Principles and Practices

for Effective Meetings

A committee meeting is a collection of the unfit chosen from the unwilling by the
incompetent to do the unnecessary.

"At Electronic Data Systems," said Ross Perot, "when we saw a snake, we'd kill it.
At General Motors, when they saw a snake, they'd form a committee."

If you want to get a job done, give it to an individual; if you want to have it studied,
give it to a committee.

Sign on conference wall: "A meeting is no substitute for progress."

Business meetings are important. They demonstrate how many people the com-
pany can do without.

President John F. Kennedy said, "Most committee meetings consist of twelve peo-
ple to do the work of one."

Humorist Dave Barry compared business meetings with funerals, in the sense that
"you have a gathering of people who are wearing uncomfortable clothing and would
rather be somewhere else. The major difference is that most funerals have a definite
purpose. Also, nothing is ever really buried in a meeting."1

Frankly, most people do not like meetings. Although this generalization has excep-
tions, it is safe to say that few individuals relish the thought of a weekly appointment cal-
endar peppered with frequent meetings. MCI Worldcom Conferencing research found
that most professionals spend nearly three hours a day in business meetings, and more
than one-third of those surveyed reported that the meetings are a waste of time. Many of
today's techno-savvy meeting-goers have learned the art of paging themselves to have an
excuse to duck out of a meeting.2 Why are meetings held in such low esteem? Probably
 Appendix A Principles and Practices for Effective Meetings

because many meetings are not well managed, either by the meeting leader or the partici-
pants. What bothers meeting attendees the most? Listed below are the results of studies
that ranked meeting "sins."3

1. Getting off the subject
2. No goals or agenda
3. Too lengthy
4. Poor or inadequate preparation
5. Inconclusive
6. Disorganized
7. Ineffective leadership/lack of control
B. Irrelevance of information discussed
9. Time wasted during meetings
10. Starting late
11. Not effective for making decisions
12. Interruptions
13. Individuals who dominate discussion
14. Rambling, redundant, or digressive
discussion
15. No published results or follow-up
actions
16. No premeeting orientation
17. Canceled or postponed meetings

To be effective, a meeting needs to balance two things: structure and interaction.

Throughout this book, we talk about the importance of helping a group stay on task by
structuring the interaction; following the steps of reflective thinking when solving a
problem (as discussed in Chapter 11) is one way of helping a group stay on task. As you
examine the preceding list, note how many of the problems associated with meetings
stem from a Jack of clear structure or agenda. But while structure is important, group
members need to have the freedom to express ideas and react to the comments of oth-
ers. If there is too much structure, the meeting is not really a meeting; it is a lecture-
one person talks and others listen. In contrast, with too much unstructured interaction,
a group meeting bounces along with no clear focus. In unstructured meetings, minimal
attention is given to the time it takes to get the job done.4 In the sections ahead, we offer
suggestions for providing both structure and interaction in group meetings. An agenda
is the prime tool for structuring a group meeting. Facilitation skills and an understand·
ing of how to plan interaction can ensure that meeting participants will be free to inter-
act and that their contributions will be relevant and on target.

Giving Meetings Structure

Getting off the subject and having no goals or agenda are the two most often mentioned
complaints about meetings. The principal tool that ensures that meetings are appropriately
structured and that the deliberation achieves the intended goal is a meeting agenda- a list
 Giving Meetings Structure ' 317

of key issues, ideas, and information that will be presented, in the order in which they will
be discussed. Uncertainty and lack of an agenda can serve as major barriers to accomplish-
ing a task as a group. Consider the following steps in drafting your meeting agenda.

Determine the Meeting Goal(s)

One cardinal rule of meetings is this: Meet only when there is a specific purpose and when
it is advantageous or desirable to discuss issues, solve problems, or make decisions as a
group. Before beginning to draft an agenda, you need to know the meeting goal. Most meet-
ings have one or more of three goals: (1) information needs to be shared, (2) issues need to
be discussed, (3) action needs to be taken.
As you prepare for a meeting, identify what you would like to have happen as a result of
the meeting.5 A typical goal might be ''At the end of this meeting we will have selected the firm
that will produce our new advertising campaign" or ''At the end of this meeting we will have
reviewed the applicants for the management position and identified our top three choices."
Without a specific goal that leader and participants are all aware of, little is accomplished.

Identify Items That Need to Be Discussed to Achieve the Goal

With the goal in mind, you next need to determine how to structure the meeting to achieve
the goal. Consider generating a list of topics that are essential to accomplishing the goal:
What information needs to be shared, what issues need to be discussed, what action needs
to be taken? In the brainstorming phase, do not worry about the order of the items; you can
rearrange the items later.

Organize the Agenda Items to Achieve the Goal

After you have a list of items to be addressed, organize them in some logical way. A key con-
straint in organizing items and determining what to include on a meeting agenda is the
amount of time budgeted for the meeting. Many meeting planners underestimate the
amount of time discussion will take.
When you have identified potential agenda items, review your meeting goal and elimi-
nate any items that do not help you achieve your goal. Armed with your meeting goal and
your list of agenda items, begin drafting your meeting agenda.6 Consider organizing it
around the three meeting goals: information items, discussion items, and action items.
Most meeting experts suggest that your first agenda item should be to ask the group to
approve or modify the agenda you have prepared. If meeting participants make no modifi-
cations, you then know that your agenda was on target. Before making final decisions about

I SPENT THE FIR.ST

PART OF THE WEEK
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REST OF THE WEEK
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INSTALL!NG OUR TRYING TO MAKE IT MUC.H TIME I'M
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SYSTEM.
WASTING IN THIS
MEETING.

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8-24-09 0 2009 Scott Adams, Inc. Dist. By UFS, Inc.
 Appendix A Principles and Practices for Effective Meetings

which items you should cover and the order in which you should cover them, estimate how
Jong you think it might take to deal with each item. You may want to address several small
issues first before tackling major ones. Or, you may decide to arrange your agenda items in
terms of priority: Discuss the most important items first and Jess important ones later.

REVIEW
~ HOW TO PREPARE A GOAL-CENTERED MEETING AGENDA

1. Determine your meeting goals.

2. Identify what needs to be discussed to achieve the goals.
3. Organize the agenda items to achieve the goals.

John Tropman and Gershom Morningstar recommend using the "bell-curve agenda."7
As indicated in Figure A.1. the middle of the meeting is reserved for the most challenging or
controversial issues. The opening and closing of the meeting include more routine or less
vital issues.
In contrast to Tropman and Morningstar's recommendations, others suggest that you
avoid putting routine announcements and reports at the beginning of a meeting. The
rationale is that meeting members are less sensitive to the time constraints of a meeting at
its beginning and thus may spend too much time and energy on routine matters. To take
advantage of the early energy in a group, you may want to start with a discussion or action
item that will involve all meeting participants.
Often issues are discussed during meetings but nothing happens afterward. As the fol-
lowing sample meeting agenda shows, one of your last agenda items should be to summa·
rize the actions that are to be taken following the meeting.
SampleAgenda
Meeting goal: To review updates from committees and make a decision about donating to
the school-volunteer program.

FIGUREA.1
Bell-Curve Agenda
SouRCE: J. E. Tropman
and G. C. Morningstar,
Meetings: How to Make
Them Work for You (New
York: Van Nostrand
Reinhold, 1985) 56.
Reprinted by permission.

Modest Moderala Most

Items
Minutes Allnouncements decision ~ dllftcult Items
Items
Hems items
 Becoming a Meeting Facilitator: Managing Group and Team Interaction

I. Finalize meeting agenda

II. Discussion items
A. What are the problems with our new work report system?
B. What are the advantages and disadvantages of the new product team proposal (dis-
tributed by e· mail)?
Ill. Action items
A. Approve new personnel policy (distributed by e-mail).
B. Make a decision about the following issue: Should we donate $5,000 to school-
volunteer program?
rv. Information items
A. New employee orientation report
B. Planning committee report
C. Finance committee report
D. Announcements
V. Summarize action that needs to be taken after today's meeting.
Distribute your agenda to the meeting participants well in advance of the meeting. Meeting
participants should come prepared to discuss the issues on the agenda. Obviously, if they do not
have an agenda before the meeting, they cannot come prepared for a meaningful discussion.

Becoming a Meeting Facilitator: Managing

Group and Team Interaction
The essential task of a meeting facilitator is to manage the interaction in order to achieve
the goals of the group. Without interaction- the give-and-take dialogue and contributions
that participants make during meetings- meetings become monologues. But with too

REVIEW
IJll> MEETING AGENDA PITFALLS AND STRATEGIES
Potential Pitfall Suggested Strategy
Participants tend to spend too much Make the first agenda item something worthy of discussion rather
time on early agenda items. than beginning with a trivial report or announcement.
Participants will find a way to talk even Invite input and discussion early in the meeting rather than having
if you don't want them to talk. participants trying to interrupt.
Participants aren't prepared to have a Take a few minutes to have participants read information or have
meeting; they have not read what they them prepare by writing ideas or suggestions using the silent·
were supposed to read. brainstorming technique.
Participants won't stick to the agenda. Remind the group what the meeting goals are, or, with input from
the group, change the agenda item.
A meeting is scheduled late in the day or Schedule an early agenda item that involves all meeting
participants are tired. participants rather than having participants sitting silently.
The agenda includes a controversial Put one or more items on the agenda ahead of the conflict-produc-
item that will create conflict and ing item. Addressing easier agenda items first will establish a feeling
disagreement. of accomplishment and agreement before the group tackles the
more conflict-producing item.
 Appendix A Principles and Practices for Effective Meetings

much interaction, meetings can become disorganized, with rambling, redundant, or

digressive discussions that waste time and are inconclusive. Meeting leaders and partici-
pants can help ensure a balance of structure and interaction by using the facilitation skills
of gatekeeping. reminding the group of meeting goals, helping the group be sensitive to the
time that elapses during discussion, and using strategies that structure group interaction.

Be a Gatekeeper
As you learned earlier in the book, a gatekeeper encourages less-talkative members to par-
ticipate and tries to limit lengthy contributions by other group members. Meetings should
not consist of a monologue from the meeting leader or be dominated by just a few partici ·
pants. As a meeting leader, it is your job to make sure that you involve all meeting partici-
pants in the discussion.

Focus on the Goal

As we have also stressed throughout this book, members need to understand a group's goals.
Once they do, the group's agenda for each meeting should provide a road map for moving
toward those goals. A leader often has to keep the group on course, and one of the most
effective tools for doing so is summarizing. Periodically, use the metadiscussion skill (dis-
cussion about discussion) that we talked about in Chapter 8 and review your understanding
of the group's progress with brief comments such as "Okay. Dennis agrees with John that we
need to determine how much our project will cost. Are we ready for the next issue?" Such
summaries help a group take stock of what it has done and what it has yet to accomplish.
Communication researchers Fred Niederman and RogerVolkema, in studying the effects of
meeting facilitators on group productivity, found that the most experienced facilitators
helped orient the group toward the goal, helped them adapt to what was happening in the
group, and involved the group in developing the agenda for the meeting."

Monitor Time
Another job of a meeting leader is to keep track of how much time has been spent on the
planned agenda items and how much time remains. Think of your agenda as a map, help·
ing you plan where you want to go. Think of the clock as your gas gauge, telling you the
amount of fuel you have to get where you want to go. In a meeting, just as on any car trip, you
need to know where you are going and how much fuel you need to get you to your destina-
tion. Ifyou are running out of fuel (time), you will either need to fill up the tank (budget more
time) or recognize that you will not get where you want to go. Begin each meeting by asking
how long members can meet. If you face two or three crucial agenda items, and one-third of
your group has to leave in an hour, you will want to make certain to schedule important
items early in the meeting.

Structure Interaction
To ensure that all members participate in the discussion, you may need to use some of the
prescriptive decision-making and problem-solving tools and techniques mentioned in
Chapters 11 and 12. For example, if your meeting goal is to identify new ideas to solve a par-
ticular problem, consider using brainstorming or the nominal-group technique as a way to
generate ideas. The is /is not technique, journalist's six questions, and the Pareto chart are
 Becoming a Meeting Facilitator: Managing Group and Team Interaction

other tools you can use to invite people to contribute ideas yet structure the interaction so
that meeting members do not lose sight of their goals. A key task of the meeting facilitator is
to orchestrate meaningful interaction during the meeting so that all participants have the
opportunity to give input. Structured methods of inviting involvement are effective in gar-
nering contributions from all group members.
Another strategy that can help encourage interaction is to phrase each discussion item
on the printed agenda as a question. Questions give the discussion focus. As we discussed
in Chapter 4, discussion questions are a useful tool to help encourage focused and produc-
tive discussion.

REVIEW
..,. HOW TO FACILITATE MEETING INTERACTION
Facilitation Skill Description
Use gatekeeping skills. Listen to the discussion to encourage
less-talkative members to participate
and limit the contributions of
oververbalizers.
Focus the group's Especially when discussion seems to
attention on the agenda be off target, remind the group of the
or goal of the purpose of the meeting or state the
discussion. goal of the group.
Monitor the group's use Remind the group how much time is
of time. left for discussion if the group gets
unnecessarily bogged down on one
issue; suggest a strategy to help the
group move on to another issue.
Provide appropriate Consider inviting all group members to
structure to channel write their ideas on paper before
discussion, and keep it verbalizing; consider using silent
focused on the issues at brainstorming, the nominal-group
hand. technique, the affinity technique, the
is/is not technique, a T-chart, or force-
field analysis. Also, phrase issues for
discussion as a question on the printed
agenda rather than just listing a topic to
talk about.
Examples
"Dale, we've not heard from you. Do you
have some thoughts on this idea?" or,
"Heather, I know you have some strong
opinions about this project, but I'd like to
hear from others who have not spoken on
the issue."
"Although we seem to be interested in
talking about some of the recent hassles
we've had at the university, I'd like to
bring us back to the purpose of today's
meeting. Let's return to our second
agenda item, to help us solve the problem
we're addressing."
"I note that we've been talking about this
issue for over 20 minutes, and we only
have 15 minutes left in our discussion.
Would you like to continue talking about
this issue or appoint a subcommittee to
tackle this problem and get back to us
with a recommendation?"
"We have a couple of options to consider.
Why don't we first each write down the
advantages and disadvantages of each
option and then share our ideas with the
entire group."
 Appendix A Principles and Practices for Effective Meetings

How to Lead Meetings

As mentioned, a meeting leader needs to be especially sensitive to balancing meeting
structure with interaction. An effective meeting leader should facilitate rather than dic-
tate how the group will conduct the meeting. One study found that groups generated
more and better ideas when team leaders simply listened and waited for team members
to contribute ideas before stating their own ideas than they did when the leader spoke
first.!1 Different groups accept (or tolerate) different levels of direction from their desig-
nated leaders. One simple rule of thumb is this: A group will generally allow a leader wl10
emerges naturally from t/1e gro11p or wlzo leads a 011e-time-011/y ad lwc gro11p to be more
directive.
Certain tasks are generally expected of leaders. One of the most important leader tasks
is to keep the group focused on its agenda during the meeting. Of course, that means the
leader needs to have an agenda. We strongly urge that agendas be distributed well in
advance of a meeting. As we have stressed, give participants a chance to shape the agenda
both before the meeting and as the meeting opens. In general. meeting leaders are expected
to do the following:
• Call the group together, which may involve finding out when participants can meet.
• Call the meeting to order.
If it isa formal meeting, determine ifthere is a quorum- the minimum number of peo-
ple who must be present to conduct business.
Keep the meeting moving; go on to the next agenda item when a point has been thor-
oughly covered. Use effective facilitation and gatekeeping skills.
Use a Oipchart, chalkboard, or dry-erase board to summarize meeting progress; the
written notes of a meeting become the "group mind" and help keep the group on track.
If the meeting is a formal one, decide when to takea vote. Make sure the issues are clear
before a vote is taken.
• Prepare a committee report (or delegate someone to prepare a report) after one or
many meetings. Groups need a record of their progress. Many groups designate some-
one to be a secretary and prepare the minutes or summary of what occurred at the
meeting.
One of the time-tested strategies for leading a large group is parliamentary
procedure-a comprehensive set of rules that prescribe how to take action on specific
issues that come before the group; it provides an orderly way for large groups (of twenty or
more people) to conduct business, although it is less useful for small groups (in which it
leads to win/ lose patterns of decision making rather than consensus).
All groups need structure. The larger the group, the greater the need for structure. In
effect, parliamentary procedure provides the needed structure to help large groups stay
focused on the business at hand. Research suggests that parliamentary procedure can be an
effective method of adding structure and rules to coordinate quality discussion in a large
group. io For a complete guide to parliamentary procedure, consult Robert's Rules ofOrder at
http://robertsrules.com.

How to Participate in Meetings

So far we have stressed the meeting leader's responsibility to give the meeting structure and
ensure interaction, but meeting participants have similar obligations. In many respects,
each meeting participant has leadership responsibilities. Leadership, as noted in Chapter 9,
 How to Participate In Meetings

means "to influence." As a meeting participant, you will have many opportunities to
influence the group process. Be sensitive to both the level of structure and the interaction in
the meeting.
Your key obligation as a meeting participant is to come to the meeting prepared to
work. If the leader has distributed an agenda before the meeting (as leaders should}, then
you have a clear sense of how to prepare and what information you should bring to the
meeting. Even if no agenda has been provided, try to anticipate what will be discussed.
Roger Mosvick and Robert Nelson, in their book We've Got to Start Meeting Like Tliis!,
identify six guidelines of competent meeting participants.11

I. Organize your contributions. Just as a well-organized speech makes a better presenta-

tion, well-organized contributions make better meetings. Rambling, disorganized, dis-
jointed ideas increase the likelihood that the meeting will become sidetracked.
2. Speak when your contribution is relevant. Before you make a comment, listen to the per-
son who is speaking. Is your comment useful and helpful? Groups are easily distracted
by irrelevant contributions.
3. Make one point at a time. Even though you may be bursting with good ideas and sug-
gestions, your colleagues will be more likely to listen to your ideas if you present them
one at a time rather than as a string of unrelated points.
4. Speak clearly andforcefully. No, we are not advocating that you aggressively try to dom-
inate the conversation. Unassertive mumbling, however, will probably get lost in the
verbal shuffle of most meetings.
5. Support your ideas wit/1 evidence. One of the key determinants of good decisions and
effective solutions that we discussed in Chapter 4 is the use of evidence to support your
ideas and opinions. Opinions are ubiquitous: Everyone has them. Facts, statistics, and
well-selected examples help keep the group focused on the task.
6. Listen actively to all aspects ofthe discussion. Group meetings provide one of the most
challenging listening contexts. When several people are attempting to make points and
counterarguments, you will have to gear up your powers of concentration and listening.
Checking your understanding by summarizing or paraphrasing can dramatically
improve communication and decrease misunderstanding.12

REVIEW
..,. PROVIDING MEETING STRUCTURE AND INTERACTION

How to Give a Meeting Structure

• Prepare an effective agenda by determining your meeting goals.
• Identify what needs to be discussed to achieve the goals.
• Organize the agenda to achieve the goals.

How to Ensure Managed Interaction

• Use effective gatekeeping skills.
• Use metadiscussion to help the group focus on the goals.
• Help the group be sensitive to time that has elapsed and time that remains for deliberation.
• Use strategies to structure interaction (e.g.• write before speaking, nominal-group technique, or silent
brainstorming).
 Appendix A Principles and Practices for Effective Meetings
THEORY INTO PRACTICE
How to Make a Meeting
Better When You're Not the
Meeting Leader
Throughout this book we've cited theories and
principles about how groups and teams work to
help you be a better leader. If you're the meeting
leader you can obviously have a major Impact on
how the meeting is run; you're in charge of setting
the agenda and facilitating the discussion. But if
you're not in charge can you still improve the
meeting? The answer is a definite yes. Here's how:
1. If the meeting leader has not provided an
agenda before the meeting, politely ask the
leader for one. Here's a way to p!Yase your
request: "To help me prepare for the upcom-
ing meeting, may I please see an agenda?"
Or, "Can you tell me what are the key issues
and questions we'll be considering at our
meeting?" Asking for an agenda might spur
the leader into developing one. And even if
there is no agenda forthcoming, you have at
least done your part by asking for one.
2. Use metadiscussional phrases to help keep
the meeting on track. A metadiscussion
phrase, as you remember from Chapter 8,
is a phrase that focuses on the discussion
process (discussion about discussion).
Using statements such as "I'm not sure
where we are on the agenda" or "I'm not
sure how this discussion relates to the topic
at hand" are statements that are about the
discussion process. These comments help
make the entire group more aware of
whether they are on task or off task.
3. Summarize what the meeting has accom-
plished. By periodically summarizing what
has been accomplished in a meeting you
help the group be more aware of where it is
on the agenda. Summarizing the progress
of the meeting can also energize the group
by reminding the meeting participants what
has been accomplished.
4. Serve as a gatekeeper. You don't have to
be the meeting leader to invite quieter
members to participate in the meeting. If
you notice that some meeting members are

not participating or seem disengaged in the
meeting, simply ask for their ideas and
opinions. Don't make them uncomfortable
by saying "Well, Carmaleta, you've not said
much. Why don't you participate?" Just
politely and simply ask, "Carmaleta, I'd like
to hear your ideas." Or, you could say,
"You've been listening to our discussion
and we seem to be stuck on one idea.
What do you think about our ideas?"
5. Suggest a private meeting between two
people who are monopolizing the conversa-
tion. If a meeting is getting bogged down
because of a long, drawn-out conversation
between a couple of people, or there is a
conflict between two people and they are
doing all of the talking, suggest that they
discuss the issue outside the meeting. Note
that we are not suggesting that the feuding
participants not try to work out the dis-
agreement, but inviting them to do so
"offline" on their own time rather than using
the meeting to hash out an issue that may
not be relevant to the entire group.
How to Participate in Meetings
6. Monitor the time. By making the entire
group aware of the time left to talk about an
issue, you can gently prod individuals to use
time wisely rather than going on and on
about something. Sometimes groups simply
aren't aware of the resource of time. Making
meeting members aware of time left to
spend is like pointing out the balance in the
"time bank"; if people are aware that they
don't have much time left to spend then
they may spend it more wisely.
7. Volunteer to take notes or record the min-
utes. Being the note taker gives you
additional authority to ask questions, sum-
marize, and make sure that the group is
staying on track. The person who takes the
minutes has the power to shape the meet-
ing results. It's your ethical responsibility to
record what happened at the meeting accu-
rately. You can also influence what happens
after the meeting by ensuring that the
action steps are recorded and that it's clear
who is supposed to do what to achieve the
meeting goals.
 STUDY GUIDE
PUTTING GROUP PRINCIPLES INTO PRACTICE

1111> SUMMARY OF PRINCIPLES

The appendix reviewed several principles and skills to • When conducting a formal meeting, use parliamen-
help make group meetings efficient and effective. tary procedure to help give the meeting structure
and order.
• Meetings need a balance of structure and informa-
• When you participate in a meeting, make sure your
tion.
comments are organized, relevant, clear, and sup-
• When you lead a group, always prepare an agenda
ported with evidence. Also, make sure you listen to
by (1) determining your meeting goal, (2) identify-
others and monitor your nonverbal messages.
ing items to achieve the goal, and (3) organizing the
agenda items.
• Find ways to involve all members in the meeting.
Draw out quiet members; avoid letting a verbose
member dominate a meeting.

326