BROILER MANAGEMENT MANUAL

INTRODUCTION
National Foods Stock Feeds produces feeds for dairy and beef cows, chickens, pigs, horses,
game animals, sheep, goats, dogs, rabbits and ostriches. The highly competent Technical
Team comprising of animal nutritionists, laboratory analysts, engineers and quality
assurance experts is dedicated to guiding the production process to bring out products of
superior quality. Poultry is one of our biggest lines and therefore we endeavour to provide
technical support to the broiler farmer through this management manual.

This Manual is designed to help broiler farmers to achieve optimum performance from our
feeds. Quality feeds alone will not help the farmer achieve the expected performance of the
broiler; a whole lot of other factors, especially management, also come into play and these
are what we will try and address in this manual. While not intended to provide definitive
information on every aspect of management, this manual does draw attention to important
issues that if overlooked or inadequately addressed may depress flock performance.

Recommendations in this manual are derived from internal research trials, published
scientific knowledge and the expertise, practical skills and experience of the NFL technical
team. While every attempt has been made to ensure the accuracy and relevance of the
information presented, National Foods Ltd accepts no liability for the consequences of using
this information for the management of broilers.

1. FINANCIALS
Ability to plan a business determines one’s success in the broiler business. A financial plan
helps to estimate how much money is required and when it is requires in order to start and
maintain a profitable broiler business. The plan includes coming up with an enterprise
budget and cash flow statements.

Enterprise Budget

It is a quantitative plan of where you would want to be in a given period of time. The
budgeting process involves the following steps:

a) Setting goals
b) Gathering data
c) Forecast future needs
d) Implementing the budget
e) Controlling your spending
f) Evaluating your performance
Sample of budget for 100 broilers is shown below.

ITEM QUANTITY PRICE TOTAL

GROSS INCOME      
Chicken sales      
Litter      
Total gross income      
       
VARIABLE COSTS      
Electricity and Water      
Telephone/alarm      
Repairs and maintenance      
Heating      
Vaccines      
Medications      
Labour      
Interest on operating capital      
Total variable costs listed above      
   
FIXED COSTS
Owner's labour      
Building depreciation      
Equipment depreciation      
Interest on investment      
Taxes      
Insurance      
Land charge      
       
Total fixed cost listed above    
Total variable and fixed cost listed above      
NET INCOME OVER VARIABLE & FIXED COSTS    
LISTED ABOVE  
 
FIXED INVESTMENT      
Open ended house      
Generator, wiring, & alarm      
Equipment      
Site preparation      
Vehicles      
Storage sheds      
Borehole      
     
TOTAL INVESTMENT      
Business Management

A proper business should maintain updated records to aid proper decision-making and for
control purposes. Properly managed businesses give a positive return to the
investor/owner. In order to measure the performance of the business, a profit and loss
account is prepared at the end of each period. This report compares revenue and costs for a
period to determine profit/loss for the period.

Sources of Finance

There are two major sources of financing your business. It is always advisable to grow your
business from equity.

1. Debt- Loans obtained from banks e.g commercial banks and building societies

2. Equity-Own savings and reinvestment of profits

Banking

It is important to bank all sales proceeds. Reasons for banking are

a) Safekeeping
b) For future loan applications-banks usually need proof of income
c) Savings and potential to earn interest
d) Internal control purposes

2. BROILER HOUSING AND MANAGEMENT

Broiler housing is one of the most critical issues that affect productivity of the birds. A
broiler house should provide a suitable and controllable environment to achieve optimal
growth for the birds. Housing can affect the health of the flock and the general welfare of
broilers. Other factors to consider when selecting the most suitable type of housing are
accessibility, cost effectiveness, ease to clean and durability. An open sided house is
recommended in hot climates like in Zimbabwe.

House structure

An ideal open sided house should have the following specifications.

 • Orientation should be east –west to avoid direct sun from getting into the house
• Both long sides of the pen should have 50cm brick wall and 1.7m of 13mm mash
wire. There is no limit to the length of the house as it depends on the stocking
density.
• Both short sides should be 2.2m high of brick wall and should not exceed 10m width
to allow for full circulation of air. Sides longer than 10m will result in stale air pockets
in the broiler house.
• Asbestos are the roofing material of choice though corrugated sheets can be used
and need insulation since they are weather sensitive. White paint or a layer of
thatching grass can be used as insulation.
• The eaves of the roof must be 50cm to avoid water from flashing inside the house
when it’s raining.
• Floors should be made of smooth concrete for easy cleaning.
• The pen should be built on well-draining soils with accessible roads.

Stocking density

The broiler house should be able to carry the desired number of birds. The recommended
stocking density for broiler is as follows,
 33 chicks/m2 for day old chicks to 21days.
 10 to 12 chicks/m2 for 21 to 25 day old chicks to slaughter.

Improper stocking density or overstocking will restrict chicken movement and this will
negatively affect broiler performance because of poor feed space availability and access to
water. In addition, overstocking will cause wet litter, leg problems, scratching, bruising and
high mortality.

Ventilation

The aim of ventilation is to maintain required house temperature while bringing in fresh air
and exhausting in-house stale air so that there is a sufficient removal of excess moisture and
harmful gases. Good quality air must always be available for optimal broiler growth.
Ventilation is important because it:
1. Supplies oxygen
2. Removes ammonia
3. Removes carbon dioxide
4. Removes carbon monoxide
5. Dries the litter thus reducing possibilities of coccidiosis and respiratory problems.

Curtain Management

Side curtains in the form of empty feed bags or canvas can be used to regulate house
temperatures and ventilation. Curtains are either opened or closed to regulate
temperatures in the house. Open curtains when temperatures are too high. Close curtains
when temperatures are low. Curtains are also closed when there are cold wind draughts.
During the brooding stage, always leave 15cm of both open sides not covered by curtains to
allow ventilation. Please note curtains are opened from top to bottom and not rolling
upwards from bottom to top. This is important because cold fresh air coming from outside
will mix with the warm air inside the brooder, which will cause it to reach the chick level
warmer and thus aid in maintaining the required temperature levels during the brooding
period. Opening curtains from the bottom will result in loss of heat from the house.

3. BROILER FEEDING AND NUTRITION

Morden day broilers are bred to accrue meat in the shortest possible time having consumed
the least feed. With well-balanced and scientifically proven diets, the breed specifications
are met as long as the management aspect is optimised. The National Foods Tri-phase range
of feed is streamlined to ensure that the customer gets true value for their money. It
ensures that the birds get the right nutrients and energy at the right stage of growth. The
feed is suitable for enterprises that are under good management and have the capacity to
handle feed changeovers.

i. Tri phase 1 starter crumbles (21.5% Crude Protein)

This feed comes in the form of crumbles and is fed from day 1 up until day 13. Each bird is
expected to consume 0.35kg. During this stage the birds are undergoing rapid development
of internal organs hence it is imperative that they are fed this high crude protein diet.

The changeover period from the tri phase 1 starter crumbles to the tri phase 2 grower
pellets is very important because the birds need to be acclimatised to the new feed
gradually. Upon reaching day 11, it is important that the birds are exposed to 25% of the Tri
phase 2 grower crumbles. On day 12 the ratio of the starter crumbles to the grower
crumbles becomes 50:50. On day 13, the birds should be fed 25% tri phase 1 starter: 75%tri
phase 2 grower crumbles such that by day 14 they are entirely on grower crumbles. For
example, for a 5 kg tubular feeder, mix feeds as follows:

DAYS RATIO
11 75% tri-phase 1 starter crumbles
25% tri-phase 2 grower crumbles
12 50% tri-phase 1 starter crumbles
50% tri-phase 2 grower crumbles
13 25% tri-phase 1 starter crumbles
75% tri-phase 2 grower crumbles

ii. Tri phase 2 grower crumbles/Pellets (19% Crude Protein)

This feed is available as crumbles and 3.5mm pellets. It should be fed from day 13
up until day 24. It is balanced to allow for meat accretion and to discourage the
accumulation of fat. The crumbles and the pellets are exactly the same in terms of
their nutritional value; it is just the physical form that differs.

Feeding instructions

• Broiler Tri-phase 2 crumbles are used to transition from the Broiler Tri-phase
1 crumbles.
• They should be mixed with Broiler Tri-phase 1 Crumbles over 3 days, as
shown in Table 2, so that by day 14, the birds are entirely on Broiler Tri-phase
2 Crumbles.
• Then starting on day 15, Broiler Tri-phase 2 crumbles should be mixed with
Broiler Tri-phase 2 pellets in order to ease birds onto the pellet form of feed.
• The mixing rations of the feed are shown in table below.

DAYS RATIO
15 75% tri-phase 2 grower crumbles
25% tri-phase 2 grower pellets
16 50% tri-phase 2 grower crumbles
50% tri-phase 2 grower pellets
17 25% tri-phase 2 grower crumbles
75% tri-phase 2 grower pellets

• By day 18, the birds should entirely be feeding on the Broiler Tri-phase 2
pellets.
• The bird must be fed ad lib and each bird is expected to consume
approximately 1.5 kgs of feed during this growing period.
• On day 23, farmers are encouraged to start blending the Tri-phase 2 pellets
with Tri-phase 3 pellets so that the birds acclimatise to the larger finisher
pellet.

Tri-phase 3 Finisher pellets (18% crude protein)

The recommended proportions to mix when transitioning to the Tri-phase 3 pellets

are
 DAYS RATIO
23 75% tri-phase 2 pellets
25% tri-phase 3 finisher pellets
24 50% tri-phase 2 grower pellets
50% tri-phase 3 finisher pellets
25 25% tri-phase 2 grower pellets
75% tri-phase 3 finisher pellets

The final feed in the feeding program of broilers is available as a 4.5mm pellet. The
feed is lower in protein level but higher in energy, to cater for the increased energy
needs of the bird brought about by the increase in size.

Feeding instruction

• Broiler Tri-phase 3 pellets is fed ad lib from day 25 up until slaughter, which
should be on or before day 35.
• It should be mixed with Broiler Tri-phase 2 Pellets over 3 days to get the birds
accustomed to the larger Tri-phase 3 pellets (as shown in Table 3).
• By day 26, the birds should entirely be feeding on the Broiler Tri-phase 3
pellets.
• Each bird is expected to consume approximately 1.8 kgs of feed during this
finishing phase.

iii. Broiler concentrate(37.5% crude protein)

This is the concentrate feed from which both Broiler Starter and Broiler Finisher can
be produced. It is designed for farmers who have access to their own maize. When
using this concentrate, we encourage a 2 phase feeding program that includes the
starter stage and the finisher stage. With this feed, one will get the same results as
when feeding the 3 phase feed.

Mixing Instructions and feedings Instructions

To produce Broiler Starter Mash:

• Mix 2 parts concentrate to 3 parts crushed maize by mass.

• The resultant feed is sufficient to feed the birds from day old up until day 21. It
will provide adequate nutrition to allow growth, bone development and feather
development.
 • Care must be taken to mix the concentrate and the crushed maize according
to mass, not volume; hence actual masses of the proportions to be mixed
must be known.

To produce Broiler Finisher:

• Mix 1 part concentrate to 2 parts crushed maize by mass.

• The resultant feed should be fed to birds from day 22 to day 35.
• Once again the feed care must be taken to mix the concentrate and the
crushed maize according to mass, not volume; hence actual masses of the
proportions to be mixed must be known.

Please note that crushed maize grains must be used with this concentrate. Feeding
with maize bran (makreshi) will not yield the desired results.

4. CHICK QUALITY
It is important to source chicks from reputable dealers. Quality of the chick ultimately
affects the performance of the chick despite good management and good quality feed being
offered. The broiler breeds that are available on the market in Zimbabwe are the Cobb, Ross
308 and the Hubbard Breed. One can choose which breed to use depending on their
production system and market expectations.

Breeders and hatcheries

• Irvine’s Day Old Chicks (Cobb)

• Hubbard Zimbabwe (Hubbard)

• Lunar Chickens (Hubbard)

• Hukuru Chicks (Ross 308)

• Supachicks (Ross 308)

Hatcheries
 • Dr. Hen (Ross 308)

• Charles Stewart (Ross 308)

• Masvingo Chicks (Ross 308)

• Chinyika Chicks (Ross 308)

Characteristics of a good chick are:

• Large and well developed (average weight 40gramms).

• Large yolk free body mass

• Bright round active eyes

• Long and waxy legs

• Well dried and fluffy feathers

• Chick uniformity-(CV should be 8-10%)

• Properly closed navels

• Alert, alive, vital

• Free from abnormalities eg crooked legs, twisted necks and cross beaks.

5. HOUSE PREPARATION AND CHICK PLACEMENT

A broiler house should be ready for chick placement 48 hours before chick arrivals.

Heating

Pre-heat the house for 48 and 24 hours in winter and summer respectively before the arrival
of chicks. Ensure the temperature is 32-35°C at chick level and evenly distributed
throughout the house. Always have at least 3 thermometers per house of which two should
be placed at either end of the house and one at the middle. Please ensure that the
thermometers are hung at chick level or height. Check temperatures during the early hours
of the morning because this is when outside temperatures are at their lowest. For this
purpose, a maximum and minimum degrees thermometer is recommended. It is also
recommended to maintain temperature record charts. Avoid cold pockets in the brooder.

Equipment
Broilers should be provided with sufficient drinkers and feeders for easy access to feed and
water.

STAGE OF USE (DAYS) TYPE OF EQUIPMENT NUMBER OF UNITS

 PER 100 BIRDS
0-10 days Chick trays (40 cm) 3
Chick fonts (4litres) 3
10 days onwards Water fonts (12litres)/Bell drinkers 1
Tubular Feeders 3

 During the first 3 days of placement, it is encouraged to place some of the feed
on khaki papers as it promotes increased feed intake.
 As the scale of production increases, considerations to use automated feeders
and nipple drinkers should be made to increase efficiency and decrease labour
requirements.
 Periodic maintenance to ensure functionality of the drinkers and feeders will be
required.
 Feed and water should be placed in the house 24 hours prior to placement of
chicks.

Litter

Litter is kept loose and dry throughout the life of the flock. Litter quality directly affects the
health of the bird. Lower moisture levels in the litter help to reduce respiratory stress by
reducing the amount of ammonia in the atmosphere. Good quality litter insulates the
housing floor and also reduces the incidence of foot pad dermatitis. Several options are
available to use as litter.

MATERIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MATERIAL

Wheat straw Good absorbent
Grass Should be cut into 5cm bits to make it absorbent
Wood shavings Good absorption and breakdown. Avoid fine shavings
which are dusty and may be ingested.
Cotton hulls Not very absorbent. Best mixed with other materials.
May be ingested by chicks.

Causes of bad litter

The main causes of poor litter quality are,

a) High humidity
b) Poor ventilation
c) High stocking densities
 d) Poor quality litter and insufficient depth
e) Diarrhoea due to disease.

Lighting

National Foods broiler feed is meant to be fed ad libitum (without restriction). Feed nutrient
profiles differ from company to company. Some companies have a very energy dense
grower diet and therefore they advise farmers to switch off lights to manage growth rate at
that age. National Foods feed is designed to be fed ad libitum meaning as and when the
chicks need therefore there is NO SWITCHING OFF OF LIGHTS

Water quality and supply

Water is an essential ingredient for life. Any increases in water loss or reduction in water
intake can have a significant effect on the lifetime performance of the chick. There should
be adequate water storage on the farm, in case the main supply fails. Ideally, there should
be sufficient storage to provide 24 hours of water at maximum consumption.

Characteristics of good water quality are,

 Should not contain excessive amounts of minerals.
 Water should not be contaminated with bacteria.
 Should be fit for human consumption
 Should be at ambient temperatures. Very cold or very warm water will reduce water
intake.
NB- If one does not trust their water sources they should get the water tested before
giving to chicks

Transporting and receiving chicks

Chicks should be transported in a properly ventilated and air conditioned truck. Avoid
transporting chicks in an open truck as strong draft results in dehydration of chicks and high
mortalities. Transporting chicks in a completely closed off truck results in inadequate oxygen
and heat stress causing deaths.

Handover- takeover of chicks should be done as quickly as possible. As chicks are offloaded
from the truck, they should be moved into the house immediately to avoid chilling and
placed evenly throughout the house. Avoid stacking more than two boxes. Quickly count the
chicks and offload them along drinker lines. Assess chicks for any deformities. It is good
practice to weigh 2% of your chicks to get an average day old weight.

6. BROODING
Brooding

The brooding period is the first 21 days in winter or 14 days in summer of a broiler’s life. It is
the most crucial stage of development in a broiler’s life and therefore it needs careful
management. The critical factors during brooding are temperature, air quality, lighting,
water and feed.

Types of Brooding

 Partial House Brooding

This is where a portion of the house is partitioned off as brooding space. A false
ceiling and side curtains help to build heat without needing to heat the whole house.
When the Birds are around 14 days, the partitions are slowly increased until the
whole house is used.

 Spot Brooding

This is where brooder guards or ring boxes are used to confine chicks within the source of
heat. These are then removed at 7 to 10 days.

Sources of heat

Great attention is needed when placing heat sources as these can be knocked over and burn
the chicks or cause fire in the house. Heat lamps can be hung in the brooding area to
provide heat and a common one is hanging a tightly secured hover lamp from the ceiling.
This keeps the chicks warm. Infra-red lights are more convenient than white light which
promote pecking between chicks. Electrical brooders can also be used and these distribute
heat evenly in the house

Where electricity is not available, charcoal, gas or wood can be used to warm the chicks.

Temperature

Day old chicks depend entirely on litter temperature to help them regulate their body
temperature. Young birds lose heat faster than adult birds because they have a larger ratio
of body surface to body mass. It is recommended to preheat the house for 24 hours and 48
hours in summer and winter respectively. Temperature should be 32 to 35 °C at chick level,
reducing it by 2 to 3 degree Celsius per week until ambient temperature is reached.
AGE TEMPERATURE RANGE
WEEK 1 33oC
Week 2 30oC
Week 3 27 oC
Week 4 24 oC
Week 5 21 oC
Week 6 19 oC

Chick behaviour is a good indicator of the temperature as shown by the diagrams below.

Brooding Equipment

Brooding comprises of 3 elements which are

 Heating Source for providing warmth to the chicks,

 Reflectors which reflect light.
 Brooder guard help to prevent chicks from staying too far away from the heat
supply.
7. GROWING AND FINISHING PHASE
As broilers grow, their water, oxygen, and feed requirements increase. This means that
watering, ventilation and feeding space has to be increased accordingly. It is then very
important to adhere to the recommended stocking densities.

Stocking density of at least 10 and a maximum of 12 birds per square metre is

recommended for broilers. This will enable the birds to move freely, fresh air to dry the
droppings quickly to avoid ammonia built up in the fowl run and to keep the bedding dry.

It is highly recommended that feeders and drinkers be adjusted to the level of the broiler
tail. This will help the birds to access feed and water without struggle. If the feeders and
drinkers are too high or very low, birds struggle and as a result feed and water intake is
compromised leading to low consumption of both resulting in retardation in growth.

Do not change from one form of feed to another time and again i.e., from mashes to
crumbles or pellets. This will stress the birds and can have adverse effects on the growth of
your broilers. Strictly follow the feeding recommendations for your chosen regime. For
example, if you decide to use the three phase feeding regime follow it religiously. Feeding
regimes differ in nutrient make ups e.g. crude protein percentage and energy levels.

8. BIOSECURITY AND SANITATION

Bio security is the term used to describe an overall strategy or succession of measures
employed to exclude infectious diseases from a production site. A comprehensive bio-
security program involves a sequence of planning, implementing and controlling. Bio
security will prevent or reduce flock exposure to disease-causing organisms.

When developing a biosecurity programme, three components should be considered:

a) Location: Farm should be arranged so that broilers are isolated from other poultry and
livestock. Single-age sites (all-in-all-out) are preferable so that recycling of pathogens
and live vaccine strains is limited. Under commercial production, it is suggested that a
minimum of 1km be established from where the broilers are kept to where the layers
are also kept. It is of utter most important to separate the various business units, i.e. a
hatchery, a broiler or layer production unit and an abattoir. We recommend a minimum
distance of 1km apart so as to minimise the spread of disease.

b) Farm Design: A barrier (fence) is necessary to prevent unauthorised access. Housing

should be designed to minimise traffic flow, to facilitate cleaning and disinfection, and
constructed to be bird and rodent proof. Hence, we recommend to use a 13mm wire
 mesh on the fowl houses to prevent small birds, rodents and also snakes from accessing
the your flock.

c) Operational Procedures: Procedures must control the movement of people, feed,

equipment and animal on the farm to prevent the introduction and spread of disease.
Routine procedures may have to be modified in the event of a change in disease status.

The following is the recommended Cleaning Out Programme for all fowl runs:

1. Dry Cleaning: This entails the removal of all litter from the fowl run and should be
dumped or disposed not less than 2km from the broiler site.
2. Wet Cleaning (water only): use high pressure clean water to remove dirt on the
floor.
3. Wet Cleaning (using a detergent): use water mixed a detergent to completely and
thoroughly clean the floor, the walls, the ceiling of the fowl run.
4. Rinsing: Rinse the cleaned fowl run using water only so as to flush out the remaining
dirty and removing the detergent.
5. Apply the disinfectant: read carefully the instructions on how to use the disinfectant
as per manufacture’s recommendation. Rest the fowl run for a period of not less
than 10 to 14 days before another flock is introduced to the house. This time frame
should be religiously followed so as to break the life cycle of bacteria and prevent
bacterial build up which will affect your new flock.

Sanitation

Floors, walls, ceilings and all equipment must be cleaned and disinfected at least one week
before arrival of the chicks. Also clean thoroughly around the house. Remove feathers, old
bags or any material that could be infected with germs, bacteria of viruses.

Biosecurity Programme:

1. Restrict visitors. Establish visitation requirements for any visitor, which includes a risk
assessment protocol for that individual, which must be completed prior to entry.
2. A changing room should be built at the farm entrance and should be used by
everybody. The changing room should have a shower with hot water and protective
clothing, clean and ready for use such that when people enter the block they leave
their own clothes on the ‘dirty’ side go through a shower with disinfecting soap then
change into clean farm protective clothing (overalls, gumboots, etc.).
3. Stipulate farm entry protocols, including a change of clothing and footwear for staff
and visitors.
4. Provide a change of footwear or disposable boots at the entrance to every house.
 5. No equipment should be brought onto the farm unless it has been cleaned and
disinfected.
6. All vehicles must be cleaned prior to farm entry.
7. Establish clear and implemented procedures for house cleaning and disinfection.
8. Establish clear and implemented procedures for litter management and disposal.
9. Reduce pathogen carryover by allowing adequate down-time for farm cleaning.
10. Establish clear and implemented procedures for feed hygiene, transport and delivery.
11. Establish clear and implemented procedures for water management and sanitation.
12. Establish an integrated pest control programme.
13. Establish procedures for dead bird disposal.

9. HEALTH AND DISEASES

A bird in good health is alert, the eyes are bright and the feathers are glossy and are held
tightly against the body, except at the vent. It eats well and drinks normally. It walks straight
and upright. Any variation in these signs indicates that one should suspect that something
might be wrong.  

COMMON BROILER DISEASES

a) COCCIDIOSIS

It is a protozoa infection which affects the caeca and intestines of birds. Destruction of cells
of the intestinal mucous membrane by the protozoa results in impaired nutrient absorption.
It is characterized by loose, mucoid, watery droppings which are blood stained in severe
cases. In addition, it is also characterised by poor growth rate, loss of weight, poor
uniformity, reduced feed conversion efficiency, inactivity, lethargy, ruffled feathers and loss
of appetite. Mortality rate can go up to 30% or even higher. Internally the intestinal tract is
red and swollen with very little feed in it. This is caused by poor hygiene, wet litter and poor
ventilation. Ammonia smells from dirty wet litter under these conditions will add stress to
the birds. People entering the broiler houses are at times responsible for bringing in
Coccidiosis where biosecurity measures are not adequate. Transfer from house to house
and from farm to farm can also occur in this way.

Prevention – good management, good hygiene, good biosecurity, an effective disinfection

policy with the advice of a veterinarian, dry and friable litter, appropriate stocking densities,
limited access to broiler houses by people, coccidiostats in the feed at a preventative level
and vaccination.

Treatment – antibiotics, ESB3 or any sulphur drugs.

 b) COLI BACILLOSIS

This is a common bacterial infection caused by E. coli. It is characterized by septicaemia and

high mortalities. The cavities of the body become infected and birds show a fever, retarded
growth and mortality. Transmission can take place in the hatchery and accompany birds to
poultry farms. It can be by the faeces and from inhaling infected dust in the poultry house/
Environmental changes like temperature change, poor ventilation or side effects from live
virus vaccines may predispose to E. coli infection. Birds are weak, listless with ruffled
feathers, they huddle together and have watery diarrhea.  They are disinclined to feed or
drink. In chronic cases retarded growth and uneven flocks are common. Mortality can be as
high as up to 50%.

Prevention – good management, effective hygiene practices, no wet litter, good ventilation
and minimize stress reduces the chances of outbreak of this disease.

Treatment – antibiotics.

c) YOLK SAC INFECTION

This is a bacterial infection which is normally experienced during the early growth stages
when the yolk is still being utilized by the chick. It is characterized by discolored (darkening)
and a distended belly. Factors which aggravate yolk sac infection include poor hygiene in the
brooding environment, during transportation and in the hatchery.  It may be associated with
omphalitis (naval infection). Signs are unhealed navels which are wet and dark in colour.

Prevention – good hygiene in the hatchery, during transportation and whilst brooding.

Treatment – antibiotics.  

d) NEWCASTLE DISEASE (NCD)

This is a notifiable disease meaning a government official should be given notice of a disease
outbreak or suspected cases.This is a highly contagious virus disease which generally
spreads by being airborne. Also from bird to bird through direct and indirect contact. It can
be transmitted by wild birds, droppings, by feed and water, by people moving from farm to
farm or from house to house, by mechanical means including by infected equipment. It
affects the respiratory tract, brain and visceral organs. The signs are gasping, coughing,
hoarse chirping, rattling of the windpipe, loss of appetite, thirst, greenish diarrhoea,
listlessness, huddling near the heat source and nervous symptoms which usually appear one
or two days after the respiratory signs occurring in about half of the birds. These include
partial or complete paralysis of the legs or wings, the head is held between the bird’s legs or
is held straight back between the bird’s shoulders, neck-twisting, walking backwards, in
circles, tumbling and so-called star-gazing. This disease can claim up to 100% mortality
within 24 – 72 hours in unvaccinated flocks.

Prevention and Control – the control is based upon prevention - vaccination. In Zimbabwe
chicks are normally vaccinated at day old at the hatchery and should be booster vaccinated
at the age of three weeks (at day 21) for effective immunity.

Treatment – no effective treatment exists.

e) PNEUMONIA

This is due to chilling and temperature fluctuations in the brooder.

Prevention – good management, effective temperature control and avoidance of draughts.

Treatment – antibiotics.

f) INFECTIOUS  BURSAL DISEASE (IBD) or GUMBORO DISEASE

This is a highly contagious virus disease of young birds, causing destruction of the immune
system. It affects birds between three and seven weeks of age. However, older birds of up
to twelve weeks of age may also be affected. Symptoms include poor uniformity and poor
growth rate, dehydration, a white diarrhea, inactivity, severe listlessness, huddling and
ruffled feathers. Birds peck at their own vents. The bird can thus die of anything which
challenges its immune system such as secondary bacterial infections. Mortality varies from
5-30% or more.

Prevention and control – by vaccination at day 12 and again at day 16 (which is the
booster). Good hygiene and sound management practices.

Treatment - no treatment.

g) INFECTIOUS BRONCHITIS (IB)

This is a highly contagious mild viral respiratory disease characterized by respiratory

symptoms that may be observed only when the birds are quiet in the evening. Mortalities
are usually low or do not occur. However, secondary bacterial infections often occur. Birds
are frequently infected in early life without being noticed. Symptoms are often difficult to
observe. Mild respiratory sounds or coughing may occur. These are not specific to IB.
Usually the upper respiratory system such as the nose and the sinuses of the head are mildly
inflamed.

Prevention – good management, effective temperature control, good ventilation and

correct stocking density. Vaccination.

Treatment – no treatment.

h) ASCITES (WATER-BELLY DISEASE)

This disease is caused by an accumulation of fluid in the abdomen of the bird. It is a

syndrome arising from reduced oxygen pressure in the blood. It may originate from
brooding challenges (poor heating/ventilation balance) causing low oxygen levels and the
high requirement of the rapidly growing broiler leads to an increased body demand for
oxygen, thus increased cardiac output, thus increased pulmonary arterial pressure
(pulmonary hypertension), resulting in increased right ventricular dilation/hypertrophy, thus
increased intravascular pulmonary pressure, resulting in hypertensive lung oedema and
possible sudden death, valvular insufficiency and right ventricular failure (RVF), congestion
of the liver and oedema and seepage of fluid which accumulates in the abdomen –Asites.
Flock mortality due to this can reach 10% peaking at 4-5 weeks of age.

Prevention and control – good ventilation and management of heat stress, a balanced diet,
avoidance of chilling all help to alleviate this.

i) CHRONIC RESPIRITORY DISEASE (CRD)

This is a very well known disease. It is characterized by a chronic respiratory disease of the
upper and lower respiratory system as well as mortalities that are due to secondary
bacterial infection. The sinuses of the head may be swollen and a nasal discharge occurs.
Watery eyes can also develop. A respiratory noise can be heard especially when birds are at
rest. Infected birds have a characteristic smell which is observed when they are handled.
Lack of appetite occurs leading to decreased weight gains and a poor feed conversion ratio
(FCR). Sneezing and coughing can occur. It is caused by an organism, Mycoplasma
gallisepticum, which can be killed by most disinfectants.

Prevention and control – eliminate the mycoplasma infection using effective disinfection
practices. Improve ventilation, good hygiene, good dry litter, good management.

Treatment - antibiotics.

DISPOSAL OF DEAD BIRDS

Use of incinerators
This is the more preferred method but it is expensive. This would be preferred where soil
drainage is poor or there is danger of contaminating the underground water supply.
Use of disposal pits
For a 15 000 bird unit, the disposal pit should be 2 metres deep and 2.5 m 2. The top should
be covered with about 30 cm of soil. The depository opening should be kept closed all the
time.

DISEASE PREVENTION

“Prevention is better than cure”. Good overall management, correct feeding, good housing
and buying day old chicks from a reputable supplier all contribute a great deal towards
preventing diseases from occurring in the first place. One must be able to identify sick birds.
Contact your local Veterinarian in good time if something goes wrong for professional
assistance.

10.RECORD KEEPING
Record keeping and analysis are essential to determine the effects of changes to nutrition,
management, environment and health status. Accurate production records are essential for
the effective management, assessment of risk, control of the system and active response to
developing problems. The following records should be kept.

Chick placement • Number of day-olds

• Flock of origin and flock age
• Date and time of arrival
• Dead on Arrivals
• Uniformity
• Stocking density
• Lighting programme
• Litter (type and inspections)

Mortality • Record daily, weekly and cumulative mortality

• Culls and reasons for culls
• Post mortem records for excessive mortalities
Vaccinations and medications • Date
• Amount
• Batch number
• Vaccine type
• Expiry date

Feed • Date of delivery

• Quantity
• Date of starting feed withdrawal
• Feed type

Temperatures • Daily minimum

• Daily maximum
• During brooding, 4 to 5
• times per day
End of production • number of birds taken for slaughter
• date and time of feed withdrawn
• slaughter weights

See Appendix 1 for National Foods Broiler Record Chart.

11.MARKETING AND SALES

Routes to market

Failure to plan is planning to fail. So before one starts to think of raising broilers for profit,
one should sit down and plan. There are so many routes that one can think of but before
settling for one, it is encouraged to do a SWOT analysis of them all. Ask questions and try to
answer them honestly. For example

I. Do I want to sell to consumers or other businesses?

II. Do I want to build a name or my own brand?
III. Do my customers have to be actively persuaded to buy my product or they need to
buy it anywhere?
IV. Do my customers need to inspect my products before they buy them?
V. What other costs can I incur if I choose route 1 over route 2?

Depending on your answers on the above, below are some routes one may wish to opt for.

 Open your own shop

 Sell direct to take-aways
 Sell to institutions.
 Sell to Boarding schools or Hotels.
 Pop-up shops
 Selling to retailers
 Selling to Wholesalers or Distributors.
 Use sales agents.

Successful marketing methods will turn a customer’s needs into a desire for your product or
service. Do marketing intelligent and get to know the strengths and weaknesses of your
competitors then build on that.

Public Relations
Do your own public relations, yes you need to be known! Think how?

You have to make sure that as many people out there know about you and your product.
Thrive to get your business and yourself mentioned in the Herald, Newsday, Daily News and
other media regularly. That will work wonders for your prosperity. Networking with your
target market is very essential; let people get to know you and your product. If they see
your product on the shelf, let them start to think, talk about your name.

Success comes with hard work; believe in yourself that you are a big brand. BUT bear in
mind that this can only be achieved only if you use the Number one feed for every breed
-National Foods Broiler feeds. If you use them religiously, you don’t struggle to market your
product.

Price

A good business person is supposed to be price sensitive. Do not buy things randomly or
things that are not important. First things first, what you do today has got a bearing on the
end price of the product.

1. Do a price comparison for day old chicks bearing in mind the breed that you perceive
to be the best.
2. Buy the best feed on the market and in this case National Foods Stockfeeds, the
number one feed for every breed. Get value for your money.
3. Your selling price should not be based on a thumb suck method of copying what
others are doing. Calculate all your production costs to guide you in putting a
reasonable mark-up.
4. When you are happy with your return per dollar then do a price comparison to guide
you on whether to increase a bit but not to reduce your price. Cutting your price is
not always the answer to beat competition.

12. FREQUESNTLY ASKED QUESTIONS

• Advantages of pellets vs mash?

According to research, the feeding of pellets improves broiler growth rate by increasing feed
intake. This is due to increased digestibility and increased palatability.

• Why three-phase instead of two-phase?

A three-phase feeding system closely matches a broiler’s nutrient requirements minimizing

the over- and under-feeding of nutrients. Whereas a two-phase feeding system meets the
nutrient requirements of the animal “on average.”

• Why not go for high energy density feed and push them hard?
Feeding broilers on high energy density diets enhances rapid growth rate which
consequently predisposes the birds to metabolic disorders, resulting in sudden death
syndrome. Steady growth is advised to prevent such losses; this is achievable by maintaining
optimal nutrient density for each stage of growth.

• Does feed kill birds? What kills birds?

Feed when fed according to the feeding instructions should not kill birds. However, in the
event that the feed has been contaminated or moulded, birds can die.

• Coccidiosis in the house. Is it feed at fault?

Coccidiosis arises as a result of poor hygiene in the poultry house. Feed does not cause
coccidiosis. Instead, National Foods broiler diets are medicated at prophylactic doses of
coccidiostats to help control the disease.

• Poor uniformity (small birds and big birds) - Is feed to blame?

Poor uniformity is mainly a management issue. It is important to ensure good brooding

temperatures from day one, fresh and adequate feed and water as well as good hygiene to
prevent diseases like coccidiosis.

• Ascites!!! What could have gone wrong?

Rapid growth of the bird means more oxygen demand, requiring more work out of the heart
and lungs. This makes the heart work harder and predisposes the birds to ascites.

Also, diseases of the lungs and poor ventilation may also be a cause for ascites. Excess levels
of sodium in water or salt in feed leads to increased blood pressure in the lungs with the
same results.

• Cannibalism-what are some causes?

Cannibalism mainly occurs when birds are stressed by one or more poor management
practices such as overcrowding, poor lighting, overheating, injuries etc.