Chapter - 3:

Digital Modulation
Aveek Dutta
Assistant Professor
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
University at Albany
Spring 2020

Images and equations adopted from:

Digital Communications - John G. Proakis and Masoud Salehi 5/e. Copyright by The McGraw Hill Companies
Fundamentals of Communication Systems - Michael P. Fitz, .Copyright by The McGraw Hill Companies
3.1 Basics
● Modulation with memory
○ The current k bits and the past (L — 1 )k bits are combined to the set of possible M = 2k
messages. It has 2(L-1)k states.

● Memoryless modulation
○ The binary sequence is parsed into subsequences each of length k, and each sequence is
mapped into one of the sm(t) waveforms (or signals or symbols)

○ Symbols are transmitted every Ts sec (signaling interval). Hence Rs = 1/Ts is the symbol rate.

○ K bits are transmitted of duration Tb in one symbol time Ts. Hence Tb = Ts/k = Ts / log2M

○ Bit rate R = Rs. (log2M). Unit is bits/sec

○ Average energy of sm(t), is . pm denotes the probability of the mth message, if

equiprobable, pm = 1/M

○ If all symbols have the same energy, The average energy per bit is,

and the power transmitted by the transmitter is .

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3.2-1 Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM / ASK)
● Digital PAM is represented as

Where, p(t) is a pulse of duration T and {Am, 1≤ m ≤ M} is the set of M

possible amplitudes corresponding to M = 2k possible k-bit blocks and

● p(t) is a real-valued signal pulse whose shape influences the spectrum of

the transmitted signal, Hence, we can write

What is Ebavg

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 PAM with carrier
● The PAM has a lowpass equivalent Am g(t),

● Recall that Em = ½ EG (passband E is half of lowpass)

Slide 11 Lecture
Notes 1

● Basis functions for sm(t),

√2 is for ɸn(t) to
Where, have unit energy
...DIY...

Therefore,

For PAM, n = 1 (it is a one dimensional signal)

Euclidean Distance
,
Gray Coding - Adjacent
, signal amplitudes change
by ONLY one bit - WHY? 4
3.2-2 Phase Modulation (Phase Shift Keying)
● Digital Phase modulation with M waveforms is given by

Where, g(t) is the signal pulse shape and θm=2𝜋(m—1)/M, m=1, 2 ,. . . M

are M possible phases of the carrier

● Since the waveforms have equal energy

● PSK is a 2-dimensional waveform

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PSK Constellation
● Euclidean distance for PSK

DIY..

● Minimum distance for |m-n| = 1

● Substituting for Ebavg = Eb (previous slide)

● For large M, sin(𝜋/M) = 𝜋/M,

● Adding additional 𝜋/4 phase shift to the carrier results in 𝜋/4 - QPSK
○ Also see Offset -QPSK
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3.2-3 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
● The bandwidth efficiency of PAM/SSB can be obtained by modulation
quadrature carriers cos2𝜋fct and sin2𝜋fct with two separate k-bit symbols

where Ami and Amq are the information-bearing signal amplitudes of the
quadrature carriers and g(t) is the signal pulse

● Alternatively, QAM is combined phase (θm) and amplitude (rm) modulation

● QAM is a combination of M1- level PAM and M2 - phase PSK to construct

an M = M1M2 combined PAM-PSK signal constellation.
○ If M1 = 2n and M2 = 2m , it transmits m + n = log2 (M1M2) binary digits at a symbol rate
Rs = R/(m + n)
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QAM basis functions
● From the definition of sm(t),

● If M = 22k, i.e. M = 4, 16, 64, 256…. with amplitudes (±1, ±3, ±7... ±√M -1) on
both directions (I and Q),

Substituting for Ebavg = Eavg / log2M

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Summary
● Bandpass PAM, PSK, and QAM has the general form

○ PAM : Am is real, generally equal to ±1, ±3, ... ±(M — 1)

○ M-ary PSK : Am is complex and equal to ej2𝜋(m-1)/M

○ QAM : Am is complex number Am = Ami + jAmq

● PAM and PSK can be considered as special cases of QAM

○ In QAM signaling, both amplitude and phase carry information, whereas in PAM and PSK
only amplitude or phase carries the information.

● The structure of the modulator

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3.2-4 Multidimensional Signaling
● Multidimensional signals can be constructed from n=1 or n=2 signals
○ By using orthogonal signals across time (T = T1/N) and frequency (F = NΔf)

○ OFDM (later in course) is an example of multidimensional signal

○ Each time-frequency slot can carry any modulated signals (symbols)

● Mathematically, sm(t) are orthogonal signals if

● The orthonormal set to represent sm(t) is

And
The signal vectors can be defined as

What is dmin and Eb

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 Frequency Shift Keying
● Multidimensional signal is constructed by changing the frequency of fc

● The coefficient is used so that each symbol sm(t) has an energy E.

○ Can you verify the statement above?

● The transmitted symbols differ in frequency only, hence FSK

○ FSK is non-linear while QAM (ASK and PSK are special cases of QAM) is linear modulation

○ Combining two QAM symbols gives another QAM symbols but not for FSK.

● What is condition for orthogonality for sml(t) and snl(t) to be orthogonal?

Recall…
* For all m ≠n
⍴x,y = Re[⍴xl,yl]
Refer to Slide 12 in Lecture Notes 1 11
Orthogonality of FSK
● Expand the integral

Normalized sinc function

sinc(x) = sin(𝛑x) / (𝛑x)

● For the inner product to be 0, Δf = k / 2T (as the angle evaluates to

multiple of π and sin(kπ) = 0, for all integer k and m≠n)
● Generate orthogonal symbols is using Hadamard matrix (used in CDMA)

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3.4-2 PSD of modulated signals (Random process)
● Method: Treat baseband low pass eqv. signal as a cyclostationary RP to
derive PSD (Sxl) and the use
Where, is one of M low pass symbols
and In is stationary information sequence
Autocorrelation

● Changing t to t+T does not change the Autocorrelation, hence it is cyclostationary.

● Also, we calculate Average Autocorrelation for cyclostationary process
● And, Substitute n = m+k to get the standard indices (m, m+k) for stationary processes instead of distinct m and n

● Substitute u = t-mT,
for t = 0, u = -mT, and for t = T, u = -(m-1)T
● Also, use indices (0,k) instead of m, m+k
for stationary process, In , which collapses
the sum over m.

Define Rewrite

PSD

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… contd
● For linear modulation (ASK/PAM, PSK, QAM), the l.p. eqv. has the form

Therefore,
Recall,

PSD

Precoding
After Mod.

PSD with
precoding

Therefore, 𝛂 controls the PSD

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Example 3.4-1: In a binary communication system In = ±1 with equal probability, and the In’ s are independent. This information stream
linearly modulates a basic pulse

Modulation with memory L

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Energy (Deterministic signal approach -Fitz)
● Gxl(f) is the Energy Spectral Density of the baseband signal and using the
Hertina symmetry of XI(f) and XQ(f), we can write

● Also , the bandpass signal is represented as Some text use √2 as a factor for xi(t) and
xq(t) such that the baseband and
bandpass signals have the same energy.

○ Taking Fourier transform (change to exponentials first then use modulation prop. of FT),

This is same as (2.1-9) in text

Cross terms result in zero

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