Theory of Elasticity Chapter 4: Stress and Strain Relation

CHAPTER 4: STRESS AND STRAIN RELATIONS

4.1 General
Consider an element under stress as shown in Figure 4.1a

When the tension is applied instantaneously and maintained a constant

magnitude, the curve shown in Figure 4.1b results. Suppose the
strain is measured continuously.

If the strain is constant as shown in Figure 4.1c, the material is said to be

time independent, which is observed in behavior of common structural
metals at ordinary temperature.

If the strain increased with time as in Figure 4.1d, the material is classified
as time dependent, observed in metal at elevated temperature and plastics
at ordinary temperature. When a constant stress produces the strain
shown in Figure 4.1d, the behavior is termed as creep.

When an element of a structure is subjected to one or more of the load

shown in Figure 4.1a, the various type of stress/ strain response shown in
Figure 4.2 may result.

Lecture Note by Dr. Asnake Adamu of AAiT

Theory of Elasticity Chapter 4: Stress and Strain Relation

 The response given by line ”1” represents a material with no

deformation which refers to rigid body mechanics(and is time
independent)
 The response given by line “2” represents material where stress is
proportional to strain, and the strain completely recovered on load
removal, which as such is refers to a linear elastic material
 The response given by curve “3” represents non-linear elastic material
and differs from curve “2” such that the stress is not linearly
proportional to strain. Thus, non linear behavior is observed.

The equations relating stress-strain, stress rate and strain rate are called
constructive equations. In the case of elastic solids, the constructive
equations take the form of generalized Hook’s Law which involves only
stress and strain and is independent of the stress rate or strain rate.

4.2 Generalized Hooke’s Law

The general statement of Hook’s Law: “The displacement at a point is

proportional to the load applied at that or any other point in the member or
structure”.
For uni-axial normal stress in x-direction by the Hooke’s law in the elastic
range is expressed as

(4-
1)

Lecture Note by Dr. Asnake Adamu of AAiT

Theory of Elasticity Chapter 4: Stress and Strain Relation

The constant modulus of elasticity may be determined experimentally by

performing a uni-axial tension test.

The stress- strain relationship under a three- dimensional state of stress can
be expressed using two alternative approach: the “mathematical “ approach
and the “semi – empirical “ approach , in which the later is guided by
experimental evidence.

In the mathematical approach, the relation between the stress an strain

components is expressed by the linear equation as:

(4.2)

The set of equation (4-2) is a logical generalization of equation (4-1). The

coefficients …… … represent material properties. There are 36
coefficient of elasticity in this mathematical approach. However, they are
not all independent. By strain- energy considerations, the number of
independent coefficients can be reduced to 21. Even with 21 coefficients
this relation is long and very involving.

On the other hand, when using the semi- empirical approach, the stress-
strain relations are developed on certain assumptions.
- does not produce any shearing strains on the planes
- does not produce normal strains and cause only one shear strain
component, i.e. gxy only
- The strain components are small enough for super position, and order of
super position will not affect the result.

Consider on elemental parallel piped under a uni-axial stress as shown in

Figure 4.3
From relation (4-1)
/ (elongation)

Lecture Note by Dr. Asnake Adamu of AAiT

Theory of Elasticity Chapter 4: Stress and Strain Relation

Accompanying this elongation in the x-direction, there will be contraction in

the y and z direction, which may be expresses as:
-m /E),

where, m is called poisons’ ratio.

Consider an element subjected to the trail state of stress shown in Figure

4.4, where the initial length AB is unity.

The strain components due to the stresses in the respective directions are
given by:

(4-3)

Equation (4-3) is obtained by the principle of superposition

Lecture Note by Dr. Asnake Adamu of AAiT

Theory of Elasticity Chapter 4: Stress and Strain Relation

The elastic stress- strain relations under a three dimensional state of pure
shear is found experimentally to take the form.

(4-4)

,
where, the elastic constant is called the modulus of elasticity for shear,
or the modulus of rigidity. Three elastic constant E, m and G are introduced
in eqn. (4-3) and (4-4) which govern the stress- strain relations for and
elastic isotropic material.

Considering a state of plane stress, due to isotropy, the elastic constants for
are same. Hence,

(4-5a)

(4-5b)

But, the stress components referred to ’ axes are

(4-5c

(4-5d)

And the transformations of strain equations are

(4-5e)

(4-5f)

Substituting eqn. (4-5c), (4-5d) and (4-5e) in to eqn.(4-5a) and substituting

the resulting equation from the equation obtained by substituting Eqns.
(4-5e), (4-5d) and (4-e) into Eqn. (4-5b); one will have
(

(4-5g)

The strain components on the planes are given by

(4-5h)

(4-5i)

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Theory of Elasticity Chapter 4: Stress and Strain Relation

(4-5j)
Equations (4-5h) and (4-5j) give

(4-5k)

When (4-5k) is subtracted from Eqn. (4-5g) one may obtain,

(4-5l)

This may be compared with eqn. (4-5j) to give

(4-5)

Thus, there are only two independent elastic constant for and isotropic
materials. Hence, Equations (4.3), (4.4) and (4.5) are known as the
generalized Hooke’s Law.

As defined earlier, the directions for which the shear strains vanish are
called principal directions of strain. If are chosen in the directions
of the principal stress, we have so that (4-4) yields

which indicates that the are also axes of the

principal strains. Thus, for isotropic elastic materials, the principal axes of
stress and stains coincide.

Equations (4-3) and (4-4) may be solved for the stress components interims
of the strain components as:

(4-6)

,
in which the G (modulus of rigidity) and are called Lame’s constant.

(4-7)

Lecture Note by Dr. Asnake Adamu of AAiT

Theory of Elasticity Chapter 4: Stress and Strain Relation

4.3 Bulk Modulus of Elasticity

Lets consider a state of hydrostatic pressure as shown in Figure 4.5.

Here,

From (4-3) and (4-4), the strain components are:

(4-8)
(4-9)

The dilatation (volumetric strain) is defined as the unit change in volume

which is given by
(4-10)
This can be shown by finding the change in volume of a prime with initial
dimensions
Up on substitution (4.8) in to (4-10, the dilatation becomes
(4-11)

Where, , is known as the bulk modulus of elasticity or modulus of

volume expression. For instance, when approach and the

material is said to be in compressible, this is closely approximate by
rubbers.

Lecture Note by Dr. Asnake Adamu of AAiT

Theory of Elasticity Chapter 4: Stress and Strain Relation

Defining

(4-12)

The quantity is called the hydrostatic component of stress, or spherical

component of stress. Generally, are invariant quantities with
respect to any orthogonal transforming axes.

Exercises
4.1 By using the rosette gage shown in the figure below in one experiment
the following strains are recorded on the surface of a steel bar:

, ,
Given the material properties of this steel determine
the principal stresses and maximum shear stress a point and then evaluate
the directions of these stresses.

4.2 If a medium is initially unstrained and is then subjected to a constant

positive temperature change, show that the normal strains are expressed
by in which is the coefficient of linear
expansion and is the temperature rise. The temperature change does
not affect the shear strain components.

Lecture Note by Dr. Asnake Adamu of AAiT

Theory of Elasticity Chapter 4: Stress and Strain Relation

4.3 Prove that

,
where

4.4 Prove the following relations among the elastic constants

(a) (b) (c)

in which , the bulk modulus to Elasticity.

Assignment problem set I

1.1 At a point in a stressed body, the Cartesian components of stress are

Determine (a) the normal and shear stresses on a plane whose outer
normal has the direction cosines
the angle between the resultant stress and the outer to the plane.

1.2 The following stress distribution has been determined for a machine
component.

Is equilibrium satisfied in the absence of body forces?

1.3 At a point in a metal machine part, the principal stresses are

Determined the normal and
shear stresses on a plane whose outer has the direction cosine

Lecture Note by Dr. Asnake Adamu of AAiT

Theory of Elasticity Chapter 4: Stress and Strain Relation

1.4 The state of stress at a point with respect tosystem is

. Determine the
stress components on the oblique plane whose normal makes
the angle indicated in figure Q1.4 below relative to xyz coordinate
system.

1.5 For the beam shown in Figure Q1.5 below, neglecting the self weight,
the bending moment as a function of is given by . The
bending stress is then, which becomes
a) Using the differential equation of equilibrium, determine how
varies as a function of x and y.
b) Check whether the stress distribution obtained provides a
compatible displacement field. Discuss also the simplest possible
correction if any.

Lecture Note by Dr. Asnake Adamu of AAiT

Theory of Elasticity Chapter 4: Stress and Strain Relation

1.6 Given the displacement field

Compute the associated strains at a point (2, 2, 2).

1.7 Determine whether the following strain fields are compatible.

1.8 A thin rectangular aluminum plate

is acted up on by a two-
dimensional stress distribution which produces the following uniform
strains in the plate:

a) Determine the change in length of the diagonals of the plate.

b) Determine the maximum shear strain in the plate. Indicate on a
sketch two of the initially perpendicular lines in the plate associated
with this maximum shear strain.

1.9 The Cartesian components of stress at a point in a steel machine part

are
σx=200 MPa, σy=70 MPa, σz=140 MPa, τxy=100 MPa, τyz=50 Mpa, τzx = 60
MPa. Determine the principal strains at the point, if

1.10 At appoint on the free surface of an alloy

steel machine part normal strains of
and were measured at respective angles of
with respect to the x axis. Design considerations limit
the maximum normal stress to 510 MPa, the maximum shear stress to
275 MPa, the maximum normal strain to and the maximum
shear strain to . What is your evaluation of the design?

Lecture Note by Dr. Asnake Adamu of AAiT

Theory of Elasticity Chapter 4: Stress and Strain Relation

4.4 Theories of Failure

The objective of design of a machine or a structural member is to take

precaution so that the member under considerations will not fail under all
possible load combinations during the service time of the machine or
structural member. It is generally accepted in almost all cases that stresses
and strains at a point are used to predict whether or not failure occurs due
to critical stressing.

The development of any useful combined stress failure theory must contain
three essential ingredients:

1. It must provide an applicable model described by explicit mathematical

relationship that relates the external loading to the stress, strains or
either calculable mechanical module at the critical point in the multi-
axial state of stress.
2. It must be based on critical physical properties of the material that are
measureable.
3. It must relate the calculable mechanical modulus in the multi-axial state
of stress to a measurable criterion of failure based on the critical
physical properties determined in a simple uniaxial test.

On the basis of onset yielding or permanent deformation, the following

theories of failure are discusses.

i. Maximum principle stress Theory (Rankin’s’ Theory)

Failure is predicted to occur in the multi axial state of stress when the
maximum principal normal stress becomes equal to or exceeds the
maximum normal stress (yield point stress) at the time of failure in
a simple uniaxial stress test using specimen of same material.

If, are the principal stresses at any point in a body

yielding occur when

(4-13)

ii. Maximum shearing Stress Theory (Tresca- Guest Theory)

Failure is predicted to occur in the multi-axial state of stress when the
maximum shearing stress magnitude becomes equal to or exceeds the
maximum shearing stress magnitude at the time of failure in simple
uniaxial stress test using a specimen of the same material. Thus, failure
occurs when:

(4.14)

Lecture Note by Dr. Asnake Adamu of AAiT

Theory of Elasticity Chapter 4: Stress and Strain Relation

In which, is the uniaxial failure strength in tension.

iii. Maximum Normal Stain Theory(St- Venant’s Theory)

Failure is predicted to occur in the multi- axial state of stress when
the maximum principal normal strain becomes equal to or exceeds
the maximum normal stain at the time of failure in a simple uniaxial
stress test using a specimen of same material.

Thus failure occurs when:

(4-15)

In which corresponds to the respective three principal stress

in multi axial state of stress and is the uniaxial failure strength in
tension or in compression.
iv. Total strain Energy Theory (Beltrami Theory)
Failure is predicted to occur in the multi-axial state of stress when
the total strain energy per unit volume becomes equal to or exceeds
the total strain energy per unit volume at the time of failure in a
simple uniaxial stress test using a specimen of the same material.

Expressing the strains in terms of the three principle stresses and

employing Hooke’s law, the total strain energy per unit volume
becomes

For uniaxial stress test, at the time of failure, the principal stress
equal to the failure strength , where the corresponding value of the
total stain energy is

Thus, failure is predicated by the total strain – energy theory to occur

when

(4-16)
V) Distortion Energy Theory (Huber- Von Mises- Henky Theory)

Lecture Note by Dr. Asnake Adamu of AAiT

Theory of Elasticity Chapter 4: Stress and Strain Relation

Failure is predicted to occur in the multi- axial state of stress when

the distortion energy per unit volume at the time of failure in a
simple uniaxial stress test using a specimen of the same material.
The distortion energy per unit volume is obtained by subtracting
the strain energy associate with volume change from the total strain
energy per unit volume which becomes.

Thus, failure is predicted to occur by the distortion energy theory to

occur when,
(4-17)

Vi) Octahedral shearing stress Theory

The octahedral planes are four pairs of parallel planes whose normal
make equal angles with the principal axes. These planes form a
regular octahedron whose corners lie on the principal axes. The
resultant shearing stress on an octahedral plane is called the
octahedral shearing stress

The octahedral shearing stress at the time of failure in a uniaxial

stress test is

Thus, the octahedral shearing stress theory of failure mathematically

is predicted to occur when
(4-18)
This is exactly equivalent to the equations developed by the
distortion energy theory of failure.

vi) Mohr’s Failure Theory

The Mohr theory of failure proposed by Otto Mohr in 1900 is an extension of

the maximum shearing stress theory of failure based on an interpretation of
the “three dimensional” Mohr’s Circle.

Lecture Note by Dr. Asnake Adamu of AAiT

Theory of Elasticity Chapter 4: Stress and Strain Relation

The Mohr theory of failure may be stated as:

“Failure is predicted to occur in the multi axial state of stress when
the largest Mohr’s Circle associated with the state of stress at a given
critical point becomes tangent to or exceeds the bounds of the failure
envelope determined from the conditions of failure in simple tensile,
Compressive and torsion tests, using specimen of the same material.

Summary of Failure Theory Evaluation

Evaluation of the failure theories in the light of experimental evidence leads
to the following observation:
1. For isotropic material that fails by brittle fracture, the maximum
normal stress theory is the best to use.
2. For materials that fail by brittle fracture but exhibit a compressive
ultimate strength that is significantly different from the tensile
ultimate strength, the modified Mohr’s Theory is the best theory to
use.
3. For isotropic material that fails by yielding or ductile rupture, the
distortion energy theory is the best theory to use.
4. For isotropic material that fails by yielding or ductile rupture, the
maximum shearing stress theory is almost as good as the distortion
energy theory.
5. For materials that fail by yielding but exhibit a compressive yield
strength that is significantly different from the tensile yield strength,
Mohr’s theory is a good theory to use.
6. As a rule of thumb, the maximum normal stress theory would be used
for isotropic materials that exhibit a ductility of less than 5 percent
elongation in 2 inches (50 mm), and either the distortion energy
theory or maximum shearing stress theory would be used for isotropic
materials that exhibit a ductility of a 5 percent or more in a 2 inch
(50 mm) gage length.
Wherever possible, a fracture mechanics analysis should be
performed.

Lecture Note by Dr. Asnake Adamu of AAiT