CHAPTER 7

EARTHQUAKE RESPONSE OF INELASTIC SYSTEMS

Expected outcome:
1. Students know the difference between inelastic and linear systems.
2. Students can explain how inelastic systems yield and respond to strong earthquakes.
3. Students can determine required yield strength of inelastic systems to have ductility
demands no more than a specified ductility capacity.
4. Students can determine maximum inelastic deformation.

Base shear force in a linearly elastic system due to ground excitation is Vb   A / g  w

where A is the pseudo-acceleration corresponding to natural period and damping ratio of the
linear system. Most buildings are designed to remain elastic for much lower base shear.
Therefore, buildings designed to resist earthquake will still be damaged during a strong
earthquake. However, the damage should be controlled to an acceptable level, e.g., no total or
partial collapse of any buildings. The response of structures deforming into their inelastic range
is therefore of great importance in earthquake engineering.

 
Base shear coefficient A/g

Elastic spectrum
1.0 ..
ugo = 0.4g
0.8
Design code
0.6
R=1.5 to 8
0.4

0.2

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Natural period T n (sec)

Figure 7.1 Base shear coefficients from elastic spectrum and design code

7.1 Force deformation relation

To understand behavior of structural components undergoing inelastic deformation,

engineers and researchers had to conduct physical model testing of specimen normally in
laboratories. Many cyclic loading tests at large displacement to induce inelastic deformations

7-1
and to simulate condition under earthquake have been performed. Applied force and
displacement (or deformation) were measured simultaneously to obtain their relationship and
were normally plotted as load-deformation curves. Such a plot of force versus deformation
under cyclic loading consists of curves that goes around as loops and they are so-called
“hysteresis loops” which exhibit cyclic inelastic behavior of the specimen. The shape of these
loops depends on structural materials and details of construction, e.g., amount of reinforcing
steel hoops, embedment length of reinforcing steel bars. Figure 7.3 show two plots of load-
deformation relation for a steel connection and a reinforced concrete wall.

Figure 7.2 Load and deformation relations (hysteresis loops) of steel and RC members
(Source: Chopra, 2012)

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7.2 Elastoplastic idealization

For convenience, the force-deformation relation obtained from experiment testing is

simplified by an elastic-perfectly-plastic, or elastoplastic relation.

fS fS
Actual

fy fy
Idealized k
1
u
uy um
u k k
uy um 1 1
-f y

(a) (b)

Figure 7.3 (a) Force–deformation curve during initial loading: actual and elastoplastic
idealization; (b) Elastoplastic force–deformation relation

A reasonable approach to idealize the actual curve to be an elastoplastic system is such

that the area under the elastoplastic relation is the same as that under the actual curve when
considered up to a selected maximum displacement um . The initial loading branch of the

idealized system is linearly elastic behavior with stiffness k as long as the force does not exceed
the yield strength f y . Yielding begins when force reaches f y , at which deformation equal

to yield deformation u y . For elastoplastic systems, the stiffness equals to zero while yielding

occurs.

Unloading of a yielding elastoplastic system will follow a path with slope (or stiffness)
equal to elastic stiffness k of the initial loading branch. Maximum and minimum resisting
forces are f y and – f y , respectively. Yielding can occur in both directions when force reaches

the yield strength in that direction. After any yielding, the relation between force and
deformation is no longer single value as it depends on prior history of motion and whether the
deformation is currently increasing (velocity>0) or decreasing (velocity<0).

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7.3 Corresponding linear system

It is interesting to evaluate the peak response of an elastoplastic system due to ground

excitation and compare to the peak of the “corresponding linear system” due to the same
ground motion. Corresponding linear system is the linear system that has stiffness equal to
the stiffness of initial loading path of the elastoplastic system. Both systems have the same
mass and damping. Therefore, the natural vibration periods of both systems are the same when
the elastoplastic system oscillates with a small amplitude  uo  u y  before any yielding occurs.

f
S
Corresponding linear system
fo
Elastoplastic system
f
y

u
u y uo um

Figure 7.4 Elastoplastic system and its corresponding linear system

7.4 Parameters of inelastic systems

Normalized yield strength

Normalized yield strength is defined as

fy uy
fy   (7.1)
fo uo

where f o and uo are the peak values of the earthquake-induced resisting force and

deformation, respectively, in the corresponding linear system. We may interpret f o as strength

required for the structure to remain elastic during ground excitation, so it is sometimes called
“elastic force demand.”

Normalized yield strength indicates yield strength of inelastic system relative to elastic
force demand. Its value is greater than zero and up to 1. For system that deformation remains
within linear elastic range as yield strength f y is not less than elastic demand, then f y  1 .

7-4
Yield strength reduction factor

Yield strength reduction factor is defined by

f o uo 1
Ry    (7.2)
f y uy f y

Yield strength reduction factor is inverse of normalized yield strength. Its value is always
greater than 1. Ry  1 for linear system and is greater than 1 for systems that deform into

inelastic range.

Ductility factor

Ductility factor is defined by

um
 (7.3)
uy

where um is the maximum deformation of inelastic system due to earthquake excitation. This

is sometimes considered as ductility demand due to earthquake. Ductility factor value is always
considered to be greater than or equal to 1, i.e., for system that deformation remains within
linear elastic range, ductility factor is considered to be equal to 1 (   1 ).
This ductility demand is expected to be compared to ductility capacity, which is related
to deformation capability of structure while sustaining significant level of resisting force, e.g.,
80% of maximum resisting force. The ductility capacity is the ratio between deformation
capability and yield strength.

Inelastic-to-elastic deformation ratio

Ratio between peak deformation of inelastic and elastic system is

um 
  fy  (7.4)
uo Ry

It is denoted by C or CR in some research papers. This ratio indicates how much deformation

of inelastic system is amplified from deformation of corresponding linear system when yielding
occurs. This ratio could be either larger than or smaller than 1. This ratio is sometimes used to
estimate maximum inelastic deformation from a given maximum elastic deformation (elastic
deformation response spectrum).

7-5
7.5 Equation of motion and controlling parameters

The governing equation of motion is

mu  cu  f S  u, u   mug  t  (7.5)

where the resisting force f S  u, u  for an elastoplastic system is as shown in Figs. 7.3 and 7.4.

This equation must be solved by numerical method similar to those in Chapter 5, but the
numerical procedure needs some modification for nonlinear inelastic force-deformation
relation. In this chapter, we will present response of elastoplastic system to the El Centro
earthquake ground motion calculated by using Newmark’s average acceleration method and
t  0.02 sec.

Dividing both sides of Eq. (7.5) by mass m , we obtain

u  2nu  n2u y fS  u, u   ug  t  (7.6)

where

k c f  u , u 
n    fS  u , u   S (7.7)
m 2mn fy

The natural frequency n and damping ratio  are the same as those for the corresponding

linear system.

For a given ground acceleration excitation ug  t  , deformation u  t  of an elastoplastic

system depends on three system parameters: n ,  , and yield strength, which could be defined

by one of the parameters f y , u y , f y or Ry . For inelastic systems having other force-

deformation relation, for example, bilinear with positive post-yield stiffness, more parameters
are required to completely define properties of the inelastic system, e.g., post-yield stiffness.

7-6
7.6 Effect of yielding

To understand how the response of an inelastic SDF system is affected by inelastic

action or yielding, we compare response of an elastoplastic system to that of its corresponding
linear system due to El Centro ground motion.

Response history

First, we compute the response of a linear SDF system with Tn =0.5 sec and no damping

as shown in Fig. 7.5. The peak deformation of this linear system due to El Centro ground
motion is uo =3.34 in. and the peak resisting force or elastic force demand is f o  1.37 w .

Figure 7.5 Response of linear system with Tn  0.5sec,   0 to El Centro ground motion

(Source: Chopra, 2012)

Then, we analyze another system, which is inelastic and has normalized yield strength
f y  0.125 .

So, f y  f y f o  0.125 1.37 w   0.171w

The deformation response of this inelastic system is plotted together with its resisting
force, bar graph indicating time that yielding occurs and the force-deformation relation between
time instant from point a to g in Fig. 7.6.

7-7
Figure 7.6 Response of undamped elastoplastic system with Tn  0.5sec and f y  0.125 to

El Centro ground motion: (a) deformation; (b) resisting force normalized by

weight, which is equivalent to total acceleration normalized by g for undamped
system; (c) yielding code showing time of yielding; and (d) force-deformation
relation (Source: Chopra, 2012)

When deformation reaches yield deformation at point b, yielding begins to occur (Fig.
7.6). During yielding from point b to c, deformation increases while resisting force of the
elastoplastic system is constant and equal to yield strength f y . When the velocity becomes

zero at point c and deformation begins to decrease, unloading occurs and yielding stops. The
force-deformation relation during unloading from point c to d is parallel to initial loading
branch from a to b. The system would vibrate about a new static equilibrium position
(deformation at point d) before any more yielding occurs.
However, at point e, yielding occurs again in negative direction causing large inelastic
deformation from point e to f. Then unloading occurs from point f to g, which is another new
static equilibrium position. From Fig. 7.6c, yielding occurs ten more times after point g and
the system continues its vibration about another new static equilibrium position (Fig. 7.6a)
which would be the permanent (residual) deformation after vibration stops.

7-8
 Deformation response history of many inelastic systems with different yield strength
indicated by f y values are plotted and compared in Fig. 7.7.

Figure 7.7 Deformation response and yielding code of four systems due to El Centro ground
motion; Tn  0.5sec,   5% and f y  1, 0.5, 0.25, and , 0.125 (Source: Chopra, 2012)

Figure 7.7 shows that peak deformations depend on yield strength here indicated by
normalized yield strength f y . Inelastic Systems with lower yield strengths yield more often

and yield for longer duration. Inelastic deformation due to yielding leads to change in static
equilibrium position and results in permanent deformation u p at the end of vibration, which is

called “residual deformation.” The peak deformation of inelastic system may be smaller or
larger than its corresponding elastic system.

7-9
Ductility demand, peak deformation, and normalized yield strength

The peak deformation normalized by peak ground displacement ( um / ugo ) for different

values of normalized yield strength are plotted versus period in Fig. 7.8. Peak deformation of
the corresponding elastic system uo / u go is also included.

Natural vibration period Tn , sec

Figure 7.8 Peak deformation um and uo response spectra of elastoplastic systems and
corresponding linear system due to El Centro ground motion for
  5% and f y  1, 0.5, 0.25, and 0.125 (Source: Chopra, 2012)

The normalized yield strength f y has little influence in the velocity and displacement-

sensitive spectral regions (medium and long period range), it has great effect on peak inelastic
deformation for short period systems (acceleration-sensitive spectral region). Smaller
normalized yield strength leads to significant increase in peak inelastic deformation.

In the velocity- and displacement-sensitive spectral regions, peak deformation um of

inelastic systems are similar to peak deformation of the corresponding linear system. um may

be larger or smaller than that of its corresponding elastic system uo .

7 - 10
 In the very long period region, the system is very flexible. The mass stays still while
the ground is shaking. Whether the system yields or not, peak deformation is nearly equal to
the peak ground displacement ugo regardless of yield strength of the system. This is known as

“equal displacement rule.”

Figure 7.9 Deformation ratio um/uo of elastoplastic systems and corresponding linear
system due to El Centro ground motion versus period Tn;
  5% and f y  1, 0.5, 0.25, and 0.125 (Source: Chopra, 2012)

When the ratio between peak deformation of inelastic and corresponding elastic system
um / uo are plotted in Fig. 7.9, it shows the effect of inelastic action on peak deformation. As

observed previously, inelastic system with normalized yield strength less than 1 has
significantly larger deformation than the corresponding linear system.

Next, ductility factor   um / u y   um / uo   uo / u y    um / uo  / f y is plotted versus

period in Fig. 7.10.

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Figure 7.10 Ductility demand response spectra due to El Centro ground motion for inelastic
systems with   5% and f y  1, 0.5, 0.25, and 0.125 , or Ry  1, 2, 4, and 8

(Source: Chopra, 2012)

1
Note that Ry  and its value is shown as a scale on the right-hand side of the plot.
fy

Inelastic systems with larger Ry has larger ductility demand  . And for very long period

system,   Ry because um / uo  1 .

7.7 Response spectrum for yield deformation and yield strength

Let us define yield strength in forms of yield deformation and yield pseudo-acceleration

Dy  u y Vy  nu y Ay  n2u y (7.8)

Note that Dy is the yield deformation of the system, not the maximum deformation.

A plot of Dy against Tn for fixed values of ductility factor  is called constant-ductility

yield-deformation response spectrum and plots of Ay are called constant-ductility pseudo-

7 - 12
acceleration response spectrum. These Dy , Vy , and Ay quantities for inelastic systems are

related in a similar way as D, V, and A for linear systems.

Yield strength of an elastoplastic system is

Ay
fy  w (7.9)
g

The peak force in its corresponding linear system, or elastic force demand, is

A
fo  w (7.10)
g

Yield strength for a specified ductility factor and constant-ductility spectrum

When an engineer would like to design a structure that has ductility demand no more
than ductility capacity, he has the value of ductility capacity in mind based on the types of
structural system, materials, and detail of construction. Then he needs to determine an
appropriate value of yield strength which would result in ductility demand no larger than the
capacity when structure is subjected to the earthquake excitation.

In such process, he needs to calculate deformation response of an inelastic system due

to a ground motion by using the numerical procedure to obtain the response history. The yield
deformation u y (yield strength), damping ratio, and ground motion are assumed to be known,

then the maximum deformation um is obtained from the numerical procedure and ductility

factor (or ductility demand)  can be calculated (   um / u y ). The yield strength to obtain a

certain ductility demand has to be obtained by trial and error. Iterations must be done by
assuming a yield strength value and determining the response of inelastic system and then
ductility factor until the resulted ductility factor matches the target based on ductility capacity.

Figure 7.11 summarizes results from such iteration for each of six natural period Tn

values: 0.25, 0.5, 1, 2, 3, and 10 sec. Normalized yield strength is set before numerical
evaluation of deformation response and then ductility demand is obtained, and a point is plotted
to create relationship between normalized yield strength and ductility factor. After these
relationships have been prepared, the normalized yield strength can be read for a given ductility
factor for each value of natural period. Then a constant-ductility yield strength spectrum can
be created for a fixed value of ductility factor as shown in Fig. 7.12. When a ductility factor

7 - 13
corresponds to more than one values of yield strength, the largest yield strength should be used
for plotting response spectrum.

Figure 7.11 Relationship between normalized yield strength (or yield-strength reduction
factor) and ductility factor due to El Centro ground motion;   5% (Source: Chopra, 2012)

Once normalized yield strength f y and yield deformation Dy have been determined, pseudo-

Ay
acceleration can be calculated and plotted for use in structural design. Yield strength of an
g
elastoplastic system is

Ay
fy  w (7.11)
g

The maximum deformation of inelastic system can also be determined from such spectrum as

um   u y (7.12)

7 - 14
 Figure 7.12 Constant-ductility response spectrum for elastoplastic systems and El Centro
ground motion;   1, 1.5, 2, 4, and 8 ;   5% (Source: Chopra, 2012)

7.8 Relationship between yield strength and ductility

A structure is usually not designed to have yield strength f y  f o enough to remain

elastic during an earthquake because that would be prohibitively expensive. If we allow

structure to experience some damage, or yielding, and deform into inelastic range with a certain
level of ductility factor, the yield strength required to limit the ductility demand of the system
can be much lower than f o .

If information from Fig. 7.11 is plotted as normalized yield strength f y versus natural

period Tn where each line corresponds to a value of ductility factor in Fig. 7.13, we can see

that the more ductile the structure is (more ductility allowed), the less yield strength is required
in the velocity- and displacement-sensitive region. At very short period, yield strength should
not be reduced as it will cause very large ductility demand.

As Ry is simply inverse of f y , Scale of Ry is also shown on the right side of each

plot in Fig 7.13. In the building code, the reduction from elastic strength demand f o to required

7 - 15
yield strength f y is specified by yield strength reduction factor Ry . Ry is equal to the ductility

factor in the very long period range but is smaller and close to 1 in the short period range.

Figure 7.13 Normalized yield strength f y and strength reduction factor Ry of elastoplastic

systems versus natural vibration period Tn for El Centro ground motion:

  1, 1.5, 2, 4, and 8 and   5% ; (Source: Chopra, 2012)

7.9 Relative effect of yielding and damping

We plot the constant-ductility yield strength spectrum for many damping values
together as shown in Fig. 7.14. The curve for   1 is the elastic response spectrum.

7 - 16
 Figure 7.14 Response spectra of elastoplastic systems for El Centro ground motion:
  2, 5, and 10% and   1, 4, and 8 ; (Source: Chopra, 2012)

It can be observed that effect of damping is significant only in the velocity-sensitive

spectral region (medium period range) for both elastic and inelastic systems. The effect of
viscous damping  is less influential for inelastic system (   1 ) as we can see that yield and
ductility allow for significant reduction of design yield strength while increasing damping ratio
allows for little reduction of design yield strength (Fig. 7.14).

7.10 Inelastic design spectrum

In general, elastic design spectrum (spectral acceleration or pseudo-acceleration) is

information that will be provided as a basis for seismic load in design standard or code. To
determine appropriate yield strength ( f y or u y ) for design of a structure, we can compute

yield strength by multiplying normalized yield strength corresponding to a selected ductility

factor to the elastic force demand (Eq. 7.13). Similar approach can be applied to deformation
also.

fo uo A
f y  f y fo  u y  f y uo  Ay  f y A  (7.13)
Ry Ry Ry

7 - 17
 The relationship between normalized yield strength and ductility factor are those in
Figs. 7.11 and 7.13. If we repeat similar calculation to many more ground motions with
earthquake scenarios like El Centro, we would obtain an average values of such relationship
like Fig. 7.15 and normalized yield strength f y can be a function of ductility factor  as Eq.

(7.14) or yield strength reduction factor R y as a function of ductility factor  as Eq. (7.15).

(7.14)

(7.15)

Figure 7.15 Design values of normalized yield strength (Source: Chopra, 2012)

7 - 18
 Figure 7.16 Design values of yield strength reduction factor (Source: Chopra, 2012)

When an elastic design spectrum is given, the yield strength spectrum for inelastic
system can be created according to Eq. (7.13). The inelastic yield strength spectra are shown
in Fig. 7.17.

Figure 7.17 Constant-ductility yield-strength (pseudo-acceleration) inelastic design spectra

for   1.5, 2, 4, 6, and 8 , and   5% constructed from a given elastic design spectrum
(Source: Chopra, 2012)

7 - 19
 Figure 7.18 Constant-ductility yield-strength (pseudo-acceleration) inelastic design spectra
for   1.5, 2, 4, 6, and 8 , and   5% constructed from a given elastic design spectrum
shown in log-log scale (Source: Chopra, 2012)

The above yield-strength inelastic spectra are related to design yield strength and were
obtained from Eq. (7.13), but the maximum deformation of inelastic system should be
calculated using the ratio um uo which is shown in Fig. 7.19. Maximum inelastic deformation

spectrum can be obtained by multiplying the elastic deformation response spectrum by um / uo

ratio which is equal to  / Ry (Eq. 7.4) where R y follows Eq. (7.15).

2
u   A  A  Tn 
um  m uo  uo     (7.16)
uo Ry Ry n2 Ry  2 

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 Figure 7.19 Ratio um / uo of peak deformations um and un of elastoplastic system and
corresponding linear system plotted versus natural period Tn for   1, 1.5, 2, 4, 6, and 8 ;
(Source: Chopra, 2012)

If the elastic deformation response spectrum is obtained from elastic pseudo-

acceleration design spectrum by dividing uo  D  A n2 and maximum deformation um is

obtained from um   um uo   uo , the inelastic deformation response spectra are shown in Fig.

7.19 for   1, 1.5, 2, 4, 6, and 8 . Notice that this figure looks like Fig. 7.8.

Figure 7.20 Inelastic deformation spectra for   1.5, 2, 4, 6, and 8 ;   5%

(Source: Chopra, 2012)

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Example 7.1

Consider a one-story frame with lumped weight w and natural vibration period in the
linearly elastic range, Tn = 0.25 sec. Determine the lateral deformation and lateral force (in
terms of w) for which the frame should be designed if (1) the system is required to remain
elastic, (2) the allowable ductility factor is 4, and (3) the allowable ductility factor is 8. Assume
that ζ =5% and force–deformation behavior is elastoplastic. The design earthquake has a peak
acceleration of 0.5g and its elastic design spectrum is given by Fig. E7.1 multiplied by 0.5.

Figure E7.1 Elastic pseudo-acceleration design spectrum for ground motions with
ugo  1g, ugo  48 in./sec, and ugo  36 in. ;   5% (Source: Chopra, 2012)

Solution

For a system with Tn = 0.25 sec, A = (2.71g)(0.5) = 1.355g from Fig. E7.1 and Ry  2  1

from Eq. (7.15) or Fig. 7.16.

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 A 1.355 g
Ay  
Ry 2  1

Ay 1.355w
fy  w (a)
g 2  1
From Eq. (7.16),
2
1  Tn 
um     A
Ry  2 
2
  0.25   (b)
um    1.355 g  0.828
2  1  2  2  1

Substituting μ = 1, 4, and 8 in Eqs. (a) and (b) gives the following results.

μ fy w um (in.)
1 1.355 0.828
4 0.512 1.252
8 0.35 1.71

Example 7.2

Consider a one-story frame with lumped weight w, Tn = 0.25 sec, and f y = 0.512w.

Assume that ζ = 5% and elastoplastic force–deformation behavior. Determine the lateral

deformation for the design earthquake defined in Example 7.1.

Solution

For a system with Tn = 0.25 sec, A = (2.71g)(0.5) = 1.355g from Fig. E7.1.

Ay fy 0.512 w
   0.512
g w w

Ry and μ are computed by

A 1.355 g
Ry    2.646
Ay 0.512 g
1  Ry2 1  (2.646) 2
  4
2 2

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The lateral deformation um is computed by Eq. (7.16):

2
 A  Tn 
um   
Ry  2 

um 
 4 1.355 g   0.25 
2

 1.252 in.
 
2.646  2 

7 - 24
Exercises

1. A SDF system has the following properties: lumped weight 2400kg, elastic lateral stiffness
k  370kN/m , yield strength f y  25kN and   2% . The lateral force-deformation

relation is idealized as elastic-perfectly plastic.

a) When this system vibrates at amplitude smaller than u y , determine the natural period

and damping ratio of this system.

b) Can these properties be defined for motions at larger amplitude? Explain your answer.
c) Determine f y and Ry for this system subjected to El Centro ground motion scaled up

by a factor of 3.

2. Consider elastoplastic force-deformation behavior of an SDF system having Tn  1sec ,

  5% and f y  0.15w . Determine the maximum lateral deformation of the system for
the elastic design spectrum shown in Fig. E7.1 scaled to a peak ground acceleration of 0.5g.

3. Consider an SDF system having elastoplastic force-deformation relation with   5% . The

design earthquake has a peak acceleration of 0.5g and its elastic design spectrum is given
by Fig. E7.1 scaled by 0.5. Determine the lateral deformation and lateral force (in term of
w) of the SDF system with Tn  0.02, 0.5, and 2sec if

a) the system is required to remain elastic,

b) the system is designed with allowable ductility factor of 2, 4, 8. Discuss on how
structural yielding affects design deformation and design force.

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