , then r(x)=x
5. a=1 , b=1 , then r(x)=x+1
6. a=1 , b=2 , then r(x)=x+2
7. a=2 , b=0 , then r(x)=2x
8. a=2 , b=1 , then r(x)=2x+1
9. a=2 , b=2 , then r(x)=2x+2
Therefore nine equivalence classes are [0] ,[1] ,[2] ,[x] ,[x+1] ,[x+2] ,[2x] ,[2x+1] ,[2x+2]

= {[0] ,[1] ,[2] ,[x] ,[x+1] ,[x+2] ,[2x] ,[2x+1] ,[2x+2] }

Z3[ x]
∴
< x + x+2>
2

The order of the field is 9

(i) To find [x+2] [2x+2] + [x+1]
Now [ x + 2] [ 2x + 2] = [2 x 2 + 6 x + 4] = [2 x 2 + 0 x + 4] = [2 x 2 + 4] = [ x]
2
2x2 + 4

2x2 + 2x + 2 2x + 2x + 4
2

−−−−−−−−−−
− 2 x (= x)

Therefore [ x + 2] [ 2 x + 2] + [ x + 1] = [ x ] + [ x + 1] = [ 2 x + 1]
(ii) To Find [2 x + 1]−1
Now consider [ 2x + 1][ 2x ] = [4 x 2 + 4 x]
= [ x 2 + x]
= [−2] = [1]

Sin ce 4 ≡ 1(mod 3) , x 2 + x ≡ −2(mod x 2 + x + 2) and − 2 ≡ 1(mod 3)

∴ [2 x + 1][2 x] = [1] ⇒ [2 x + 1]−1 = [2 x]