Pharmacy Exam

Guide
Step II
PHARMACOGNOSY-
I
1st Edition
(P2C2)

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 DISCLAIMER
Care has been taken to confirm the accuracy of the information present and to describe
generally accepted practices. However, the authors, editors, and publisher are not responsible
for errors or omissions or for any consequences from application of the information in this
book and make no warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the currency,
completeness, or accuracy of the contents of the publication. Application of this information
in a particular situation remains the professional responsibility of the practitioner; the clinical
treatments described and recommended may not be considered absolute and universal
recommendations.

We DO NOT own the rights of the pictures and some context. All rights reserved to their
copyright owner, those context and pictures are just used as a reference in this book.

The authors, editors, and publisher have exerted every effort to ensure that drug selection
and dosage set forth in this text are in accordance with the current recommendations and
practice at the time of publication.
 Compiled By:
Abdul Sattar Rashid

Ali Ahsan

Ammara Khalique

Anmol Tahreem

Fareed Ahmed Rang Ali

Hamza Rohail

Laiq Ur Rehman Khan

Mehrab Fatima

Memoon Babar

Muhammad Qasim Yousaf

Ramsha Tahir

Sadia

Salbia Shereen

Sharmeen BaiG

Umair Javaid

Zafeer Naeem
Dedicated to Our Parents

And TeacherS
 Acknowledgement

The future belongs to those who believe in the beauty of their

dreams.
The preparation of this book “Pharmacy Exam Guide” was
just a dream of some students of Doctor of Pharmacy,
University of Central Punjab, which could not be fulfill
without the help and support of our teachers and parents.
We appreciate the tireless efforts of Our Teachers who
encouraged us always to achieve our endeavor, no matter,
how hard they can be.
We are much indebted to Our Parents for inspiring and
motivating us to achieve the great goals in life.
 Introduction, Scope and History 1

Chapter 1 Introduction, Scope and History ..................................................................................... 2

Chapter 2 Classification of Drugs ..................................................................................................... 4
Chapter 3 Preparation of Drugs for Commercial Market ................................................................ 6
Chapter 4 Drug Evaluation ............................................................................................................... 9
Chapter 5 Method of Cultivation/Propagation..............................................................................12
Chapter 6 Drug Adulteration .........................................................................................................14
Chapter 7 Growth Regulators or Phytohormones .........................................................................16
Chapter 8 Families .........................................................................................................................20
Chapter 9 Allergen and Allergenic Preparation .............................................................................31
Chapter 10 Enzymes ........................................................................................................................36
Chapter 11 PESTS AND PESTICIDES..................................................................................................39
Chapter 12 Poisonous Plants of Pakistan ........................................................................................42

Pharmacy Exam Guide


Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION, SCOPE
AND HISTORY
Pharmacognosy is an applied science that deals with
biological, biochemical and economical features of
natural drug and their constituents
Pharmacognosy is a branch of pharmacology which
deals with medical substance of biological origin, esp.
those obtain from plants.
It is a branch of knowledge concern with medicinal
drug obtain from plant and other natural sources
Pharmacognosy is concerned with physical, chemical,
biochemical and biological properties of drugs and
substance or potential drugs and substance of
natural origin and search for new drugs from natural
source.
Organized Drug
Organized drug or Cellular drugs are those that
consist of cell. E.g. Leaves (Senna leaf) or Seeds
(Datura)
Unorganized Drug
Unorganized drug or acellular drugs are those that do
not contain cells. E.g. Gums, Mucilage
Pharmacognosy is mainly concerned with the study
of crude drug of vegetable or animal origin i.e. it
deals with natural source of drugs.
The term Pharmacognosy was first coined by C.A.
Seydler in 1815. This term is composed of two words
“Pharmakon” meaning drug “Gnosis” meaning
knowledge i.e. knowledge of drugs.
Fluckiger gave the more comprehensive concept of
the subject; pharmacognosy; according to thin
pharmacognosy is simultaneous application of
various scientific discipline with the object of
accruing knowledge of drugs from every point of
view.
Now pharmacognosy deals not only with crude drugs
but their isolated chemical constituents or
derivatives also. E.g. Digitalis and its constituents,
digoxin, datura and its alkaloids. Hyosine, atropine,
opium and its alkaloid morphine and codeine; thyroid
gland and its hormone thyroxin are all subject matter
of pharmacognosy.
In broad sense pharmacognosy include history,
distribution, cultivation, collection, selection,
preparation, commerce, identification, evaluation,
preservation and use of drugs and economic
substances that affect the health of human beings
and animals
In restricted sense the term pharmacognosy implies a
particular knowledge of methods of identification
and evaluation of drugs.
1.1 HISTORY
The history of herbal medicine is as old as human
civilization. Old document revels that plants have
Introduction, Scope and History 2
been used in China, India and Greece long before the
Christian Era.
In China, medicinal plants have been in use since
5000 B.C. the oldest known herbal compilation is
“Pen-t-Sao” written by Emperor “Shen-Nung” 3000
B.C. It contains about 365 Drugs.
Egyptians have been re-known for their knowledge of
medicinal plant. Eber Papyrus found in a tomb of a
mummy (1550 BC) is a compilation of herbal
medicine used by Egyptian.
Indians also made a valuable contribution; Sashruta
(560-480 BC) arranged 760 herbs in 7 groups
according to the diseases and condition for which
they were use.
Chinese Classical Pharmacopeia, T-Zyl- I (500 BC)
contains classical herbal medical classified on
pharmacological bases.
Hippocrates (460 – 360 BC) is known as “Father of
Medicine”, he describe about 400 medicinal
substances.
Dioscoride was a Greek Physician who wrote first
“Materia Medica” in 178 AD in which he describe
about 600 Medicinal Plants
Gallen (131 AD) describe methods of preparing
medicines in 20 books.
During the early and middle ages, Muslim Scientist
make a great contribution to medicine “ Qanun-fil-
Tib” written by Ibn-e-Sina (980-1037 A.D.) was
considered the most authentic Materia Medica was
th
taught in Europe till the 17 Century.
Zakriya-Al-Razi (864-930 AD) describes Greek-Arab
medicine in his book “Kitab-ul-Manzoori”. Ibn-ul
Baitar (1197-1248 A.D) was a great botanist and
pharmacist. He wrote a very information book on
medicinal plant “Kitab-al Mughania-al-Mufidat”.
th
In the 19 Century, the term Materia Medica was
used for the subject now known as pharmacognosy.
The term Pharmacognosy was used by C.A. Sydler in
1815 as a title for his research work.
1.2 SCOPE
Pharmacognosy has played a crucial role in the
development of various discipline of science. A
pharmacognosist should have sound knowledge of
the terms used to describe vegetable and animal
drugs.
Pharmacognosy has undergone significant
development in recent years as a distinct discipline
concern with compounds, synthesized in plants and
elucidation of their structure.
Pharmacognosy forms an important link between
pharmacology and medicinal chemistry. As a result of
rapid development of phytochemistry and
pharmacological testing method, new plant drugs are
finding their way into medicine as purified phyto-
Pharmacy Exam Guide
 Introduction, Scope and History 3

chemicals rather than in the form of Galenical

Preparations.
Pharmacognosy provides infrastructure for
evaluation of novel medicine. It is an important
bridge between pharmaceutical and basic science. It
also forms a line between Ayurveda and Allopathic
system of medicine. It provides a system where in the
active principle of crude drugs from natural source
can be dispensed, formulated and manufactured in
dosage forms acceptable to allopathic system of
medicine.

Pharmacy Exam Guide

 Classification of Drugs 4

In morphological classification drugs are classified on

Chapter 2 CLASSIFICATION OF
the basis of the part of animal or plant that they
DRUGS represent i.e. what part of plant or animal the drug
is.
In this classification, drugs are broadly classified into
2.1 CRUDE DRUGS organized drug and unorganized Drugs
Crude Drugs are vegetable or animal drugs consisting Organized Drugs or Cellular Drugs are those that
of natural substance that has undergone only the consist of cell e.g.
process of collection and drying.  Leaves
Natural Substance means whole plant or animal or e.g. Senna, Digitalis
any anatomic part e.g. leave, seeds, fruit or sap,  Seeds
exudate, gland or hormone etc. e.g. Datura, Caster bean, Nux-Vomica
Crude drugs are those that have not been advanced  Flowers
in quality or purity by grinding, chipping, evaporating, e.g. Pyrethirum , Clove
distilling or any other method, other than that which  Fruit
is essential or necessary for the proper packaging and Bael, Fennel, Calotopis, Coriander etc.
prevention of decay of the drug.  Roots
These days crude drugs are usually use as such rather Ipechacuannha, Glycrrhiza, Rauwolfia etc.
their isolated active constituent (isolated by  Rhizome
extraction) are use as medicine. These active Tumeric , Ginger, Colchicum
compounds obtain by extraction are called extractive  Wood
or derivative. Quassia
Solvent use for dissolving compounds during Unorganized Drugs or Acellular drugs are those
extraction is called mensturm and undissolve is called which are not made up of cells rather they are
marc. product of cells
 Extracts
2.2 TYPES OF CLASSIFICATION Catechu
Drugs can be classified depending upon their English  Latex
or Latin name, chemical constituent, pharmacological Opium, Papain
properties, taxonomy and morphology.  Resins
 Alphabetical Classification Asafetida, Benzoin
 Taxonomical Classification  Lipids
 Morphological Classification Castor oil, Peanut oil, Cod liver oil
 Pharmacological Classification  Gums
 Chemical Classification Acacia, Tragacanth etc.
 Volatile Oil
2.2.1 ALPHABETICAL CLASSIFICATION
Fennel, Mint, Dill, Coriander etc.
In this classification, drugs are classified
 Dried Juices
alphabetically on the bases of Latin or English names
Aloe, Kino
of plants or animals from which they are obtain. This
type of classification is employed in pharmacopeias
dictionaries and some reference books e.g. British 2.2.2.1 A DVANTAGES
Pharmacopeia, USP&NF, International Pharmacopeia It is preferred method for practical study
(IP) etc.
2.2.2.2 D ISADVANTAGE
2.2.1.1 E XAMPLE It will not give my information about chemical nature
 Acacia or pharmacological action of drug.
 Alove 2.2.3 CHEMICAL CLASSIFICATION
 Belladonna Hence the drugs are grouped together on the basis of
 Caster bean their major (pharmacological active) chemical
 Caraway constituents
Examples
 Datura
 Alkaloids
 Digitalis

2.2.2 MORPHOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION 2.3 E.G. NUX VOMICA, ERGOT , DATURA

ETC.

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 Glycosides
E.g. Digitalis, senna, cascara, Strophanthus
 Toxins
E.g. Galls, Catechu
 Lipids
E.g. Castor Oil, Bee’s wax, Cod liver oil
 Volatile oil
E.g. Fennel, peppermint
 Resins
E.g. Benzoin
2.3.1.1 A DVANTAGES
It is the most popular and important method of
classification as the pharmacological action and
therapeutic uses depend on chemical constituents of
the drug. By knowing chemical can position, we can
predict the mechanism of action, uses, adverse
effect, and interaction with other substance,
pharmacological and physical and contraindication.
2.3.1.2 D ISADVANTAGE
A drug may contain more than 1 active constituent or
it may appear in more than 1 chemical group.
2.3.2 PHARMACOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
In Pharmacological Classification, Drugs are classified
on the basis of their action or uses of their chief
constituent.
Drugs Aloe, Cascara, Senna are classified as
purgatives
2.3.2.1 D RUGS ACTING ON GIT
a) Bitter e.g. Nux Vomica, Quassia etc.
b) Emetics e.g. Ipecacuanha etc.
c) Anti-Ulcer e.g. Glycyrrhiza etc.
d) Purgative e.g. Castor oil, Senna, Cascara etc.
2.3.2.2 D RUGS ACTING ON R ESPIRATORY S YSTEM
a) Expectorants e.g. Ipecacuanha, Glycyrrhiza
etc.
b) Anti-Tussive e.g. Opium (Codeine)
c) Bronchodilators e.g. Ephedra (Ephedrine)
2.3.2.3 D RUGS ACTING ON ANS
a) Adrenergics e.g. Ephedra
b) Cholinergic e.g. Physostigma, pilocarpus etc.
c) Anticholinergic e.g. Datura, Hyoscyamus
2.3.2.4 D RUGS ACTING ON CVS
a) Anti-Hypertensive e.g. Rauwolfia (Reserpine)
b) Vasoconstriction e.g. Ephedra
c) Cardio-tonic e.g. Strophanthus, Digitalis
2.3.2.5 D RUG ACTING ON CNS
a) Central Analgesic e.g. Opium
b) CNS Stimulant e.g. (Coffee, tea)
c) CNS depressant e.g. Opium
Classification of Drugs 5
D RUG ACTING AS A NTI -C ANCER e.g. Colchium,
Catharanthus, Podophyllum
A NESTHETIC e.g. Coca
2.3.2.6 A NTISPASMODIC
a) Smooth Muscle Relaxant e.g. Datura
b) Skeletal Muscle Relaxant e.g. Curane
2.3.3 TAXONOMICAL CLASSIFICATION
In this classification drugs are classified on the basis
of an accepted botanical system of classification For
example, Plant that have alternate leaf and capsule
and berry like fruit are classified or belong to the
family Solanaceae. In this system drugs are classified
according to phylogenic relationship into phylum,
division, class, order, family, genus and species.
For example, Drug Glycyrrhiza, Myroxylon and
astragalus are classified as:
 Phylum: Spermatophyta
 Division: Angiospermae
 Class: Dicotyledons
 Order: Rosales
 Family: Leguminosae
 Genus: Glycyrrhiza, Myroxylon, Astragalus
 Species: Glycyrrhiza glabra, Myroxylon
Balsamum, Astragalus gummifier
2.3.3.1 A DVANTAGE
This classification insures precise identification of
drug.
2.3.3.2 D ISADVANTAGE
It does not provide information about the organized
and unorganized drug.
It does not take it account the chemical nature and
therapeutic uses of drug
With time the botanical knowledge of pharmacy
student is decreasing
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Chapter 3 PREPARATION OF DRUGS
FOR COMMERCIAL M ARKET
 Collection
 Harvesting
 Drying
 Garbling
 Packaging, Storage and Preservation
3.1 COLLECTION
Drugs can be collected from wild source or cultivated
source, both have advantages as well as
disadvantages
3.1.1 WILD SOURCE
Some drugs can be collected from their natural
habitat i.e. the place where plant is growing wild
3.1.1.1 A DVANTAGE
It is a cheap source of drug, as we don’t have to
spend anything on pesticides sprays e.g. Myrobalan,
senna
3.1.1.2 D ISADVANTAGE
Faulty collection or wrong picking due to ignorance
and carless on the part of labor
The supply is in consistent and insufficient
Collection is difficult especially the plant is growing
far and wide
3.1.2 CULTIVATED SOURCE
Medicinal Plant are usually cultivated to ensure true
natural source and reliable product
3.1.2.1 A DVANTAGE
No chance of faulty collection
The supply is consistent and sufficient
The yield can be maximized by using fertilizers
Modern Technique can be employed for better yield
e.g. mutation, polyploidy (to increase set of
chromosomes) and hybridization
3.1.2.2 D ISADVANTAGE
Expensive method because of the cost of irrigation
and pesticide sprays
3.1.3 TIME OF COLLECTION
It is very important because the formation and
concentration of the active constituents in a plant
varies with seasons.
E.g. Rhubarb in winter contains anthranoids which in
summer are converted to anthraquinone which is
responsible for its purgative action.
3.1.4 FACTOR AFFECTING THE YIELD/ QUALITY
DURING CULTIVATION
3.1.4.1 T EMPERATURE
Preparation of Drugs for Commercial Market 6
Temperature affects metabolic reaction in plants
usually high temperature favors the formation of
volatile oil but very high temperature can cause loss
of volatile oil. Suitable temperature for nicotine
production is 20’C.
3.1.4.2 A LTITUDE
Different plant needs different altitude. Altitude also
affects the level of chemical composition in plant e.g.
sugar cane is lowerland plant where as coffee is a
highland plant
Cinchona which is a highland plant can also grow in
low altitude but will produces less amount of quinine
and quinidine.
3.1.4.3 R AINFALL
Drug should not be collected soon after rain or when
cover with dew because water soluble component
leach out or wash away with H2O. Desert plant
produces mucilage as water retaining substance. In
raining season they produce less mucilage.
3.1.4.4 O NTOGENIC E FFECT
Ontogenic effect means effect of age of the plant on
its constituents e.g. Glycyrrhiza roots are collected
from 1.5 to 2 years old plant.
3.2 HARVESTING
Harvesting means cutting and collecting the drug.
Harvesting can be done by
 Hand Labor
 Mechanical means
Choice of method depends on the nature and
pharmaceutics requirement of each drug. Cost of
labour is an important factor. In western country
where the cost of hand labour is high, mechanical
means are preferred, but in countries like Pakistan,
where labour is cheap, drugs are collected by labors.
But drugs like digitalis and senna leaves, which
require skillful collection are collected by hand
labour. Underground plants e.g. rhizome and roots
are collected by diggers and lifters. Marine plant like
algae and agar can be collected by long headed fork.
3.3 DRYING
Drying means to remove moisture. By drying plant
material, we remove moisture to prevent molding or
fungal growth, action of enzyme, action of bacteria,
and chemical and other changes.
Drying also facilitate, grinding or milling, it also
facilitates packaging. It fixes chemical compound
present in a drug.
Proper and effective drying depends upon two
principals:
 Controls of drying temperature
Pharmacy Exam Guide

 Regulation of air flow
Drugs can be dried by different method, choice of
method depends upon
 Nature of drug to be dried
 The desired appearance of the finish drug
3.3.1 TYPES OF DRYING METHOD
3.3.1.1 N ATURAL M ETHOD
Which are divided into:
 By direct sunlight
 In shade
Drugs can be dried directly under the sun if they
contain compound, which can withstand high
temperature e.g. Gum acacia
But if a drug contains volatile oil or thermo-labile
substance or if they are highly coloured drugs then it
is dried in shades.
3.3.1.2 A RTIFICIAL M ETHOD
Tray dryers
Drugs that do not contain volatile oil or thermo-labile
compounds can be dried by tray dryer. High
temperature can be used, and hot air of desire
temperature circulates through tray. E.g. Belladonna
and senna leaves etc.
Vacuum Dryer
Drugs containing thermo-labile compounds are dried
by this method e.g. Tauric acid and digitalis leaves.
Spray Dryers
This method is used for drying papaya latex (papain),
mucilage and pectin. This method is used for drying
drug in liquid state. By this method we can increase
the surface area of the drug to accelerate drying.
3.4 GARBLING
Garbling means to remove extraneous or foreign
irrelevant matter like dirt, dust, or any other
undesirable part of plant other than drug. Garbling is
done to some extend during collection but it must
also be done after drying to remove irrelevant or
adultants to ensure quality of the products.
Sometimes other special methods are also employed
e.g. curing or sweating (aging0- to give a certain time
period for desirable chemical changes to occur that
increase the formation of desire compound or to
increase quality. E.g. Vanilla.
3.5 PACKAGING, STORAGE AND
PRESERVATION
Packaging provides protection to the drug and
economy of space leaves are baled into solid
compact mass by powerful baler. The type of
packaging material depends on the nature of the
drug to be packed. Drug that absorbed moisture e.g.
Preparation of Drugs for Commercial Market 7
digitalis and senna leave or ergot are packed in
moisture proofed container. Leaves, roots, and fruits
absorb moisture as much as 0 to 30% weight of drug.
It decreases the concentration of active constituent
due to weight gain.
Packaging is often characteristic of certain drug e.g.
Aloe, and pervoalsom are packed in steel drums
while oil of rose from Bulgaria comes in Lead flask.
Packaging should provide protection. Following
factors are important:
3.5.1 TEMPERATURE
Temperature increase the rate of reaction thereby
increases the rate of degradation. Chemicals
compounds can be degraded through different
chemical reaction, most important of which are
oxidation and hydrolysis. Heat sensitive compounds
are called thermo-labile compound. Biologics are
stored at 2-8’C.
3.5.2 MOISTURE
It favors spoilage by favouring bacterial and fungal
growth, enzymatic reaction or chemical change like
hydrolysis. Such drugs should be packed in moisture
proof container. Sometimes a desiccant like silica gel
is placed in the drug.
3.5.3 LIGHT
Light also affect the stability of a drug. It can change
the appearance of highly coloured drug. It can cause
chemical changes in drug reducing its efficacy. Such
drugs should be placed in light resistant container
e.g. Amber Glass Container.
High energy radiation light, UV is more destructive
due to high energy content (or short wavelength).
3.5.4 ATMOSPHERIC OXYGEN
It can cause oxidation of active constituent, rendering
the drug ineffective. Presence of oxidases further
increases the problem. Therefore such drug shall be
packed in air tight container. Container should be
filled completely or overhead. Air should be replaced
with nitrogen.
3.5.5 PH
pH is also important as it catalysis chemical reaction
especially hydrolysis and reduction. It is important in
case of liquid drug e.g. alkalinity of glass container
can increase the pH of the drug, that’s why, type 1
glass or borosilicate glass is used for parental.
Nature of packaging material is also important. E.g.
leaching is a common problem with plastic container.
It can change the taste of drug also.
3.5.6 INSECTS AND RODENTS
Insects and rodents can cause spoilage of drug either
directly or by virtue of their fecal matter or body
parts. Insects that frequently cause infestation of
crude drugs belong to the orders
 Coleoptera
 Lepidoptera
Pharmacy Exam Guide
 Preparation of Drugs for Commercial Market 8

 Diptera
Different method can be used to protect the drugs
against insects:
The drug can be exposed to 65’C. This not only
prevents insects but also prevent other form of
destruction
3.5.7 FUMIGATION
Usually methyl bromide is used for this purpose
Drug should not be stored in wooden boxes or paper
bag as they can facilitate the entry and growth of
insects. Order of one drug can communicate to other,
few drops of chloroform or CCl4 can be added to
container to prevent entry of insects.

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Chapter 4 DRUG EVALUATION
To evaluate a drug means to identify it, and to
determine its quality and purity.
Drug can be identified by collecting it from a
cultivated source or on the basis of specification or
standards given in a pharmacopeia monograph for
that drug.
4.1 TYPE OF DRUG EVALUATION
4.1.1 ORGANOLEPTIC / MACROSCOPIC
EVALUATION
Organoleptic means impression on organ. It means
evaluation by the help of organ or senses. It is based
upon size, shape, colour, taste, odour, texture and
sound and type of fracture. E.g. Ribbon shape
characteristic of Tragacanth, disc shape of nux-
vomica, aromatic order of umbelliferae fruit, sweet
taste of lliquorice, and pungent taste of ginger are
important diagnostic characteristics of these drugs.
Fracture can be hard, weak, soft and brittle. External
marking like ridges, furrows, wrinkles, annulation,
fissures, or scars are also important. Taste can be
sweet, bitter, salty, acrid etc. Odor can be
characteristic, pleasant, unpleasant, spicy, aromatic,
liliaceous, garlic like etc.
4.1.2 MICROSCOPIC EVALUATION
Microscopic means evaluation of drug by using
microscope. It is based upon histological character. It
is mainly used for powdered drugs and section
cutting of a drug (used for organized drug). As a
powdered drug has few macroscopic features for
identification, the microscopic characteristics
become important. Transverse section shows specific
arrangement and shape of cells on the basis of which
a drug can be identified. Presence of calcium oxalate
crystals, starch, cell wall, fibers, and vessels can be
indicated or studied by a microscope. For example,
powdered clove does not contain sclerosis or calcium
oxalate crystals both are present in powdered clove
stalk.
Different reagents or stains can be used to
distinguish various cellular structure e.g.
phloroglucinol, and concentrated HCl produce red
color with lignin, iodine solution produce blue colour
with starch, purple with dextrin and orange red with
glycogen.
Quantitative microscopy may involve following
parameters
4.1.2.1 S TOMATAL N UMBER
Which is defined as average number of stomata per
square inch.
4.1.2.2 P ALISADE R ATIO
Drug Evaluation 9
Average number of palisade cell beneath each
epidermal Cell.
4.1.3 CHEMICAL EVALUATION
That is evaluation by means of various chemical test.
As the active constituent of many drugs have been
determined the potency of a drug can be determined
by the chemical test. It is the most accurate type of
drug evaluation.
4.1.3.1 D ETECTION OF A LKALOIDS
Total alkaloid content can be determined by acid
base titration. For qualitative analysis various
reagents are used. E.g. Dragondroff’s reagent which
produces orange brown precipitate with alkaloids.
Hager’s Reagent produces yellow ppt.
4.1.3.2 D ETECTION OF G LYCOSIDES
Glycosides and steroids can be detected by
Liebermann Buchard’s Test. Born Tagger’s Test is
used for Anthraquinone
4.1.3.3 D ETECTION OF S APONINS
Saponins cause hemolysis of RBCs, this property can
be used for their identification.
4.1.3.4 D ETECTION OF T ANNINS AND P HENOLIC
C OMPOUNDS
These compounds are detected by Gold Beater’s Skin
Test or by Gelatin Test
4.1.3.5 D ETECTION OF FIXED OIL AND FATS
By oil spot or saponification test
4.1.3.6 D ETECTION OF P ROTEINS AND A MINO
A CIDS
By ninhyrdin test (grand test for amino acid and
protein) or biuret test (specific for proteins)
4.1.3.7 D ETECTION OF G UMS AND M UCILAGE
By swelling index
4.1.4 PHYSICAL EVALUATION
Physical Evaluation is based upon physical parameter
like solubility, melting point, boiling point, specific
gravity and refractive index etc.
Although physical standards are rarely constant for
crude, still different physical parameter are used
during physical evaluation of crude drugs.
4.1.4.1 M OISTURE CONTENT
Moisture causes decomposition of active
constituents by hydrolysis or by favoring bacterial
fungal growth. It is therefore important to determine
and control moisture content of a drug. Percentage
of active constituent in a drug is expressed on air
dried bases. Moisture content is determined by
Pharmacy Exam Guide
 Drug Evaluation 10

heating a drug at 105’C until the weight becomes velocity through the substance is known as refractive
constant. index of that substance.
Loss on drying (LOD %) Drug Refractive Index
( ) Clove Oil 1.52- 1.53
Castor Oil 1.47 – 1.52
Arachis Oil (peanut oil) 1.46-1.47
Limits for moisture content is different for different
drugs 4.1.4.8 F LORESCENCE
Drug Moisture Content (LOD % Certain organic compound absorbs light over a
requirement) specific range of wavelength and many of them remit
Aloe Not more than 10% this radiation. When this reemission continues only
Digitalis Not more than 5% while the compound is receiving light s known as
Acacia Not more than 15% florescence and if it continue even after removing the
light it is known luminescence.
Extracts of various drugs can be examined on the
bases of florescence under UV light
4.1.4.2 V ISCOSITY
Drug Type of Florescence
As viscosity of a liquid remains constant at a given
temperature, it can be used as a mean of Aloe Green
standardizing liquid drug. E.g. Viscosity of liquid Berberine Yellow
paraffin is 64 centistokes. Cinchona Purple

4.1.4.3 S OLUBILITY
Solubility of a drug in different solvent is a mean of 4.1.4.9 S PECIFIC G RAVITY
identification of that drug. E.g. 1 g of codeine Specific gravity of volatile oil and lipid is an important
sulphate is soluble in 30 ml of water and in 1300ml of parameter
alcohol. E.g. pure castor oil is soluble in 3ml of 90%
alcohol. 4.1.4.10 S PECTROPHOTOMETRY M ETHOD
Alkaloid bases are soluble in chloroform but alkaloids Spectrophotometry method like UV, IR, NMP and
salts are soluble in water and polar solvent. mass spectrometry are applied to individual drug
components
4.1.4.4 M ELTING P OINT
Melting points are sharp and constant for pure 4.1.4.11 C HROMATOGRAPHY T ECHNIQUE
compound and can be used to identify the given Different chromatographic techniques are used for
drug. It also indicated purity of the compound qualitative and quantitative analysis of drug.
Drug Melting Point (‘C) Chromatograph represents group of methods for
Coca butter 30=33 separating molecular mixture depending on
Bee’s wax 62-65 differential affinities of the solute between two
immiscible phases. One is fixed bed, of large surface
area (stationary phase) and the other that moves
4.1.4.5 B OILING P OINT
through or over the surface of the first one (mobile
Boiling point are used for liquid drugs
phase).
4.1.4.6 O PTICAL R OTATION 4.1.5 BIOLOGICAL EVALUATION
Biological evaluation means evaluation by carrying
Certain compound can rotate plain polarized light to
out experiments on living organism. These methods
left hand side (levo rotatory) (-) or right hand side
are also known as bioassays. Biological evaluation is
(dextro rotatory) (+) to a specific degree. This can be
done when drugs cannot be evaluated satisfactorily
used for identification of different drugs.
by chemical or physical means. These tests are
Drug Optical Rotation
performed on
Clove Oil 0- -15’ Levo
 Intact animal
Castor oil +3.5 - +6.0’ Dextro
 Animal Preparation (organ or tissue)
Caraway Oil + 75- + 80’ Dextro
 Microorganisms
This type of evaluation is less précised, time
4.1.4.7 R EFRACTIVE I NDEX consuming and expensive, that’s why, biological
Compound can be identified by measuring refractive evaluation is employed only when no adequate
indexes. Ratio of velocity of light in vacuum to its chemical assay method is available for a compound
or a drug. E.g. insulin. Or when the exact chemical

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 Drug Evaluation 11

nature, or identification of chemical compound is

unkown, and when the drug is composed of a
complex mixture and activity e.g. digitalis; and when
the active principal is difficult to isolate e.g. Vitamin
D for irradiated oil.
Bioassays are used to determine actual biological
activity. Usually animals of one strains and gender
are used. Reference Standard preparations are used
in bio assay for comparison of biological activity.

4.1.5.1 F OR EXAMPLES :
 Bacteria like Salmonella typhi and
Staphlococcus aureus are used to determine
antiseptic value of different drugs
 Molds and yeast are used for assay of
vitamins and antibiotic
 Mice are used for assay of rabies vaccine
and diphtheria oxides
 Pigeons are used for assaying digitalis and
glycosides
 Cats are used for assaying glycogen or
mydriotic activity of drugs like atropine
 Rabbits are used for pyrogenic test to
evaluate ergot alkaloids
 Human beings are used during clinical trails
Biological activity is usually expressed in units known
as International Units e.g.
 Digitalis= 1 I.U is contained in 76ug of
standard preparation
 Vitamin A = 1 I.U is contained in 0.344ug of
standard preparation
 Vitamin D= 1 I.U is contained in 0.025ug in
standard preparation
 Heparin = 1 I.U is contained in 7.7ug of
standard preparation

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Chapter 5 METHOD OF
CULTIVATION /PROPAGATION
Plants can be grown or cultivated by different
methods. These methods are broadly classified into
 Seedling/ Sexual Method
 Asexual / Vegetative Method
5.1 SEXUAL METHOD / PROPAGATION BY
SEEDS
Fully ripped seed should be collected for this purpose
when over dried; some seeds can lose the power of
germination e.g. seed of colchicum. Dormancy for
some seed is necessary for germination byt storage
for a very long period can result in the loss of
germination power. Seeds of Datura and fox loves
(digitalis) remain viable for many years. Slow
germinating seeds can be soaked in water or 0.2%.
Gibberelic acid for two days before sowing to
enhance or accelerate the process of germination.
Seeds can also be soaking H2SO4 (Henbane) or the
hard testa can be remove to facilitate germination.
Plants grown from seeds are known as seedling
5.1.1 ADVANTAGES:
 Seedling bear heavily
 Seedling are cheaper to raise
 Seedling are long live
 It is the only method for propagation of
plants which cannot be grown by vegetative
method.
 By this method new and better varieties can
be developed which is not possible in case of
grafting
5.1.2 DISADVANTAGES
 Seedlings take longer to bear
 The yielding capacity and growth is not
uniform, which makes harvesting and
marketing difficult
 The modifying effect of root stock on scion
cannot be exploited
 Cost of pesticide spray is higher than the
grafted plant
5.2 VEGETATIVE/ ASEXUAL METHOD
In these methods a new plant is grown from some
vegetative part of that plant.
5.2.1 ADVANTAGES
 These plants beer in short time
 They have uniform growth and yielding
capacity, which makes harvesting and
marketing easy
 Modifying effect of root stock on scion can
be availed
Method of Cultivation/Propagation 12
5.2.2 DISADVANTAGES
 These plants are short lived
 No now varieties can be evolved by this
method
5.3 TYPES OF VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION
5.3.1 UNDERGROUND STEMS
5.3.1.1 T HROUGH B ULBS
E.g. squill, onion, garlic
5.3.1.2 C ORMS ( UNDERGROUND FLESHY STEM )
E.g. colchicum, tuber (e.g. jalap, potato, aconite)
5.3.1.3 R HIZOME
E.g. ginger
5.3.2 2- GRAFTING
In a grafting two cut surfaces of closely related plants
are placed together so as to unite and grow together.
The rooted plant is called stock while the cut off
portion is called graft or scion. It increases the yield
and quality of the drug.
E.g. Scions of Cinchona ledgeriana (rich in quinidine)
are grafted on Cinchona succirubra to produce trees.
5.3.3 3- BUDDING
Budding resembles grafting, it involves introduction
of a piece of bark having a bud into a cavity or T
shaped slit made in the bark of the stock. Budding is
used for citrus plant, e.g. sweet oranges are budded
on soar oranges
5.3.4 4- FERMENTATION
This method applies bacteria or mold and is used in
the manufacture of antibiotics, lysergic acid
derivatives and vitamins.
5.3.5 5- BY CELL CULTURE/ TISSUE CULTURE
TECHNIQUE
It involves the application of artificial culture of plant
cells, tissue and organs of medicinal plants
5.3.5.1 A DVANTAGES
Commercials production of expensive bio-
medicaments
5.3.5.2 D ISCOVERY OF NEW METABOLITES
Improvement of medicinal plants esp. by genetic
engineering
Culture of single cells growing under controlled
conditions in a liquid medium or callus cultures
consisting of undifferentiated masses of cells
developing on a semi-solid medium can be initiated
from parenchymatous tissues of shoot, root or other
plant structure. Maintenance of these culture
depends on a an adequate supply of nutrients,
growth factors and control sterile environment.
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 Method of Cultivation/Propagation 13

Undifferentiated cells contains all genetic

information of normal plants by using hormones
(auxin, gibberellic acid), it is possible to initiate the
development of roots, shoots and complete plants
from callus cells.

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 Drug Adulteration 14

Chapter 6 DRUG ADULTERATION 6.4 INTENTIONAL ADULTERATION

METHOD
6.1 ADULTERATED DRUG
6.4.1.1 S UBSTITUTION WITH SUB - STRANDED
Adulterated drug is the drug that does not conform
(complied) to official requirements (prescribed for COMMERCIAL VARIETIES
that drug). This is done by mixing with adulterants that
Adulteration is a practice of substituting the original resembles the original drug in morphology and
drug partially or whole with other similar looking chemical or therapeutics characters but are actually
substances which are free from or inferior in sub-standards and cheaper.
chemical or therapeutics value so adulteration is Examples
simply debasement of an article, reason for  Presence of Arabian senna in Indian senna
intentional adulteration includes  Presence of Strychnous nux-blanda in
 High price of a drug Strychnous nux-vomica substitution of
 Scarcity of drug Rhamnus purshiana with Rhamnus
californica
6.2 TYPES OF ADULTERATION 6.4.1.2 S UBSTITUTION WITH ARTIFICIALLY
MANUFACTURED SUBSTANCES
6.2.1.1 D ETERIORATION Sometimes drugs are substituted with artificially
Deterioration means improvement of quality of a manufactured substances which closely resemble the
drug i.e. degradation of a drug physically or original drugs
chemically Examples
 Parrafin wax is coloured yellow and
6.2.1.2 A DMIXTURE substituted for bee’s wax
Admixtures means addition one article to another  Artificial invert sugar is used in the place of
due to ignorance or clearance. honey
6.4.2 SUBSTITUTION WITH EXHAUSTED DRUG
6.2.1.3 S UBSTITUTION
Sometimes a drug is substituted with exhausted drug
Substitution means a different substance is added in
i.e. same drug from which active constituents have
place of the original one.
been extracted by treating with some solvent.
Exhausted material is used entirely or in part as
6.2.1.4 S POILAGE substituent for the genuine drug. The extract drug
Spoilage is due to different microorganism , molds,
retains its morphology even through its active
insects or animals
constituents have been extracted.
Examples
6.2.1.5 I NFERIORITY  Exhausted ginger, fennel, tea, coriander etc.
Inferiority means any substandard drug which does
 After extraction saffron and rose petals are
not contain specified or required amount of active
recoloured with dyes
constituents.
6.4.3 SUBSTITUTION WITH OTHER VEGETATIVE
6.2.1.6 S OPHISTICATION FROM SAME PLANT
Sophistication is the deliberate or intentional Sometimes drugs are adulterated with other parts of
adulteration. the same plant, which are not used as drug or which
have no therapeutics value.
Examples
6.3 REASONS OF UNINTENTIONAL  Seeds may be present with fruit drug or vice
ADULTERATION versa
 Confusion in vernacular (local language)  Sometimes fragments of stems or twigs are
name between two indigenous system of present with leaf drugs. e.g. senna leaves
medicine and local dialects may contain small branches or part of stem
 Lack of knowledge about the authentic 6.4.4 SUBSTITUTION WITH SIMILAR LOOKING
plants INFERIOR DRUG
 Non-availability of authentic plants Here the substituents or adulterant may or may not
 Similarity in morphology and aroma have any chemically or therapeutics activity but it has
 Careless collection morphological resemblance to the original drug.

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 Drug Adulteration 15

E.g. Belladonna leaves may contain ailanthus leaves

6.4.4.1 S UBSTITUTION WITH H ARMFUL OR T OXIC

S UBSTANCES
Sometimes harmful market waste is used for
adulteration.
Examples
 Presence of lead shots in opium
 Presence of amber glass in colophony
 Powdered bark drugs are adulterated with
powdered red bricks

6.4.4.2 A DDITION OF S YNTHETIC P RINCIPALS

( COMPOUNDS )
Sometimes synthetics pharmaceutical principals are
used
E.g. Benzyl benzoate is added to Balsam of Peru
Different herbal product labeled to care diabetes
contain anti-diabetic compounds
E.g. Metformin or glyburide

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Chapter 7 GROWTH REGULATORS
OR PHYTOHORMONES
Plants growth regulators or phytohormones are
organic compounds (other than nutrients) which
effect morphological structure or physiological
processes of plant in low concentration. Plant
hormones are distinct from animal hormones. Since
they are often not transported to other parts of the
plant and production is not limited to specific
location. Unlike animals plants lack glands that
produce and secrete hormones which are then
circulated around the body.
The term plant growth regulator is used more
commonly because it includes endogenous and
synthetic (exogenous) substance which modified the
plant growth. Plant growth regulators regulates plant
life cycle including germination, flowering,
senescence (falling) of leaves and fruits. They affect
which tissue grows upwards and which grows
downwards, leave formation, stem growth, fruit
development and ripping, gene expression, self-
division and differential organogenesis etc.
Plant hormones are secreted in response to different
environmental, stimuli or factors of environment like
excess of nutrient, drought condition, light,
temperature and chemical or physical stress. That’s
why level of hormones varies with season and at
different stages of life cycle
These hormones are required in a very low quantity,
-6 -5
usually 10 - 10 mol/liter. Plant growth regulators
are employed for seed treatment to achieve earlier
growth and root development, quality improvement
like protein level and amino acid balance etc. They
also use plant tissue technique by which it is possible
to culture different parts of a plant in vitro or to
obtain different secondary metabolites.
Do You Know?
All pharmacogonosy chemicals
compounds used as medicinal agents are
secondary metabolite e.g. glycosides
Phytohormones used as drugs
(therapeutic agent) are all secondary
metabolites.
7.1 GROWTH HORMONES
7.1.1.1 P LANT G ROWTH S TIMULANT
Growth Regulators or Phytohormones 16
 Auxin
 Giberellin
 Cytokinins
7.1.1.2 P LANT G ROWTH I NHIBITOR
 Abscisic acid
 Ethylene
7.2 PLANT GROWTH STIMULATOR
7.2.1 AUXIN
The term auxin is derived from the Greek work
“auxein” which means to grow. Compounds are
generally considered auxin which can induce cell
elongation in stem and otherwise resemble indole-
acetic acid (IAA) - first auxin to be isolated in
physiological activity.
7.2.1.1 H ISTORY AND D ISCOVERY
These growth promoting substances were first
isolated by Dutch worker in 1931 who isolated Auxin
A and Auxin B from human urine and cereal products.
7.2.1.2 B IOSYNTHESIS AND M ETABOLISM
Auxins are produced in shoot, root and young leaves.
Production increases in day time. IAA is the principal
natural auxin, which is chemically similar to the
amino acid tryptophan from which IAA is actually
derived.
Tryptophan undergoes decarboxylation resulting in
the formation of Tryptamine which is then oxidized
and deaminated to produce Indole acetaldehyde.
This molecule is further oxidized to produce IAA.
Degradation is by means of enzyme IAA oxidase.
7.2.1.3 T YPES OF A UXIN
Natural Auxin
 IAA
 Indole acetaldehyde
 Indole acetonitrile
 Indole pyruvic acid
Synthetic auxins
 Indole 3-butric acid
 Naphthyl acetic acid (NAA)
 Naphthyl acetamide (NAD)
 2,4-dicholorophenoxyacetic acid
 N-dimethyldithiocarbomate
7.2.1.4 F UNCTION OF A UXIN
1- It stimulates cell elongation increasing the
stem length
2- Stimulates cell division in the cambium and
in combination with cytokinins in tissue
culture
3- Stimulates differentiation of phloem and
xylem
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4- Stimulates roots initiation on stem cuttings
5- Increases the production of adventitious
root
6- Inhibition of root growth
7- Fruit settling in absence of pollination
8- In low conc. auxin accelerate the rooting of
woody and herbaceous stems but at high
conc. they act as selective herbicides e.g. for
destroying dicotyledonous wood like
dandelion and plants in grass lawns.
9- Delays fruit ripening
10- Stimulates growth of flowers
11- Promotes femaleness dioecious flowers
7.2.1.5 E FFECTS ON S ECONDARY M ETABOLITES
 Treatments of Mentha with NAA increase
the yield of volatile oil which 5-9% more
menthol
 Morphological changes occur in Datura
producing more trichones and a smooth
fruit instead of spiny fruits
 It is used to grow sincona cutting by
inducing root formation; this method saves
2-3 years. Similarly it is also used in same
manner for growing coffee tree/plant
7.3 GIBBERELLIN
Gibberellins are diterpenes derived from acetate-
mevalonate pathway. Gibberellins are named as GA1,
GA2, .. .GAn. Gibberellic acid was the first gibberellin
to be structurally characterized as GA3. GA3 are whole
spread and so far ubiquitous in both angiosperms
(flowering) and gymnosperms (non-flowering).
7.3.1.1 H ISTORY AND D ISCOVERY
Giberellin were discovered by Japanese as phytotoxic
metabolites of fungus Gibberella fujikuroi which is a
rice pathogen
7.3.1.2 F UNCTIONS
1- Stimulation of cell division and stem
elongation
2- Leaves expansion
3- Induction of flowering
4- Breaking of seed dormancy
5- Stimulate enzyme production esp. that of
alpha-amylase which in germinating seed,
metabolized the food reserves
6- Induces maleness in flowers i.e. sex
expression
7- Induces parthenocary (formation of seedless
fruit)
8- Commercially used for vegetative and fruit
growth
7.3.1.3 E FFECT ON S ECONDARY M ETABOLITES
Growth Regulators or Phytohormones 17
 Use of GA in Anethum (dill) and
Chenopodium increases the formation of
volatile oil
 In Mentha it decrease volatile oil content
and glandular hair
 In hyocymus, vinca and tea, GA decrease
alkaloid production but belladonna it
increases alkaloid production
 Gas decreases the production of sennosides
in senna leaves
 It increases the production of digitalis and
glycosides
Effects of GA and Auxins appear to be
complementary to each other.
7.4 CYTOKININS
Cytokinins are compounds which are structure
resembling adenine which promotes cell division and
have other similar function to kinetin.
Natural cytokinins are known as zeatin whereas
synthetic ones are known as kinetin
Kinetins were the first cytokinins discovered and so
named because of the compound ability to promote
cytokinesis (cell division). Though it is a natural
compound, it is not made in plants and is therefore
considered synthetic.
The most common naturally occurring cytokinins is
zeatin
7.4.1.1 H ISTORY
The first cytokine was isolated for herring (type of
fish) sperm in 1955 by Miller.
7.4.1.2 L OCATION
Cytokinins are generally found in meristematic region
and growing tissue. They are believed to be
synthesized in the roots and translocated via xylem
to shoot.
Cytokinins biosynthesis occurs through the
biochemical modification of adenine. Degradation of
cytokinins occurs due to enzyme cytokinins oxidase.
Activity decreases in drought.
7.4.1.3 F UNCTION
1- Stimulates cell division
2- Stimulates morphogenesis in tissue culture
3- Stimulates release of apical dominance
4- Stimulates leaves expansion resulting from
cell enlargement
5- It delays chlorophyll degradation and
protein degradation
6- Many increase stomatal opening
7- Increases formation of chloroplast by
stimulating chlorophyll synthesis
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 Growth Regulators or Phytohormones 18

7.4.1.4 E FFECT ON S ECONDARY M ETABOLITES 6- It down regulate the enzyme involved in

 Cytokinins are used in tissue culture to photosynthesis
promote the synthesis of berberine tanins 7- It inhibits cell growth and seed germination
etc.
 Increase the sennoside content in senna Do You Know?
 Increases the capsule size of poppy plant Senescence = Become old
with decrease alkaloidal content Abscission= deattachment
1isoprene = 5 carbons
2 isoprene unit combine to form
monoterpene
3 isporene unit for sequiterepenes
4 isprene unit diterpenes
Terpenes are compound derived from C5
Compounds (Isoprene)

7.5.2 ETHYLENE

FIGURE 1: ZEATIN

7.5 GROWTH INHIBITORS

7.5.1 ABSCISIC ACID
It is a single compound unlike gibberellin, auxin and
cytokinins. it was called abscisin-II originally as was
FIGURE 2: ETHYLENE
thought to play major role in in abscission of fruit at
Ethylene unlike the rest of the plant hormones is a
about the same time another group called it dormant
gas or gaseous hormone. Ethylene is mainly
as they thought it was involved in dormancy of buds.
associated with fruit ripening. It has limited solubility
The name abscisic acid was coined by a compromise
in water and does no accumulate within the cell
though “ABA” generally thought to play mostly
inhibitory role it has many promoting function as
well.
7.5.2.1 H ISTORY AND D ISCOVERY
Ethylene has been used by acient Egyptians who used
to gas figs. To stimulate ripening. In1935 Crocker
7.5.1.1 H ISTORY AND D ISCOVERY
proposed that ethylene was the plant hormone
It was discovered by Osborne
responsible for fruit ripening as well as inhibiton of
vegetative tissue.
7.5.1.2 B IOSYNTHESIS AND METABOLISM
ABA is a sesquiterpenoids (C15 compound) ABA is
7.5.2.2 B IOSYNTHESIS AND M ETABOLISM
produced in chloroplast (in leaves), the production is
Ethylene is produce in ripening fruits, tubers, flowers
increased by stresses like water loss and freezing
especially in darkness. Ethylene is produce from
temperatures. It is believed that biosynthesis occurs
methionine.
in directly through the production of Carotenoids (40
carbons).
7.5.2.3 F UNCTION OF E THYLENE
1- It stimulates fruit ripening
7.5.1.3 F UNCTION OF A BSCISIC ACID
2- Stimulates leave and fruit abscission
1- It stimulates the closure of stomata
3- Stimulate flower opening
2- Inhibits shoot growth but may promote
4- Ethylene effects cell growth and cell shape
growth of roots
when a growing shoots hits an obstacle
3- It increases the synthesis of storage proteins
while underground, causing the stem or
in seeds
shoot to swell. The resulting thick stem can
4- It inhibits the effects of gibberellin on de-
exert more pressure against the object
novo synthesis of alpha-amylase
impeding (hindering0 its path to the surface.
5- Induction and maintenance of dormancy

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 Growth Regulators or Phytohormones 19

5- Ethylene effect stems natural geotropism

allowing it to grow around the impeding
object.
6- When stem of a tree is subjected to a strong
wind, ethylene production increases
resulting in a thicker and sturdier (stronger)
stem.
7.5.3 COMMERCIAL USES
 It is used to promote flowering and fruit
ripening
 Induction of fruit abscission
 It increase the flow of latex in rubber plant

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 Families 20

Chapter 8 FAMILIES
8.1 UMBELLIFERAE
Umbelliferae plants have hollow stem, alternate
leaves, small, bisexual flowers with cremocarp fruits.
Umbelliferous plants usually contain essential oils.
8.1.1 FENNEL

8.1.1.1 B IOLOGICAL ORIGIN

Fennel is a dried ripped fruit of Foeniculum vulgare
Fennel fruit is oval slightly curved with greenish
FIGURE 5: ANISIC ACID
brown colour and aromatic odour and taste.
8.1.1.3 U SES
8.1.1.2 C HEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
 Stimulant
Fennel contains volatile oil and fixed oil, main
 Carminative
component of volatile oils are fenchone and
anethole. The distinct odor and taste of fennel is due  Aromatic
to anethole. Other constituents of volatile oil include  Expectorant
anisaldehyde and anisic acid.  Stomachic
 Carminative
 In cough and stomach mixture
 Anethole is used in dental preparation
(mouthwashes)
 Also use in spleen and kidney disorder
8.1.2 CARAWAY

8.1.2.1 B IOLOGICAL ORIGIN

Consists of dried ripped fruit of Carum carvi

8.1.2.2 C HEMICAL CONSTITUENTS

Contain volatile oil, fixed oil, tannins, calcium oxalate
FIGURE 3: ANISALDEHYDE etc. Volatile oil consists of carvone, limeonene,
carveol and dihydrocarveol.

8.1.2.3 U SES
 Carminative
 Aromatic
 Stomachic
 Flavoring agent
8.1.3 CONIUM

8.1.3.1 B IOLOGICAL ORIGIN

FIGURE 4: ANETHOLE (SWEET TASTE)
Conium consists of dried fruits of Conium maculatum
Leaves are also used as drug
It is a poisonous plant, indigenous to Europe. Conine
was the first alkaloid to be synthesized in 1886, by
Laden Burg. Hemlock (conium) juice was used by
Ancient Greek to put their prisoner to death. It is
believed that it was used to poison Socrates as well.

8.1.3.2 C HEMICAL CONSTITUENTS

Alkaloid mainly conine

8.1.3.3 U SES

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 Families 21

 Sedative
 Antispasmodic
 As antidote to strychnine poisoning
 Epilepsy in hydrophobia
8.1.4 CORIANDER

8.1.4.1 B IOLOGICAL ORIGIN

Coriander consist of dried ripped fruit of Coriandum
staivum

8.1.4.2 C HEMICAL CONSTITUENTS FIGURE 6: FERULIC ACID

Coriander contains volatile oil, main component of
which are linalool and pinene

FIGURE 7: UMELLIC ACID

8.1.5.3 U SES
 Carminative
 Used in epilepsy
8.1.4.3 U SES
 Hysteria
 Carminative
 Also used as repellant against cats and
 Diuretic
rabbits
 Stomachic
 Flavoring agent
8.1.5 ASAFOETIDA 8.2 LEGUMINOSAE OR FABACEAE
8.2.1 ACACIA
8.1.5.1 B IOLOGICAL ORIGIN
Asafoetida is an ole-gum-resin obtain from Ferula 8.2.1.1 B IOLOGICAL ORIGIN
foetida or Ferula asafoetida Acacia is gummy exudate obtain from the stem and
Asafoetida is generally present as a milky liquid in branches of Acacia Senegal or Acacia Arabia or from
schizogenous cavities located in cortex of rhizome some other African allied species
and roots. The drug occurs as soft mass or irregular Acacia is a thorny tree about 6m in height, the annual
lumps or tears. The tears are brittle. It has a strong yield of gum is approximately 900g/tree. Acacia
alliaceous (garlic like) smell. growing is sandy area, produces more gum as
compare to acacia growing in rocky areas.
8.1.5.2 C HEMICAL CONSTITUENTS Chemical constituents
Volatile oil, gum and resin Acacia contains Arabian which is a mixture of
The garlic like odor is due to a sulphur containing calcium, magnesium and potassium salts of Arabic
constituents of V.O known as isobutyl propyl acid. Upon hydrolysis Arabic acid produces
disulphide. The resin consist of resinotannol.  L-arabinose
Other constituents include umbelliferone and  L-rhamnose
umbellic acid also contain ferulic acid  D-galactose
 D- Glucuronic acid

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Also contains enzyme oxidases, peroxidases, and
pectinases.
8.2.1.2 U SES
 It is use as suspending agent in suspension
and emulsion
 As emulsifying agent
 As laxative
 As a binder in lozenges and compress tablets
 Used as demulcent, antidiarrheal, cough and
throat preparation
 It is an excellent emulsifying agent because
it is soluble in wide range of concentration.
It remain in solution form upon addition of
alcohol (in conc. below 10%)
 It is stable at wide range of pH (between 2-
10)
8.2.1.3 F ORMATION
Bark is removed to expose the cambium 2-3 feet in
length and 2-4 inches in width. Gum is formed from
cellular contents by the action of bacteria
8.2.2 SENNA
8.2.2.1 B IOLOGICAL ORIGIN
Consists of dry leaves of Cassia angustifolia
Leaves are collected before flowering and dried in
shades. Senna plants are small shrubs. About 1m in
height.
8.2.2.2 C HEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
Contain anthraquinone glycosides (antracene),
mainly sennosides A and B, both are stereoisomers of
each other. Other anthraquinone glycoside includes
sennosides C and D, alooemeodin, Rhein
It also contain salicylic acid and calcium oxalate
8.2.2.3 U SES
 Purgative
Families 22
 Mainly because of sennosides A and B
 Use in acute in constipation and in all cases
where defecation with soft stool is required
8.2.3 CASSIA
8.2.3.1 B IOLOGICAL ORIGIN
Cassia pods are dried ripped fruits of Cassia fistula
The plant is indigenous to India (sub-continent). The
fruit is a cylindrical pod about 25 to 30cm long and
20-25mm in diameter. The pulp of fruit is dissolved
from crush fruit by percolation with water. The
percolate is evaporated to soft extract.
8.2.3.2 C HEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
Sennosides A and B. Cassia pods extract also sugar,
volatile oil and coloring matter.
8.2.3.3 U SES
 Laxative
 Antifungal
 Antibacterial
 Antitussive
8.2.4 TAMARIND (URDU: IMLI)
8.2.4.1 B IOLOGICAL ORIGIN
Tamarind is the partially ripped fruit of Tamarindus
indica
The fruits are 5-15 cm long with brittle epicarp and
pulpy mesocarp. It contains 4-12 seed. The pulp is a
reddish brown, moist and sticky mass.
8.2.4.2 C HEMICAL C ONSTITUENTS
Organic acid i.e. tartaric acid, malic acid and large
amount of citric acid
8.2.4.3 U SES
As laxative
8.2.5 GLYCYRRHIZA
8.2.5.1 B IOLOGICAL ORIGIN
Glycrrhiza is a Greek work meaning sweet. The drug
consists of roots and rhizome of Glycyrrhiza glabra
commonly known as liquorice (Malthi)
Glabra  smooth
8.2.5.2 P REPARATION
The plant is cultivated by rhizome cutting which are
usually harvested in October from the plants which
have not yet born fruits. Collected rhizome and roots
are dried under shade till it loses 50% (moisture) of
its original weight. The drug can be extracted with
water.
8.2.5.3 C HEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
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It contains saponin glycosides mainly glycyrrhizin.
Aglycone of which is glycyrrhetic acid. It also contains
flavonoid glycosides, sugar, mannitol etc.
Glycyrrhizin is hydrolyzed to glycyrrhetic acid and two
molecules of glucuronic acid. Glycyrrhizin is
responsible for the sweet taste of glycyrrhizin. It is 50
times as sweet as sugar. It also contains asparagine.
Saponins are used for semi-synthesis of
steroid hormone mainly
mineralocorticoid and glucocorticoid
8.2.5.4 U SES
 It is used as demulcent and expectorant and
because of these two properties it is used in
cough preparation.
 Anti-ulcer
 As sweetening agent to mask the bitter taste
of drug like Aloe and quinine
 Because of its surfactant like properties
therefore it is used to facilitate absorption of
poorly soluble drug (hydrophobic) like
anthraquinone glycosides.
 Glycyrrhetic acid has a strong anti-
inflammatory activity
 It has mineralocorticoid like activity as it
causes retention of sodium and water and
depletion of potassium, therefore should be
used with caution or care in hypertension or
Congestive heart failure (C.H.F)
8.3 LILIACEAE
8.3.1 COLCHICUM
Aloe is dried latex or juice of leaves of various species
of Aloe mainly Aloe barbadensis or Aloe indica.
8.3.2.2 C HEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
Aloe contains anthraquinone glycosides, mainly
aloein, also contain aloe, resin, barboline.
8.3.2.3 U SES
 Cathartic
 Externally used as anti-inflammatory agent
 Aloe gel is employed in the treatment of
burns and itching.
8.3.3 GARLIC
8.3.3.1 B IOLOGICAL ORIGIN
Garlic is the ripped bulb of Allium sativum
8.3.3.2 C HEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
V.O, mucilage, carbohydrates, proteins, fats etc.
Allicin is yellowish liquid. It is a sulphur containing
compound. Volatile oil which is responsible for the
characteristic odor of garlic.
Other component of volatile oil includes Allin. This is
converted to Allicin by the enzyme Allinase
8.3.3.3 U SES
Allicin is the main constituent responsible for
different actions:
 Antiseptic
 Anti-hypertensive
 Anthelmintic
 Choleretic (which increase the formation of
bile)
 Expectorant
 Hypoglycemic
 Hypolipidemic

8.3.1.1 B IOLOGICAL ORIGIN 8.4 PAPAVERACEAE

Colchicum seed is dried ripped seeds of Colchicum 8.4.1 OPIUM
autumnale. Colchicum corm is also used medicinally.
8.4.1.1 B IOLOGICAL ORIGIN
8.3.1.2 C HEMICAL CONSTITUENTS It is dried latex obtained from unripe capsule of
Alkaloids mainly colchicine Papaver somniferum

8.3.1.3 U SES 8.4.1.2 Chemical CONSTITUENTS

Colchicine is used in the treatment of cancer and
gout. Usual prophylactic dose in case of gout is 500-
600 ug orally, 1-3 times daily. IV dose is 500ug, 1-2
times a day. Seed contain colchicine up to 0.8% and
corm contains up to 0.6%.
8.3.2 ALOE
8.3.2.1 B IOLOGICAL ORIGIN
Opium (B.P) is required to contain not less than 10%
of morphine and not less than 2% of codeine. The
thebaine content is limited to 3%. Chemical
constituents are mainly alkaloids. Other alkaloids
include
 Morphine (narcotics)
 Codeine (anti-tussive)
 Thebaine
 Papaverine (smooth muscle relaxant)

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 Noscapine
FIGURE 8: CODEINE
FIGURE 9: THEBAINE
Heroine is diacetyl morphine
8.4.1.3 U SES
B.P monograph states that opium must only be used
as starting material for the manufacture of other
preparation as a consequence powdered opium
which was formerly official is no longer described.
Opium and morphine are narcotic analgesic, sedative
anti-diarrheal, antitussive etc.
Families 24
Morphine first stimulates the CNS then depresses it.
Codeine is good anti-tussive it is less narcotic than
morphine. It also causes sedation.
8.4.2 SANGUINARIA (BLOOD ROOT)
8.4.2.1 B IOLOGICAL ORIGIN
It consist of dried rhizome and roots of Sanguinaria
canadensis
The plant is widely distributed in North America.
8.4.2.2 C HEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
Alkaloids: Sanguinarian and allocryptopine
8.4.2.3 U SES
Emetic and anti-mitotic
8.5 APOCYNACEAE
8.5.1 RAUWOLFIA
8.5.1.1 B IOLOGICAL ORIGIN
Rauwolfia consists of rhizome and roots of Rauwolfia
serpentina
The plant is small shrub found in India, Pakistan, and
Thailand etc.
Manufacturer prefers the drug obtain from Pakistan
or India.
8.5.1.2 C HEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
Contain about 30 alkaloids Sadique and Sadique
isolated Ajmaline, ajmalicine and Serpentine. It also
contains reserpine (anti-hypertensive).
8.5.1.3 U SES
 Use as hypnotic, sedative and anti-
hypertensive
 It also use for insanity.
 Also used to increase uterine contraction
and in Neuropsychiatric disorder
 Reserpine exerts its anti-hypertensive effect
by depleting Nor-epinephrine through
inhibition of catecholamine storage in post-
ganglionic adrenergic nerve endings.
However its sedative and tranquilizing effect
is related to depletion of amine in CNS.
 Ajmalicine has pharmacological properties
similar to that of quinidine which is used
anti-arrhythmic drug.
8.5.2 CATHARANTHUS
8.5.2.1 B IOLOGICAL ORIGIN
It is dried whole plant of Catharanthus roseus or
Vinca rosea.
8.5.2.2 C HEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
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 Families 25

 More than 90 alkaloid have been isolated

from catharanthus
 Mainly contain alkaloids, therapeutically
active alkaloids are
o Vinblastine
o Vincristine
 Both are used anti-cancer (anti neoplastic
drug)
 It also contain tannins and glycosides

8.5.2.3 U SES
Vinblastine and vincristine inhibits cell division and is
anti-mitotic drug. The drug is used as anti-diabetic,
anticancer, antidiarrheal, anti-hypertensive, diuretics,
vasodilator and astringent.

8.6 LABIATAE
8.6.1 PEPPERMINT (URDU: PODINA)

8.6.1.1 B IOLOGICAL O RIGIN

FIGURE 11: MENTHONE
Peppermint consists of dry leaves and flowering tops
of Mentha piperita
It is required to contain not less than 1.2% of volatile
oils
The oils obtained from flowering tops by steam
distillation. The plant is cultivated in Asia, Canada,
and North America.

8.6.1.2 C HEMICAL CONSTITUENTS

Contain volatile oils, resins, tannins and gum. Major
constituents of volatile oils are menthol which is 50%
to 90%. Other component of volatile oil includes
 Menthone
 Menthylacetate FIGURE 12: MENTHYLACETATE

8.6.1.3 U SES
 Aromatic (due to menthol), stimulant,
stomachic, carminative.
 Also use in vomiting and nausea
 Leaves are externally use as analgesic,
anesthetic and anti-microbial

8.6.1.4 P EPPERMINT OIL (B.P.)

It is required to contain 4.5-10% menthylacetate;
44% menthol and 15-32% menthone.
Peppermint oil is used as flavoring agent in dental
preparation (mouthwashes, toothpaste), in chewing
gums and as cough drops. It also has mild anesthetic
property and is used rheumatism, neuralgia,
FIGURE 10: MENTHOLE toothache and headache.

8.6.2 SPEARMINT

8.6.2.1 B IOLOGICAL ORIGIN

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 Families 26

It consist of dried leaves and flowering tops of  Diuretics

Mentha spicata  Febrifuge
 Antispasmodic
8.6.2.2 C HEMICAL CONSTITUENTS  Anti-emetics
Volatile oils, resins and tannins. It should contain not  Mouthwashes
less than 55% of carvone. Other components of  Chewing gum
volatile oil include limonene, phenadrine,  Toothpaste
dihydrocarvone, and carveol. 8.6.3 SALVIA OR SAGE

8.6.3.1 B IOLOGICAL ORIGIN

It consists of dried leaves of Salvia officinalis

8.6.3.2 C HEMICAL CONSTITUENTS

Volatile oil (borneol, thujone, cineol), resins and
tannins etc.

8.6.3.3 U SES
Sage or Salvia is mainly used as
 Carminative
 Dyspepsia
 Condiments
8.6.4 OCIMUM (TULSI)

8.6.4.1 B IOLOGICAL ORIGIN

FIGURE 13: CARVONE The drug consists of dried leaves of Ocimum
sanctum.
The plant is mainly cultivated in India

8.6.4.2 C HEMICAL CONSTITUENTS

Volatile oil containing eugenol, methyleugenol
carvacrol

8.6.4.3 U SES
 Expectorant
 Diaphoretic
 Antispasmodic
 Antiseptic
 Bronchitis
 Cold
 Fever
8.6.5 THYME OR THYME OIL (B.P)

8.6.5.1 B IOLOGICAL ORIGIN

Thyme consists of dried leaves and flowering tops of
Thymus zygis or Thymus vulgaris or both

8.6.5.2 C HEMICAL CONSTITUENTS

Volatile oil (thymol, carvacrol and linalool).
It also contain flavonoids, resins, tannins and labiatic
FIGURE 14: LIMONENE acid
Thyme oil B.P is required to contain not less than
8.6.2.3 U SES 1.2% of thymol.
 Flavoring agent
 Carminative 8.6.5.3 U SES
 Stimulant  Expectorant

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 Antispasmodic 8.7.2.1 B IOLOGICAL ORIGIN

 Carminative The drug consist of dried leaves and flowering tops of
 Counter irritant Atropa belladonna
 Anthelmintic
 Thyme oil is used in liniments, mouthwashes 8.7.2.2 G EOGRAPHICAL SOURCE
and cough syrup Cultivated in USA, Canada, UK and India,
 Labiatic acid is used as anti-oxidant (Vit A, C, Plants are cultivated by seeds in April during
and E) flowering season, leaves and flowering tops are
 Anti-oxidants are use as anti-aging and anti- collected and dried between 40-50’C.
cancer.
8.7.2.3 C HEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
8.7 SOLANACEAE It contains 0.3% to 0.6% of total alkaloids
It contains apoatropine, atropine, choline etc.
8.7.1 HYOSCYAMUS OR HENBANE
8.7.2.4 U SES
8.7.1.1 B IOLOGICAL ORIGIN  Anti-cholinergic
The drug consist of dried leaves or the dried leaves  Narcotic
and flowering tops of Hyoscyamus niger  Diuretic
Hyosyamus or Henbanes’ flowers in July or August.  Mydriatic
The leaves should be dried rapidly. Preferably by  Anodyne
artificial heat between 40-50’C  To check excessive secretion in TB.
8.7.3 STRAMONIUM (JIMSON WEED OR THORN
8.7.1.2 C HEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
It is required to contain not less than 0.05% of total
APPLE)
alkaloids. Normally the leaves contain 0.04-0.14% of
total alkaloids. 8.7.3.1 B IOLOGICAL ORIGIN
It contains tropane alkaloids, mainly hyoscyamine Stramonium leaves (B.P.) consists of dried leaves or
and hyoscine. Hyosyamine (-hyoscyamine and +- leaves and flowering tops of Datura stramonium.
hyoscyamine). Racemic mixture of hyoscyamine is
known as atropine. 8.7.3.2 C HEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
Powdered Hyoscyamus (B.P.) is the fine powdered It contain 0.2 – 0.45% of alkaloids. The chief of which
drug adjusted to contain 0.05 -0.07 of toal alkaloids. are hyoscyamine and hyoscine. Atropine is also
It has Loss on drying (LOD) requirement not more present.
than 5%. Prepared Stramonium (B.P) is the finely powdered
drug adjusted to contain 0.23 -0.27 % of alkaloids.
8.7.1.3 U SES
 Hyoscyamus or henbane resembles 8.7.3.3 U SES
Belladonna and Datura in action but is  Anti-cholinergic
somewhat weaker than the two.  CNS depressant
 The relative higher probation of Hyoscine is  Atropine is CNS stimulant and depresses the
less likely to cause cerebral excitation then nerve ending to the secretory gland, and
does belladonna. smooth muscle. Atropine has following
 It is used to relief spasm of urinary tract. effect:
 Atropine and Hyoscine are used in  Antispasmodic
ophthalmic preparation to dilate pupil of  Blocking of excessive salivation
eyes, also use as sedative, narcotic, anodyne  Anti-peptic ulcer
and antiseptic  Parkinsonism
 Also used in cough and asthma  As antidote to anticholinesterase or
8.7.2 BELLADONNA (B.P) cholinesterase inhibitor and mushroom
poisoning.
Belladonna Beautiful 8.7.4 CAPSICUM (RED PEPPER)
women
8.7.4.1 B IOLOGICAL ORIGIN
Hyoscine Choice of drug for motion
Dried ripped fruit of Capsicum longum or Capsicum
sickness frutescens

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8.7.4.2 C HEMICAL CONSTITUENTS

Oleoresins mainly capsaicin which is responsible for
its pungency and therapeutic effect. Beside capsaicin
it contains Vit C, carotenoid and fixed oil.

8.7.4.3 U SES
 Stimulant
 Counter irritant 8.8.1.3 U SES
 Rubefacient  Carminative
 Stomachic  Stimulant
 Atonic dyspepsia  Anti-emetic
 In the form of ointment, it is used for the  According to one American study, it is more
treatment of rheumatism effective anti0emetic then dimenhydrinate.
 Capsaicin is included in analgesic It is also good for motion sickness. It is also
preparation like Capsidol. used as stomachic and flavoring agent.
 It is also has very powerful anti-
inflammatory and anti-platelet aggregation
8.8 ZINGIBERACEAE properties mainly due to gingerol which
8.8.1 GINGER inhibits the enzyme prostaglandin synthase.
 Gingerol and shogaol whereas GIT activity
8.8.1.1 B IOLOGICAL ORIGIN and bile secretion
The drug consists of dried rhizome of Zingiber  Sesquiterpenes hydrocarbon possess anti-
officinale. ulcer activity
Ginger plant is propagated in Jamaica, in March and  Gingerol is used in mouthwashes, beverages
April by rhizome cutting collected in December and and liquors.
January. After collection washed and dried in sun for 8.8.2 CURCUMA
5-6 days. There are different types of Ginger :
 Jamaican 8.8.2.1 B IOLOGICAL ORIGIN
 Cochin Dried rhizome of Curcuma longa.
 African Cultivated in India, China and Pakistan
 Nigerian
8.8.2.2 C HEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
8.8.1.2 C HEMICAL CONSTITUENTS It contains a bitter yellowish pigment curcumin
It contains volatile oil and oleoresins. The Curcuma contains volatile oil and oleoresins. V.O
characteristic aroma is due to VOLATILE OIL Main contain Phenadrine, pinene, camphor and camphene
constituents of which are sesquiterpenes
(zingiberene, zingiberol and bisabolene). Oleoresins 8.8.2.3 U SES
consist of gingerol and shogaol.  Anti-inflammatory
Pungency of ginger is due to gingerol which can be  Anti-microbial
reduced by 2% KOH.  Anti-cancer
Gingerol is phenolic, oily liquid. It also contains  Anti-viral
monoterpenes (phellandrene, camphene, cineol,  Wound healing
borneol).
 Hepatoprotective
 Turmeric is also used as colouring agent for
ointments and creams

8.9 RANUNCULACEAE
8.9.1 ACONITUM

FIGURE 15: ZINGIBERENE

8.9.1.1 B IOLOGICAL ORIGIN
Aconitum or Aconite consist of dried roots of
Aconitum napellus
It should contain not less than 0.6% of alkaloids.
Which should include not less than 30% aconitine.

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8.9.1.2 C HEMICAL CONSTITUENTS Collection of either first or second year leaves is

Alkaloids (aconitine, hypoaconitine, nopaline, permitted by Pharmacopeias. It is thought that the
ephedrine) pharmacological activities of leaves increases with
course of day to reach maximum in it the afternoon.
8.9.1.3 U SES Soon after collection, the leaves are dried at 60’C and
Highly poisonous drug used externally in the form of store in air tight containers protected from light and
liniment for neuralgia, sciatica, rheumatism and moisture. Moisture content should not be more than
inflammation 6%.
8.9.2 HYDRASTIS Digitalis lanata is an allied species major glycoside of
which is digoxin.
8.9.2.1 B IOLOGICAL ORIGIN
The drug consists of roots and rhizome of Hydrastis
8.10.1.2 C HEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
canadensis Digitalis contains about 35 glycosides. Purpurea
glycosides A and B are the active constituents of
fresh leaves, but on drying, enzymatic degradation
8.9.2.2 C HEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
take place with the loss of terminal glucose to give
Alkaloids (berberine, hydrastine), volatile oil, resins
digitoxin, gitoxin and gitaloxin.
Digitoxin and gitoxin are therefore main active
8.9.2.3 U SES
constituents of dried leaves the aglycone moiety in
 Astringent digitoxin or purpurea glycoside A is digitoxigenin. And
 Anti-inflammatory glycine portion is 3 molecules of digitoxose in
8.9.3 PULSATILE (ANEMONE ) digitoxin whereas in purpurea A, it consists of 3
digitoxose and one glucose molecule.
8.9.3.1 B IOLOGICAL ORIGIN
The drug consists of dried herb of Pulsatilla vulgaris 8.10.1.3 U SES
 Cardiotonic in CHF
8.9.3.2 C HEMICAL CONSTITUENTS  Cardiac arrhythmia
Volatile oils, containing anemonol, which is a  Stimulates cardiac muscles and increases the
crystalline vesicant. Anemonol is decomposed to force of myocardium contraction i.e. +ve
anemonin. inotropic effect which form the basis of its
use in CHF. Resulting in complete emptying
8.9.3.3 U SES of ventricles.
 Irritant  Arising from their vagus effect, digitalis
 Dysmenorrhea glycosides are also used to control cardiac
 Amenorrhea arrhythmia, mainly atrial fibrillation.
8.9.4 LARKSPUR (DELPHINIUM )  Diuretic action of digitalis, which is
important for the treatment of edema, is
8.9.4.1 B IOLOGICAL ORIGIN due to improved circulatory effect. Kidneys
The drug consist of dried ripped seeds of Delphinium get more blood for filtration.
ajacis
Purpurea A= Digitoxigenin + 3 units of
8.9.4.2 C HEMICAL CONSTITUENTS Digitoxose + glucose
Alkaloids mainly delphinine, resins, fixed oil etc. Digitoxin = Digitoxin + 3 units of digitoxose

8.9.4.3 U SES
Applied externally in the form of tincture as
parasiticides in pediculosis

8.10 SCROPHULARIACEAE
8.10.1 DIGITALIS

8.10.1.1 B IOLOGICAL ORIGIN

Digitalis consist of dried leaves of Digitalis purpurea
It is required to contain not less than 0.3% of total
cardenolides calculated as digitoxin.

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Glycosides consists of glycone and

aglycone part
Cardioglycosideshas steroidal nucleus
Cardioglycosides consist of butanolide (6
member lactose ring) and cardenolides
(lactose ring is 5 member.
Aglycone(lactose ring) part treat CHF
Glycone (sugar) facilitate in absorbtion and
distribution
Sugar is attached to C3of aglycone

8.10.2 MULLEIN OR VERBASCUM

8.10.2.1 B IOLOGICAL ORIGIN

Mullein flower B.P. is the dried flower of Verbascum
thapsus or Verbascum densiflorum.

8.10.2.2 C HEMICAL CONSTITUENTS

Flavonoids e.g., apigenin and luteolin. Also contains
mucilage, carbohydrates and saponin

8.10.2.3 U SES
 Expectorant
 Demulcent
 Bronchitis

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Chapter 9 ALLERGEN AND
ALLERGENIC PREPARATION
9.1 ALLERGY
An unusual response by a hyper sensitive
individual to substance or condition that is
harmless to other
The world allergy is derived from the Greek word
“Alos” which mean other or alternative.
It was first used by Von Parquet in 1906 to refer
to altered reaction in the body immune system.
The substance causing allergy is called allergen
and the hypersensitive patient is said to be
allergic to that allergen.
Allergy is an antigenic substance capable of
sensitizing the body in such a way that an
unusual response occurs in a hypersensitive
individual. It can be biological, chemical, or
synthetic compound.
Allergic reactions are abnormal or over reaction
by hyper-sensitive person to substances that
their immune system considers harmful even if
they are not.
The antibodies form against allergen are
Immunoglobulin-E (IgE), the second component
of allergy is mast cells
A mast cell has about 1000 histamine containing
granules in its cytoplasm and on its surface it has
upto 1 million receptor for antibodies IgE. These
antibodies are specific to the allergen against
which they are form. They cannot react with
other allergen.
Allergen and antibodies reaction results in
release of histamine and other mediator of
allergy from mast cell causing allergy symptoms
to develop like rashes, eczema, itching, running
nose, cough, sneezing etc.
Tendency to be allergic is genetic or hereditary.
9.2 MECHANISM OF ALLERGY
Allergy reaction occurs in two steps
Allergen and Allergenic Preparation 31
9.2.1 STEP 1: SENSITIZATION OR PRIMARY
EXPOSURE
The first time an allergen meets the immune
system, no allergic reaction occurs as there were
no antibodies form previously against that
allergen
During first exposure, the allergen stimulates the
immune system to produce antibodies IgE. This is
known as sensitization.
During sensitization macrophages break up the
invading allergen display the allergen fragments
on their cell membrane to T-lymphocytes.
T-Lymphocytes secretes a signaling chemical
interlukin-4 which activates B-lymphocytes
B-lymphocytes secrete antibodies against that
particular allergen.
These antibodies IgE are attached to their
receptors present on the surface of mast cell and
basophils
9.2.2 2ND STEP: ACTIVATION OF MAST CELLS
During second or subsequent exposure when the
same allergen enters the body, It combines with
antibodies IgE (which were produced against it,
during sensitization or first exposure) present on
the surface of mast cell.
This combination results in the release of
histamine and other mediator of allergy like
leukotriene-C and Bradykinin from the mast
cells.
True allergic reactions occur within minutes to
hours of contact with the responsible allergen.
Combination of histamine with its receptors H1
and H2 results in capillary dilation and increase
capillary permeability with accumulation of fluid
and proteins in the extracellular spaces.
In the skin it give rise to triple response i.e.
redness, wheel formation, flare (diffuse redness).
Histamine also causes smooth muscles
contraction and increases nasal and bronchial
secretion. Stimulation of H2 receptors increases
the HCl secretion in the stomach.
9.3 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LOCAL AND
GENERAL ALLERGIC REACTION
The difference between local and general allergic
reaction (anaphylaxis- anaphylactic reaction)
depends on the rate of release of histamine. If
localized released of histamine is slow enough to
permit its inactivation then only a local allergic
reaction will occur but if the release of histamine is
too rapid for inactivation to occur then generalize or
anaphylactic reaction will occur, which if not treated
promptly may proof to be fatal.
9.4 PRE-DISPOSING FACTOR
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Hereditary tendency to be allergic
Dysfunction of the endocrine glands
Increase excitability of autonomic nervous
system
Absorption of toxic metabolic substances
Hepatic dysfunction
Psychic influences
9.5 SYMPTOMS
Types of allergic symptoms depends on the site
or organ where antigen antibodies contact take
place and the root from which the allergen
enters the body
In the respiratory tract, mucous production and
smooth muscle contraction leads to runny nose,
watery eyes, sneezing and congestive air-ways or
asthma.
In the GIT, smooth muscle contraction and fluid
secretion causes cramp, vomiting and diarrhea.
In the skin, localized swelling causes hives
(rashes or urticarial), angioedema and itching.
Systemic allergic reaction can also occurs in
anaphylaxis which may result in vascular shock,
block airways, severe bronchoconstriction and
cardiac arrhythmia.
The only treatment in this case is an instant
injection of epinephrine.
Do You Know?
Epitopes: Particular structural sites on an
antigen against which antibodies are
designed and these antibodies bind to these
sites.
Epinephrine is given with local anesthetic to
prolong its action as it causes
vasoconstriction.
9.6 TYPES OF ALLERGENS
9.6.1 INHALANT ALLERGENS
Inhalant allergens enter the body via respiratory
tract through inhalation making initial contact
with mucosal lining of the nose, mouth and
throat.
If the allergic symptoms are restricted to nasal
mucosa like sneezing, lacrimnation, itching, and
sweliing of nose and eyes, the condition is
known as Hay fever or Rhinitis.
Hay fever can be seasonal or non-seasonal
9.6.1.1 S EASONAL H AY FEVER OR P OLLINIZES
The Term Hay fever was first used by John
Bostock in England.
Allergen and Allergenic Preparation 32
Occurrence of symptoms during certain months
of the year indicates seasonal hay fever. This
condition is also known as pollinizes as it is
frequently associated with pollen.
The time period within which symptoms occur
indicates the type of pollen grain involved as
different plant pollinate at different time or
season.
Atmospheric pollen are mainly liberated by
anemophilous (wind pollinated plants).
Oaks, walnut, grasses like Timothy and Bermuda
and weeds like rag-weeds are anemophilous.
These pollen grains are very small 15-45 micron
in diameter, light, non-adhesive and smooth.
Wind pollinated flowers are not colored or
fragment.
Entomophilous plants are insects pollinated
plants they produce large pollens up to 200 mm
in diameter, heavy adhesive and spiny. These
flowers are colored and fragment e.g. that of
clove and rose.
9.6.1.2 N ON - SEASONAL H AY - FEVER OR
P ERENNIAL R HINITIS
Non-seasonal hay fever is not related to pollen.
It can occur throughout the year that is why it is
known as perennial hay fever. Mold spores, dust,
animal dander, cotton linters, feather and
volatile oils are frequent causes of known
seasonal hay fever. These allergens are present
at home or working place. Cotton pillows,
blankets and bed sheets shed linters or
fragments of cotton fibers which are air borne
cause allergies.
Perfume and other sprays may also cause non-
seasonal allergies. Different volatile oil like
sandal used in perfumes and cosmetics can
cause allergies. Cats, dogs and other animals can
cause cough and asthmatic attacks. Fungal spore
e.g. the spore’s alternaria, cladosporium,
aspergillus etc. present in air and dust can cause
hay fever. Dust differs from one place to other.
Dust is composed of Mold spores animal dander,
cotton linters and other allergenic matter.
Various types of mites are also allergenic e.g.
dermatophagoides etc.
9.6.2 INGESTANT ALLERGENS
Allergy cause by different foods is known as food
allergies. Food allergen can cause allergic
reaction even after they have cooked or have
undergone digestion in intestine except fruits
and vegetables which are more allergenic which
fresh.
The most common fruit allergen involves, in
more than 90% of all allergic reactions are
proteins in cow milk, peanut, wheat, soya, fish,
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and tree nuts. Foods are grouped into families
according to their region. Peanuts, peas, bean,
soya are members of legume family in some food
group esp. tree nuts and sea food allergy to one
member of family may result in allergy to all
other members of that family. This is known as
cross reactivity.
9.6.2.1 S YMPTOMS
Food allergen generally causes gastro-intestinal
symptoms which develop within minutes to
hours of eating the responsible food.
Symptoms include nausea, abdominal pain,
vomiting and diarrhea. Symptoms can also occur
in the skin and respiratory tract including
urticaria, dermatitis, swelling of lips, throat and
tongue, asthma and etc.
Food allergens are the most common cause of
anaphylaxis.
9.6.2.2 F OOD A SSOCIATED E XERCISE I NDUCED
A NAPHYLAXIS
It occurs only when the patient exercises within
2-4 hours of eating a food which he/she can eat
in the absence of exercise without any reaction.
The exact reason is unknown. It is thought that
the exercise acts as a cofactor. Wheat is the
most common food associated with this dis-
order.
9.6.3 INJECTANT ALLERGEN
Injectant allergens are substances that are
injected to body to which the person is allergic
usually includes drugs and insects venoms.
Allergic reaction to penicillin is well known. It is
quite common to do skin test prior to penicillin
administration.
6-aminopencilianic acid and 7-
aminocephalosporanic acid also cause allergies
and skin test is performed before their
administration.
Other injectable product that may also cause
allergies includes liver extract and hormones.
Usual symptoms include itching palms and soles,
erythema (redness) and peeling of the skin.
Insects like bees and wasps also add a source of
injectant allergen. Insets stinks can induce local
and generalized allergic reaction and can even
cause death.
9.6.4 CONTACTANT ALLERGENS
Many substances produce contactant allergies,
usually the species of Genus toxicodendron,
contain a non-volatile phenolic principal urushiol
which produces allergic symptoms like watery
blisters or dermatitis. Other example of such
plants includes asparagus, daffodils, May apple
(mapple) and Marigold etc.
Allergen and Allergenic Preparation 33
Contact dermatitis can also be caused by
Aeroallergens, hairs from different leaves and
fragments of plants tissues.
Various cosmetic preparation also frequently
cause contact allergies. Oris root use in talcum,
dibromofluorescein used in lipstick, perfumes
and wool fats, in cloths or cosmetics, nail polish
removers, soaps, detergents etc. can cause
contact allergies.
9.6.5 INFECTANT ALLEGIES
Chronic infections can also cause allergies.
Bacteria and molds can cause allergies through
the metabolic wastes that they produce during
their growth or life cycle in the body. These
metabolic waste or products that cause allergies
are called infectant allergens.
People with infectant allergies will not respond
to skin test for inhalants allergens.
9.6.6 INFESTANT ALLERGENS
Parasites like hook worm, tapeworm, pin worm
and scabies can also cause allergies in a manner
similar to infectant. Metabolic waste and growth
products of these parasites causes allergens and
are referred to as infestant allergens.
9.7 ALLERGIES TEST
Different allergy test are used to determine the exact
cause of allergies reaction. These tests includes:
 Skin Test
o Scratch/ Prick Test
o Intradermal Test
o Patch Test
 Blood Test
 Food Allergy Test
9.7.1 SKIN TEST
 Skin tests involve little discomfort and take
about 10mins to perform.
 Skin test is actually a localized reaction that
determines whether the patient respond to
the particular allergent. There are following
types of skin test
9.7.1.1 S CRATCH T EST / P RICK T EST
It involves placing a drop of allergen, suspended in a
liquid (usually water or glycerin) on the skin of
forearm and then scratching or pricking the skin this
drops by needle.
9.7.1.2 I NTRADERMAL S KIN T EST
It involves injecting a small amount of allergen into
the outer layer of skin. If the patient is allergic to that
allergen he will develop, he will develop rashes,
itching, and swelling at the site of injection within 20
minutes. After the test, a mild cortisone cream is
applied to reduce itching.
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 Allergen and Allergenic Preparation 34

9.7.1.3 P ATCH T EST  Mustard

It can be used to diagnose contact dermatitis or  Mulberry etc.
contact allergens instead of using allergenic extracts.
The allergenic material is applied directly on skin and 9.8.2.2 F UNGAL E XTRACT
the area is covered with a bandages. After 48 hours,  Alternaria
the area is uncovered and checked for dermatitis or  Aspergillus
blisters. It takes a long time usually from 1-4 days.  Penicillium
9.7.2 BLOOD TEST  Cephalosporium
In blood test, allergenic extract is added to the  Rhizopus etc. are used to prepare fungal
blood sample from the patient. Presence and extract.
amount of antibodies are determined by
reaction between the allergen and the IgE. 9.8.2.3 D UST EXTRACTS
9.7.3 FOOD ALLERGY TEST Dust is second to pollens introducing allergies. Dust
Food allergy test begins with keeping a food consists of
diary which is a detail list of all foods with the  Fungi
date and time, they are consumed and the  Fungal spores
symptoms that appear. When a single food  Feathers
allergy is expected, the patient is advised to  Hairs
eliminate that food from the diet and if the  Cleansing agent etc.
symptoms are relieved. The same food is re- It is therefore difficult to identify the extract
introduced to the diet to see, if the reaction or allergenic part of the dust. For sensitivity testing
symptoms reoccur. home dust extracts are prepared.

9.8 ALLERGENIC EXTRACTS OR 9.8.2.4 I NSECT A LLERGEN E XTRACTS

Following are few example allergy causing insects
PREPARATIONS
 Butterflies
Allergenic extract are solution or suspensions of chief  Cockroaches
constituents of allergenic substance in distilled water,  Flies
normal saline, glycerol dextrose or other liquids used  Mosquito
for diagnosis and treatment of allergies. These  Wasp
preparations are usually buffered at pH 8 and
 Spiders etc.
preserved by 0.4% phenol.
9.8.1 PREPARATION 9.8.2.5 F OOD E XTRACT
After identifying the allergens following steps are Example of various food causing allergies includes
involved in the preparation of extracts:  Egg white
 Grinding  Spanish
 Defatting (to remove fats)  Cow milk
 Extraction  Turnip
 Standardization  Papaya
Strict aseptic produces are followed during
extraction. The process is carried out in a cool room
due to thermo-labile nature of allergens sterilization 9.9 TREATMENT
is done by filtration. The strength of allergenic extract 9.9.1 ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL
is usually expressed in pollen units, proteins N-units, The best way to treat the allergy is to avoid the
Total N-units etc. responsible allergent.
9.8.2 TYPES OF ALLERGENIC PREPARATION 9.9.2 IMMUNOTHERAPY OF ALLERGY OR DE-
SENSITIZATION
9.8.2.1 P OLLEN E XTRACT Immunotherapy of allergy or de-sensitization (or
Pollen grains are produced in higher plants. Some of hypo-sensitization) is accomplished by
the plants producing allergenic pollens and from administration of gradually increasing the dosage
which allergenic preparations are made include of allergen over a period of month or year, with
 Acacia anticipation that the patient will develop an
 Eucalyptus increasing tolerance against that allergen
 Sunflower During desensitization antibodies IgG (blocking
 Cherry antibodies) are produced. These antibodies IgG

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 Allergen and Allergenic Preparation 35

bind with the allergent and prevent their binding Some have anti-cholinergic properties
to mast cells bounds IgE.
Parental exposure to allergen, alters the factors 9.9.3.4 E XAMPLE OF A NTI -H ISTAMINE
that regulates the production of allergen specific Lipophilic so can cross BBB and cause sedation
IgE.  Promethazine (Phenergan ®)
Average course of allergy desensitization  Pheniramine (Avil ®)
requires 3-4 years but rapid de-sensitization of  Chlorpheniramine (Piriton ®)
certain allergic patient in a single day is also Examples of Non-Sedating Antihistamine includes
possible e.g. it has been successful with bees and  Loratadine
wasp venom.  Fexofenadine
Allergenic extracts are given sub-cutaneously.
9.9.4 STEROIDS
Alum precipitated allergenic extract are
The most frequent use of corticosteroid is for non-
absorbed slowly after sub-cutaneous
specific treatment on inflammatory or allergic
administration, permitting the administration
condition. Steroids are very potent anti-allergic and
fewer yearly injection.
anti-inflammatory substance for
If the treatment is conducted before pollination,
 Asthma
it is known as pre-seasonal treatment and if it
continues throughout the year, it is called  Serum sickness
perennial treatment and if it is starting  and other sever or chronic allergic condition
systematic period it is known as co-seasonal
treatment and is is the last effective treatment. 9.9.4.1 E XAMPLE
Desensitization is recommended only for Topical Example of Steroids
inhalant and contactant allergens. It is not  Betamethasone (Betnovate ®)
without risk. Patient may develop swelling or  Hydrocortisone
rashes which if resist there than 24 hour is Inhalers
alarming.  Beclomethasone
Such local reaction may be treated with anti-  Prednisolon
histamine. There is also a possibility of
anaphylaxis so the patient should remain in Do You Know?
physician’s office for at least 20mins
Patients of asthma or those who are taking non-
Beclomethasone and
selective beta-blockers should be carefully Prednisolone is used in
treated. combinalation salbutamol in
9.9.3 ANTIHISTAMINE OR H1 BLOCKER inhalers for asthma.
The first clinically applied antihistamine was Salbutamol famous brand
phenbenzamine. name is Ventolin ®
9.9.3.1 M ECHANISM AND S ITE OF A CTION
Heptans are substance that are
Mechanism and site of action is identical for all H1- non-allergenic on their own,
blockers. H1-blockers antagonize all actions of but become allergenic after
histamine through H1 receptor, reversing the combining with some
histamine induce contraction of smooth muscle, endogenous substances.
capillary permeability and vasodilation. Lacrimal,
bronchial and salivary secretions are also blocked.

9.9.3.2 L IMITATION
Limited effectiveness in severe allergic or
anaphylactic reaction

9.9.3.3 A DDITION AND A DVERSE E FFECT

Some anti-histamine can cross the blood bran barrier
causing sedation. Some anti-histamine have
antitussive property e.g. Diphenhydramine
Some are used as anti-motion sickness or antiemetic
e.g. Cyclizine, dimenhydrinate, diphenhydramine.
In high doses can be cardiac depressant

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Chapter 10 ENZYMES
10.1 ENZYMES
Enzymes are biocatalyst produced by living cells. An
enzyme plays a vital role in the function off cells.
They catalyze the reaction between reactant to yield
specific product. The substance on which the enzyme
acts is known as substrate. In the absence of an
enzyme the reaction occur at a very slow rate.
Enzymes show maximum activity between 35-40`C.
There are practically inactive at 0`C. Beyond 65`C
they are denatured. pH of the medium also effects
the activity of an enzyme.
Enzyme are either pure proteins or contain and
additional non-protein component which is essential
for their activity. This non-protein component is
called prosthetic group. If the non-protein
component is an inorganic molecule, e.g. manganese
ion or magnesium ions, it is called as co-factor or
activator and if it is an organic molecule e.g. FAD or
NAD; it is called co-enzyme.
Apoenzyme refers to the protein component
whereas holo-enzyme is the complete enzyme i.e.
apoenzyme and prosthetic group.
10.2 CLASSIFICATION OF ENZYMES
Enzymes are classified into following groups
10.2.1 HYDROLYSIS
These enzymes catalysis hydrolytic reaction e.g.
pepsin and papain
10.2.2 TRANSFERASES
These enzymes are involved in the transfer of
different chemical group from one molecule to
another e.g. transamylase and transmethylase
10.2.2.1 O XYDOREDUCTASES
These enzyme catalyze oxidation reduction reaction
e.g. pyruvate dehydrogenase.
10.2.2.2 L YSES
These enzymes catalyses the addition or removal of
group like water or CO2 to or from double bonds e.g.
fumarase.
10.2.2.3 I SOMERASES
These enzymes are responsible for intra-molecular
rearrangements e.g. Glucose-6-isomersase converts
Glucose-6-phosphate to fructose-6-phosphate.
10.2.2.4 S YNTETASES
These enzyme catalyze the condensation of two
molecule coupled with cleavage of phosphate bond
of ATP e.g. Fatty acid synthetase
Enzymes 36
On the basis of site of action enzyme can be
classified as:
10.2.3 ENDO-ENZYME
These enzymes acts only inside the cells also knowing
as intracellular enzyme involved in the synthesis of
cell components, food reserves and bioenergetics
10.2.4 EXO-ENZYMES
These enzymes are also known as extra cellular
enzymes as they are secreted out by cells and act
externally. They are usually digestive enzymes e.g.
trypsin, pepsin and amylase etc.
Enzymes are used in the production of pre-digestive
food for conversion of starch into fermentable
sugars. Also use in fermentation and brewing
industry.
10.3 PHYTO-ENZYMES (PLANT ENZYMES)
10.4 PAPAIN
Papain is obtained from the dried latex from the
fruit of Carica papaya, family Caricaceae.
Dry latex contains mixture of papain and
chymopapain. Papain is also available as white
amorphous powder with characteristic odor and
taste it is soluble in water and glycerin
10.4.1.1 P REPARATION
Incisions are made on the unripe fruit. The latex
flows freely and congealed upon exposure to air.
It is collected in aluminum trays. The latex is then
dried by vacuum drier at 45-50`C.
It can also be dried by spray drying or the sun.
Crude papain is purified by dissolving in water
and precipitating with alcohol. Papain is also
known as vegetable pepsin as it contains
enzymes similar in action to pepsin.
The only different is that papain can act at all pH
values i.e. acidic, neutral and alkaline
Papain contains more than one proteolytic enzyme.
10.4.1.1.1 P APTIDASE
Which converts protein to dipeptides and poly-
peptides
10.4.1.1.2 R ENIN LIKE ENZYME
These enzyme act on casein (milk protein) of
milk.
It also contains aminolytic and pectase like enzymes.
10.4.1.2 U SES
1. Papain is commonly used as meat tenderizer
2. It can digest 300 times its weight of egg
albumin
3. It is also used in clarification of beverages
4. Also used in manufacture of cheese
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5. Also used for defatting silk fabrics
6. It is also used in leather industry for
dehairing of skin
7. Also used in the cleansing solution of
contact lenses.
8. Used as anti-inflammatory agent
10.5 MALT AND MALT EXTRACT
10.5.1.1 M ALT
Malt is artificially germinated grain of Hordeum
vulgare, Family Gramineae.
Malt is prepared by keeping barley grain wet
with water in a warmed room, until they
geminate. Soon after germination the grain is
dried. The enzyme diastase present in the moist
warm grains coverts the starch into maltose.
Embryo is killed during the during process. Dry
malt taste sweet. It contains 50-70% maltose, 2-
15% dextrin and 8% protein.
Malt extract is prepared by extracting the malt
with water at 60`C. The extract is concentrated
at 60`C under reduce pressure.
10.5.1.2 U SES AND D OSE
1. Malt extract can convert not less than 5
times its weight of starch into water soluble
sugars
2. Malt extract is used as an aid in digesting
starch
3. It is used as an easily digested nutritive
4. Diastase is used as digestant
5. It is used in production of predigested
starchy food or for the conversion of starch
into fermentable sugar and in brewing
industry
6. The usual dose is 15g. Some commercial
extract of malt are used as bulk forming
laxative. Such brands do not contain
diastase. Malt extract occurs as yellowish or
brown colour viscous liquid with
characteristic odor and taste.
7. Malt extract is also used as flavoring agent
and as vehicle for preparation containing
cod liver oil and halibut fish oil.
8. Malt extract contain protein, maltose,
dextrin, glucose and diastase (amylase)
10.5.2 DIASTASE
Diastase is naturally present in human saliva. It is not
present in cat and horse. It is commercially obtain
from malt extract. It is a yellowish white amorphous
powder soluble in water but can be precipitated by
alcohol. It is thermo-labile. It breaks the alpha 1-4
linkages of starch and glycogen
10.5.2.1 U SES
Enzymes 37
Diastase can convert 50 times its weight of potato
starch into sugar.
10.6 BROMELIN
Bromelin is a mixture of different proteolytic
enzyme, obtain from the juice of pineapple
Ananas comosus – family Bromeliaceae.
Pineapple is native to South America, it rows
almost in all parts of the world mainly India,
china, Mexico, Bangladesh, Brazil.
10.6.1 USES
Bromelin is a combination of proteolytic enzyme;
peroxidases and phosphatase.
Bromelin is fibrinolysis and anti-inflammatory,
and antiplatelet aggregation.
It increases the permeability of diseased organ
thereby increasing the absorption of antibiotics
and different medicine from the site of action.
It also increases the excess of body immune
system components to the affected area.
It also decreases blood pressure and chances of
angina pectoris.
Also used as meat tenderizer and in leather
industry.
10.7 CHYMOPAPAIN
It is also obtained from the latex of Carica
papaya. It is also proteolytic enzyme. It is also a
proteolytic enzyme with respect to substrate
specificity. It is just like papain but differs in
electrophoretic mobility
10.7.1 USES
1. Chymopapain is used parentally in the
treatment of herniated lumbar inter verbal
disc.
2. It relief the compressive system of lower
back paint
10.7.1.1 D OSAGE
a The unit of chymopapain activity is nanokatal or
nanokat. 1mg of enzyme contain 0.52nKat.
2-5 nKat per disk. Maximum used in the
treatment of multiple disc hernia in 10 nKat/
Disc. It is in dried form and should be
reconstituted before administration.
10.8 ANIMAL ENZYME
10.9 PANCREATIN
Pancreatin is available as cream color powder with
faint characteristic odor. It is active in neutral or
slightly alkaline pH. Pancreatin contains 3-types of
enzyme amylases lipases and proteases.
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10.9.1 PREPARATION
It is obtained from the pancreas of Hog (Sus
scrofa) , family Suidae; Variety, Domestica.
It is also obtained from the pancreases of Ox
(Bos Taurus) Family: Bovidae
Fresh Pancreas is minced and extracted by the
same method as used for the manufacture of
pepsin.
1mg of pancreatin contains not less than
25 USP units of amylolytic activity.
02 USP units of lipase activity
25 USP units of protease activity
1 U.S.P unit of amylase activity contained in the
amount of pancreatin that digest 1 mg of dry
USP potato starch (reference standard)
1 USP unit of lipase activity is the activity that
liberate 1 ueg of acid per minute at pH 9 and
temperature 37`C. Activity is decreased by the
acidity of stomach. Which can be increase by
using antacid prior to its use.
 1 USP unit of protease activity digest 1
mg of casein of milk under specified
condition
10.9.2 USES
1. Pancreatin is used as a digestant, in the
preparation of pre-digest food
2. In the form of enteric coated granules, it is
used to treat celiac disease in infant
3. It is used for the treatment of condition in
which the secretion of pancreatin is
decrease e.g. pancreatitis and
pancreatectomy.
10.9.3 DOSE
325mg in the form of capsule, tablet or granules
10.9.4 ADVERSE EFFECT
Nausea, diarrhea, hyper-ursinia.
10.10 PANCRELIPASE
It is the concentrated form of pancreatin
contains 100 USP units of amylopectin and 24
USP unit of lipase activity and 100 USP unit of
protease activity.
The activity of lipase is increase by 12 times
whereas that of amylase protease increases by 4
times.
10.10.1 USES AND DOSE
1. It is used in the treatment of steatorrhea (fat
in stool)
2. It increases the absorption of fats
3. Usual dose in 800-2500 lipase units
10.11 PEPSIN
Pepsinogen is the precursor of pepsin secreted
by the stomach. It is converted into pepsin by
Enzymes 38
HCl in stomach at pH below 2. Further activation
of pepsinogen to pepsin is catalyzed by pepsin
itself. This is known as auto catalyzed.
Pepsin is a powerful proteolytic enzyme.
10.11.1 PREPARATION
Commerically, the pepsin is obtained from the
grandular layer of the stomach of Hog (Sus
scrofa) , family Suidae; Variety, Domestica.
The stomach layers are minced and digested in
HCl. The solution is clarified, evaporated,
dialyzed, concentrated and dried on glass plate,
to yield scales of pepsin. It can also be dried
under vacuum to produce spongy pepsin.
10.11.2 USES AND DOSE
1. Pepsin digests not less than 3000 and not
more than 3500 times it weight of
coagulated albumin.
2. It is used as digestant usually administered
after meal with a dose of HCl.
3. The usual dose is 500 mg. It converts
proteins to polypeptides.
4. It curdles milk by hydrolyzing casein to para-
casein
5. It facilitates the absorption of Iron by
releasing iron from its bound forma and also
converting ferric form to ferrous form which
is absorbed easily.
10.12 RENIN
Renin is a partially purified proteolytic enzyme
obtains from the glandular hair of the stomach
of calf (Bos Taurus) Family Bovidae.
Renin is a milk curdling enzyme. Renin has a
characteristic order and saline taste. It is
hygroscopic yellowish or greenish white powder.
10.12.1 PREPARATION
The glandular layers of the stomach of calf and
minced and mediated with 0.5% NaCl solution
followed by filtration. This filtrate is acidified with
HCl. Renin is precipitated by saturating the filtrate
with NaCl. Renin is then separated, dried and
powdered.
Renin can also be prepared by control fermentation
of Endothia parasitica and Bacillus cerus.
10.12.2 USES
Renin is used to prepare cheese. It is also used to
coagulate milk to make it easily digestable for weak
patients.
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Chapter 11 PESTS AND
PESTICIDES
Pest are animals or plants that cause economic
damage to crop or ornamental plants or are
hazardous to health of domestic animals or humans.
Crop of medicinal plants has to be protected against
pests because by the time a medicinal crop is
harvested and consumed considerable quantity of
the drug has been wasted by pets.
11.1 TYPES OF PESTS
Different types of pests infesting medicinal plants are
fungi, viruses, insects, rodents etc.
11.1.1 VIRUS AND FUNGI
Various fungi grown on plants and produce
diseases like weed rust, orange leaf rest etc.
Viruses can also causes plant diseases e.g.
tobacco mosaic disease ,cucumber mosaic
disease, tobacco ring spot virus disease etc.
11.1.2 INSECTS
Total number of insects species is greater
then the total number of all species of all
other form of life e.g Spiders, mites , lice etc
can cause fetal diseases.
Gross hopers and locust can destroy crop
during developmental andmaturity stages .
Some insects like aphides (Plant lice)
cabbidge bugs and leaf hoppers suck the juice
of plants .Mosquitos and dear fly bite human
beings and animals Malaria,dengue fever and
yellow fever are spread by mosquitos other
insects pests known to cause damage are
catapillers,termides and larve of differnet
insects.
11.1.3 RODENTS
Rodents are mammals like mouse, monkey,
rat and rabbits. Rodents have sharp incisor
teeth, they not only damage the crude drugs
directly but their waste like hair or fecal
materials also constituent the drug.
Rodents also transmit the disease that they
are suffering from e.g. rabbits may cause an
infectious fever, rats can also transmit
infections like plague or rat leprosy (skin
infection cause by microlerosy)
11.1.4 WEEDS
Weeds are undesirable plants that grow with
the crop in fields or vegetables in a garden so
a weed can be a mustard growing in a clove
field or a thistle growing with cultivated
vegetables.
PESTS AND PESTICIDES 39
These undesirable plants of weed are harmful
for cultivated plants by competing for water
and minerals.
Sometimes weeds not only destroy the
cultivated plants but due to their presence
also affect the quality of the crop (crude
drug) .Some weeds are toxic e.g. seeds of
Agostemma githago can cause death when
present in excessive quantities in wheat
flower.
11.2 METHODS OF PEST CONTROL
11.2.1 MECHANICAL METHODS:
Include hand picking, burning, trapping and
pruning .Large larvi can be removed by hands
weeds can also be removed by hand picking.
Tent of cater pillars gathered on branches of a
tree can be removed by pruning or cutting out
that branches. Sudden flying insects are trapped
by using a flavor attractant placed in a funnel
shaped container.
Gypsy moat, japenies betles etc are trapped by
this method.
Special traps are used for rates and mites
11.2.2 BIOLOGICAL METHODS
Biological Methods is defined as the
reduction of pest population by natural
enemies e.g. enemies of insect’s pest
include predators, parasitoids and
pathogens.
Biological control agents of weeds are
herbivores and plant pathogens.
Some insects feed upon smaller ones which
destroy the plant. Cats and owls are
predators or enemies of mice and rats.
Insects are eaten by birds. Parasitoids are
species whose in mature stage develops on or
within a single insect host ultimately killing
the host.
Many wasps and flies are parasitoid. They lay
eggs on the body of large destructive insects
like slow moving large larvi. The eggs hatch
into small larvi which consume the body
tissues of larger larvi (host) ultimately the
larger one dies and the smaller one emerges
as adult fly.
11.2.3 AGRICULTURAL METHOD :
Different approaches are used. Plant
varieties which are resistant to pest are
develop.
Crop rotation is another useful agricultural
method.it the chief source of food of a
particular insect is withheld or removed for
one or more seasons that insect can be
control effectively.
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Ploughing should be sufficient deep to  Redsquill contains glycosides which cause

eradicate weeds and early stages of insects. conversion respiratory failures and
ultimately death
11.2.4 ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL
These methods involve change of 11.2.5.1.2 INSECTICIDES
environmental conditions surrounding the Insecticides are classified on the basses of lifecycle of
pests either by removing it food supply or by insects that they affect e.g. Ovicides, larvicides,
interfering with the completion of its life pedyculicides (anti-lice) and scabicide.
cycle. Mosquito larvi in water can be killed Insecticides may be stomach poison or contact
by spreading the layer of oil on poison. They can be synthetic or natural
water(carosine oil) Stomach or systemic poison
Stomach poisoning insecticides are used to control
11.2.5 CHEMICAL METHODS
chewing insects death of insects due to depression of
Chemical pesticides are used as poison baits
nervous system or respiratory system due to
(poison add to food for killing) sprays
paralysis of neuro-motor system such chemicals are
solutions, suspensions for spraying,
sprayed on plants when leaves of such plants are
aerosols, fumigant’s, stomach poison and
ingested they cause death of insects. E.g.
repellents. They may be organic or in-
 Lead arsenate
organic obtain from natural or synthetic
 Calcium arsenate
sources
 Paris green(salt of copper)
1. Organo phosphates:- Pesticides effect the
 Demeton
nervous system by inhibiting the enzyme
 Methyl demeton
acetylcholine esterase which is responsible
Phosphorus containing insecticides like demeton are
for breakdown of ach a neurotransmitter.
absorbed by plant and remain in plant for a long
Most organo phosphates are insecticides
time, providing protection to the plant against
2. Carbamate pesticide :- these pesticides can
insects.
affect the nervous system by blocking the
Contact insecticides:-
enzyme acetyl choline esterase
Contact insecticides are chemicals which come into
3. Organo chlorine insecticide:- Organo
contact with insects and usually applied as dust or
chlorine insecticide there used has decline
aerosols. Some insects may develop resistant to
and the have been removed from market due
contact poison Examples of synthetic insecticides
to their health and environmental effects and
 DDT( Dichloro di phenyl trichloroethane
their persistannce in the environment e.g
(structure must)
DDT
4. Pyrethroid pesticides:- Pyrethroid pesticides
are pyrethrin like pesticides (natural)
pyrthoids are toxic to nervous system.

11.2.5.1 ON THE BASES OF ANIMAL USED

11.2.5.1.1 RODENTICIDES
Rodenticides are chemicals used to control rates
,bates ,mice and other rodents. Most rodenticides
are stomach poisons and are often employs at baits.
Norbormide is the most effective rodenticide
.WARFARIN and strychnine also used Redsquill is a
natural rodenticide. DDT
EXAMPLES OF synthetic rodenticides include  Aldrin
 Sodium floroacetate  Lindane
 Alpha nephthyl thio urea  Benzene hexachloride
 Thallium sulphate Examples of natural insecticides
 Zinc phosphide  Nicotine (tobacco)
 Arsenic tri-oxides  Pyrethrin (pyrethrum flowers)
Examples of natural rodenticides  Sabadilla
 Redsquill  Neem.
 Stichnine Insect Repellents

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 PESTS AND PESTICIDES 41

The natural products citronella oil is used as insect

repellents Dimethyl phthalate is an example of
synthetic repellent.

11.2.5.1.3 HERBICIDS
Two types of herbicides are used
 Non-selective herbicides these herbicides
are toxic to all plants. They are often used to
remove all plants, e.g. for the total control
of weeds in industrial area
 Selective herbicides these herbicides kill
specific plants with no damage to other
plants. These herbicides are useful for lawns
or in areas with describable trees e.g.
Sodium chlorate, ammonium thiocyanate
and arsenic trioxide

11.2.5.1.4 FUNGICIDES
Fungicides are chemicals used to control fungi
.Fungicides are contact poisons therefore fungicides
are applied over a large surface area e.g a chemical
combination of copper sulphate, lime and water is an
effective fungicides Sulphur also used to control
fungal diseases e.g Mercury compounds
,chlorophenole, antibiotics, formaldehyde

11.2.5.1.5 MITICIDES
Miticides are chemicals which are used to kill mites.
These chemical must contact mites or ticks be
effective. Miticides are similar in action to
insecticides and after the same insecticides kill both.

11.2.5.1.6 NEMMATICIDES
Nematicides are chemicals used to control
nematodes .Nematodes are hair like worms. Many of
which in the soil and feed on plant roots .Usually soil
fumigants are used to control nematodes in the soil.

11.2.5.1.7 MOLLUSCIDES
These are chemicals used to control snails and slugs
(act as intermediate host for pathogens) such
chemicals must be ingested to work or to be effective
.Baites are often used to attract and kill snails.

11.2.5.1.8 FUMIGANTS
It is any volatile poisonous substance used to kill
insects, nematodes and other animals or plants that
damage stored food or seeds .Soil fumigants are
sprayed over an area too be cultivated to control
disease causing fungi nematodes or weeds.
Chlorinated hydrocarbons such as chloroform CCL4
and dichlorobenzene are used as fumigant .They
applied in gaseous form or as aerosol in room,
cupboards ,boxes etc. These chlorinated
hydrocarbons are toxic to man also. Specially CCl4.

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 Poisonous Plants of Pakistan 42

 Treatment :- Induce emesis, gastric lavage,

Chapter 12 POISONOUS fab-fragments of antibodies; antidote, activated
PLANTS OF PAKISTAN charcoal
Poisonous plants may be define as plants that B. Neriam oleander
contain different chemical substances that cause  Family :- Apocyanaceae
adverse effects or death when ingested, inhaled,  Habitat :- Sindh and Punjab
injected or absorbed by humans or animals .There  Toxic constituents :- Contain cardiac
are approximately three hundred thousand species glycoside i.e. peruvoside
of flowering plants in the world and of these  Symptoms:- Cardiac arrhythmia,
approximately 700 are poisonous. hallucination vomiting etc.
Children because of their inquisitive nature (curious)  Treatment Activated charcoal, fab (fragment
are usually involved in plant poisoning they are of abs) gastric lavage, Emesis
attracted because of bright colour plant parts e.g. C. Aconitum napellus
berries  Family :-Raninculaceae
Poisoning in adults is relatively rare and usually  Habitat :- Gilgit, chitral, Kashmir, dir
occurs due to  Toxic constituent :- Aconitine is main toxic
1. Eating unknown and incorrectly identifying constituent
plant material e.g. in search of an  Toxicity symptoms :- Aconitine causes
alternative food cardiac arrhythmia mainly ventricular
2. Self-medication fibrillation
3. Suicide attempt  Treatment :- Emesis, activated charcoal,
4. In order to murder some one Gastric lavage
In case of plant poisoning following points must be D. Aconitum ferox
considered  Habitat:- kasmhir
1. Identify the plants which is ingested  Family :-Ranunculacea
2. How much time has passed (elapsed)  Toxic symptoms aconitine causes cardiac
3. Has vomiting occurred arrhythmia mainly ventricular arrhythmia
4. Take the plant material to the doctor  Lethal dose of Aconitine is 2mg. Death is
5. If the doctor cannot be reached try to caused due to respiratory failure
induce vomiting by tickling the throat or by  Treatment :-Emesis gastric lavage,activated
any other means. charcoal
6. Activated charcoal should be used to
12.1.2 PLANTS CAUSING NEUROTOXICITY
adsorbed toxic material in the gut
7. Ipecacuanha syrup can be used to induce
vomiting
12.1.2.1 S OMNIFEROUS P LANTS (S LEEP
Formula for ipecac syrup for children is I NDUCING )
1. Ipecacuanha fluid extract (0.7 ml) Papvaer Somniferum (Opium)
2. HCl= 2.5ml  These plants cause euphoria (sense of well-
3. Glycerol =100ml being), halucintaion, vomiting ,constipation,
4. Simple syrup quantity sufficient to make constricted pupil, tachycardia , increased
(1000 ml) sweating, hypo-tension and respiratory
depression.
 Toxic constituents :- Morphine , papaverine
12.1 TYPES OF POISONOUS PLANTS ,codeine , apomorphine
 Treatment:- Gastric lavage ,Naloxone
12.1.1 PLANTS PRODUCING TOXICITY ON CVS  Artificial respiration
A. Digitalis purpurea  Activated charcoal
 Family:- Scrophulariaceae
 Habitat :-Hazara and Kashmir Antidote of heroine (methadone)
 Constituents :- Digoxin Antidote of diazipine (flumazine)
 Toxic symptoms: - Digitalis contains cardiac Antidote of paracetamol (acetyl cysteine)
Glycosides which cause cardiac arrhythmia, Antidote of Atropine ( Pilocarpine or
dizziness, vomiting, hallucination etc. If not Phygostagmine)
treated toxicity results in coma and heart failure.

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12.1.2.2 S OLANACEOUS AND H ALLUCINOGENIC
PLANTS
Examples of toxic solanaceous plant include
1. Atropa belladona
2. Hyosumus niger
3. Datura stramonium
4. Solanum tuberosum
5. Cannabis sativa
1-Atropa belladonna
 Local name:- Lufah ,Angoor-e-shifa (deadly night
shade)
 Main constituents ,,atropine(which is anti
collinergic)
 Toxic symptoms : it causes dry mouth, dry skin
,dilated pupil ,redning of face ,raised body
temperature ,hallucination ,fits of crying ,
2-Hyosumus niger
 Local name :-ajwain-e-khurasani
 It also contains anticollinergic alkolids like
hyoscine and hyosyamine , it produces same
effects as that of bella dona
3- Datura stramonium
 Constituent: - Hyoscine ,atropine and hyosyamine
4-Slanum tuberosum
 Potato is toxic at growing stage ,it becomes green
because of toxic alkolids solanine
 Toxic Constituents:- solanine alkaloids
 Symptoms:- Vomiting and abdominal pain,
diarrhea, circulatory collapse, hallucination
,irritation in neck etc.
 Treatment :-Gastric lavage ,activated charcoal
,lowering of body temperature ,for convulsions
anticonvulsants like diazepam and
benzodiazepine ,artificial respiration ,antidote(
pilocarpine, physostigmin, neostigmine
Treatment of potato toxicity:- gastric lavage, Activated
charcoal, vomiting, emesis, electrolyte fluid , anti
convulsant like diazepam
5-Cannabis sativa (hallucinogenic)
 Local name :-(bhang)( ghanja ,charas)
 Plant frequently found in Sindh,Punjab and KPK .
 Constituents :- Norcotics compounds e.g THC(
tetra hydro cannabinol)
12.1.3 PLANTS CAUSING TOXICITY ON THE GIT
Generally toxic sympotoms on GIT includes inflammation
and blisters in mouth, gastroenteritis , nausea , vomiting ,
diarrhea and severe abdominal pain.Following plants are
involved in gastroenteric toxicity.
Colocacia esculenta
 Family :-ARACEAE
 Habitat :-Sindh ,swat, murre
 Constituents :-Calcium oxalate which is a very
potent irritant .The plant releases calcium oxalate
crystals when it comes in contact with water.
 Toxic symptoms:-intense burning and increased
salivation in mouth after chewing the stem or
leaves, There is severe gastroentritus ,dermatitis ,
blisters on tongue
 Treatment:- Symptomatic treatment is provided
,demulcent is given
ABRUS precatorius
Poisonous Plants of Pakistan 43
 Eng name:- Jequirity
 Urdu : RATTI
 Jequirity grows in Sindh,Punjab and
Kashmir .Seeds are toxic ,red in color
 Constituents:- Main toxic constituent is
Abrin, chewing a single seed can be
fatal. Lethal dose of abrin is
0.00015 % of the subjects body weight
.Abrin is present in the seed coat
 SYMPTOMS :-Stomach poisoning
,vomiting and death
 Treatment, fluid an electrolyte
,arecoline, emesis ,gastric lavage and
urine should be kept alkaline
Amaryllis tazetta or Narcissus tazetta
 Local name :-Nargus
 Family :-Amaryllidaceae
 Habitat :-lower swat
 Toxic constituents :-different toxic
alkaloids mainly lycorine ,which is heat
stable and responsible for the most of
the clinical responses in acute toxicity.
 Toxic symptoms:- Mild toxicity is
limited to swear emesis ,shivering and
diarrhea, sweating also occurs
 Ingestion in large amount can cause
central paralysis
 Treatment :- Removal of poisoning or
gastric lavage and symptomatic
treatment
Aesculus indica
 Family:- hippocastanaceae
 Habitat:-Himalaya, muree, swat ,koehta
 Constituuents :-Nuts contain sapponins
glycoside Aesculin
 Toxic symptom:- severe gastro entritis
 Treatment:- Symptomatic
Ricinus communis
 Family :-Euphorbiaceae
 Habitat :- All 4 provinces
 Toxic constituents :-Ricin (which is a
protein), it also contain glycoprotein
which are also tosic.
 Ricin not degraded by proteolytic
enzymes of the G.I.T.It is present in the
seed coat ,ingestion of 1-4 seeds can be
lethal
Rhamus purshiana (Caseara sagrada)
 Family:- Rhamnacea
 Bark of this plant is used as LAXATIVE
when fresh fresh,bark contains
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 Poisonous Plants of Pakistan 44

anthranols which are reduced form of The compounds which have shown teratogenic affects in
glycosides and cause drastic purgation animals include
or diarrhea but after aging for a year or  Lignance
2 these anthranols are oxidized to  Lupin
anthraquinones which have mild  Alkolids
lasative action and can be used as drug.  Coumarines
 Habitat:- Kashmir ,hzara,swat  Macrolides(erythromycin )
 Constituents:- Anthranols and 12.1.6 PLANTS CAUSING ALLERGY AND PHOTOTOXIC
Anthraquinones glycosides e.g. emodin Plants can cause different types af allergy and
(A-glycon) dermatitis,rhinitis,gastrointritus examples toxico
 Toxic symptoms :- Nausea dendrons (euroshiol)
,dizziness,abdominal pain ,bloody Different species of toxico dendrons contains
diarrhea and vomiting. euroshiol which can cause severe dermatitis and
 Treatment;– Empting stomach by blister formation on the skin. Other exmples
Emisis or gastric lavage,activated include weed,tomato,nuts,carrots ,mustard etc.
charcoal and replacement of fluids and Pollens of different grases can cause asthma
electrolytes. Treatment:- Antihistamine,seroids and avoiding
responsible allergen.
12.1.4 PLANT HAVING NICOTINE LIKE ACTIONS 12.1.7 PLANTS CAUSING HEPATOTOXICITY
Nicotiana tabacum  Sapindus trifoliatus(reeatha)
 Family:- Solannacea  Family sapindas
 Habitat :- Mardan,DJ-KHAN  Chemical constituent :- fruit walls and seeds
 Symptoms :-Vomiting ,Diarrhea contain different saponins
,tramers  Symptoms vomiting ,hypoglycemia, convulsions
 Constituents :- Alkolid,Nicotine  Treatment gastric empting, benzodiazepine to
 Treatment:- Activated treat convulsions.
charcoal,Diazepaam to treat
12.1.8 MISCELLANEOUS POISONING PLANTS
convulsions
 Strychnos nux-vomica
Lobelia frutescens
 Family Loganiaceae
 Habitat krachi,Sindh
 Main toxic constituent stignine which is an indol
 Constituents lobaline alkolids
alkolids .it also contains brucin,novasin,loganine
 Toxic symptoms :- paralysis
etc
 Treatment same as nicotine poisoning
 Symptoms: Stichnine is CNS stimulants.it is
 Lobaline is used in different prepration
cardiac and respiratory stimulant .overdose
to quit smoking
causes cardiac and respiratory failure.it has no
Conium maculatum(hemlock)
therapeutic use .it is used as animal poisons.
 Family umbeliferae
 Treatment: - Gastric lavage, activated charcoal,
 Habitat hazara ,abtabad,muree diazepam and fentanyl citrate(narcotic ) are used
 Toxic constituent alkolid coniine to control convulsions.
 Symptoms it has nicotine like activity.it
12.1.9 MUSHROOMS OR FUNGI
causes paralysis of respiratory system
Various fungai or mushrooms also contain toxicity mainly
in small doses increases salivation.
halocination and gastrointestinal toxicity .toxic species
 Treatment same as for nicotine.
belong to 3 genara
12.1.5 TERATOGENIC PLANTS  Amanita
Substance causing abnormal fetal development knows  Pscilocybe
Teratogenic.  Conocybe
Some plants have shown teratogenic effects in animal ,they Three types of toxic compounds are present in Amanita
should be avoided in humans also e.g triptamine, Amanitine , isoxazole (e.g. ibotenic acid)
 Conium maculatum AMANITA
 Senico vulgaris
 Papaya

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Amanita genus is characterized by white spores e.g
flyagaric or Amanita muscaria.Flyagaric is distinguish by its
red or orange cap coverd with white flakes.it contains
mixture of isoxazole and muscimol compounds.
Symptoms :- Pharmacological symptoms occur within an
hour with an initital phase of excitation fallowed by slow
pulse rate impared breathing, hallucination and coma.
Effects on G.I.T include abdominal pain,dairrhea and
vomiting which if not treated continuous to death if the
patient survives the initial phase.he may relapse to
progressive injury liver,kidney heart and CNS.
Poisonous Plants of Pakistan 45
Treatment:- Gastric lavage, I.V. Infusion of liquids to
prevent dehydration and hemo dialysis
Psilocyve and conocybe:-
Species of psilocyve and conocybe are also hallocenogenic
mashrooms
Toxic constituents:-triptamine derivatives cyclocibine and
cyclocine these compounds are related to serotinine
Symptoms: - Onset is rapid and include inability to
concentrate and hallucination
Treatment and symptoms same as Amanita
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TERMINOLOGIES
Terminologies Definition
Abortificant A drug that causes abortion
Active Constituent Medicinally effective chemical substance
Acute Rapid onsets, intense severely, and brief duration (Opposite to Chronic)
Adjuant A substance that enhances the effect of another
Alkaloids Group of nitrogenous basic hydrophobic organic compound, found in plant usually
with strong medicinal action
Allopathy Method treating a disease by the use of drugs that induce in the body effects
different from those of the disease (opp. to homeopathic)
Amenorrhea No or little menstruation / delay menstruation
Analgesic (Anodyne) Substance that relieves pain
Anesthetic Substance that reduces or abolishes sensation
Anhidrotic (anti- That decreases sweating
diaphoretic)
Anorexia Loss of appetite
Anthelmintic Substance that kill intestinal worm
(Vermifuge)
Anti- Sclerotic Substance that reduces the amount of fat in the blood and help prevent hardening
(sclerosis) of the arteries
Antibiotics Are substance produce by one type of microorganism effective (to kill or check the
growth of) against other type of microorganism
Antidote Substance that counteract the poison effect
Charcoal  Universal antidote
Pilocarpine  Atropine
Anti-neuralgia Substance that relieve nerve pain
Anti-pyretic Reduces body temperature in case of fever
(febrifuge)
Anti-rheumatic Substance that relieves rheumatism – any of varities of disorder marked ache and
pain in muscle and joint
Anti-Scorbutic (anti- Treat scurvy –Vit. C deficiency
scurvy)
Antiseptic That kill or inhibits growth of disease causing bacteria and other microorganism
Anti-spasmodic Substance or treatment that relieve spasm of smooth muscle e.g. atropine
Anti-thrombotic Substance that prevents or interfere with the formation of blood clot (thrombus)
Anti-tussive That relieve or prevent cough sensation e.g. dextromethorphan
Aperient (laxative) Used for constipation
Aromatic Substance with fragment smell and usually a pleasant taste
Arrhythmia Any deviation from the normal rhythm of the heart
Arteriosclerosis Hardening and contraction of the arteries
Arthritis Characterized by swelling, stiffness, pain and restriction in mobility
Asthma Characteristic inflammation , excessive bronchi-secretion and bronchoconstriction,
causing difficulty in breathing and exhalation
Astringent (septic) A substance that causes contraction of the tissues or skin and stops bleeding
Bactericidal Kill bacteria
Bacteriostatic Check the growth of bacteria
Bitters Substance with bitter taste used to stimulate appetite e.g. Nux Vomica
Bronchitis Inflammation of air passages (lungs)
Cardiotonic Substance that strengthen the heart action (increases the force of contraction of
heart muscle)
Carminative Substance that release flatulence and pain in stomach and intestine
Cathartic (purgative) Stimulate the bowl action more forcefully than a laxative
Causative Substance that causes constipation (opp. of laxative)
Choleretic Substance that stimulates the production bile in the liver
Cholagogue Substance that stimulates the release of bile from the gall bladder and bile duct into

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duodenum
Colic Sharp abdominal pain
Coma State of deep unconsciousness
Compress A wet or dry; hot or cold; pad of material with or without medication; applied with
pressure to the effected part of the body
Conjunctivitis Inflammation of mucus membrane that covers te front of the eye (conjunctiva)
Convulsions A violent involuntary contraction of skeletal muscle or voluntary muscle
Cramp Painful, spasmodic contraction of muscle
Decoction Extraction of water soluble constituents from a drug or medicinal plant by boiling
Delirium Disorder state of mind with great excitement, anxity and hallucination
Demulcent Substance having soothing effect on the mucous membrane also use in cough
depression
Duodenal Ulcer Any discontinuity or break in the lining (mucosa) of the duodenum cause by the
action of digestive juices or acid
Digestive Substance that aid digestion
Diaphoretic Substance that increase sweating
Diuretic Increase formation of urine
Dropsy (edema) Accumulation of fluid in body tissue
Dysmenorrhea Defecate and painful menstruation
Dyspepsia Indigestion
Eczema Dark, inflamed patches on skin (an allergic disorder)
Emmenagogue Substance that stimulate menstruation
Emetics Substance that induce vomiting
Emollient Substance having soothing or skin softening effect e.g. Alovera
Enteritis Inflammation of intestine
Essen Solution of essential oil in alcohol
Essential Oil Volatile oil present in aromatic plant
Expectorant Substance that increases formation and expulsion phlegm or sputum from the
respiratory tract
Expectorants Are substances that promote expulsion of sputum or phlegm
Fibrillation Rapid heart contraction or heart beat
Fixed oil Natural vegetable or animal oil that is not volatile; is mixture of ester or fatty acid
Flatulence Formation of gas in stomach and intestine
Flavonoids Group of organic pigment found in plant derived from flavonoids
Flutter Abnormal heart rhythm characterized by 200-400 beats per minutes
Gall Stone Stones in gall bladder (bile stones)
Gastritis Inflammation of Stomach
Gastritis Inflammation of stomach
Gastrointestitis Inflammation of stomach and intestine
Glycosides Consisting of two component: a sugar/carbohydrate known as glycine, the other non-
carbohydrate component known as aglycone (genin) e.g. digoxin
Gout Inflammation of joint due to accumulation of uric acid metabolic
Gravel Small stones formed in the urinary tract
Hemolysis Destruction of RBCs, type of anemia
Hemorrhage Bleeding due to rupture of blood vessel
Hemostatic Substance that stop or check bleeding
Hepatitis Inflammation of liver
Hormone Substance produce in body by an organ or cells of an organ and transported to
another organ where it has a specific regulatory effect
Hypertensive Substance that increase blood pressure (opp. of hypotensive)
Hypnotics Substance that induce sleep
Hypoglycemic Substance for Diabetic patient
Infusion/ Tea Extraction of water soluble constituent from a drug or medicinal plant by steeping it
in hot water (not in boiling water)
Insomnia Loss of sleep
Laxative Loosen bowl and ease constipation
Ligature Cord or thread used to ligate (tie around) a tube or artery in the body

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Maceration Softening of hard substance by soaking, extraction of compound by soaking.

Extraction of compound by soaking the material or a drug
Marc Left over substance/ undissolved portion is known as marc
Mucilage A complex certain carbohydrates secreted by certain plant
Mucous Membrane Slimy, protective secretion of the mucous membrane, chiefly consisting of
glycoproteins
Mucus Secretion of mucous membrane
Narcotics Substance that induce stupor and insensibility are receive pain
Nephritis Nephron inflammation / Kidney inflammation
Parkinsonism Neurological disorder characterized by impaired muscular coordination rigidity and
trauma due to deficiency dopaminergic receptor
Peptic ulcer Break in the lining (mucosa) of the digestive tract cause by the action of acid and
digestive use
Pharmacopeia A authorities publication containing list of drug and details of formularies preparation
standard dosage, uses of medicine
Pleurisy Inflammation of the covering of lungs associated with pain in breaking and coughing
Poultice A pad of hot, moist material applied to the effected part of the body
Purgative Bowl evacuation more quickly and forcefully than a laxative
Rubefacient Substance that causes redness and local irritation of the skin used as counter irritant
Saponins Group of plant glycosides that produce form in water
Sciatica Intense pain felt down the back and outside of the thigh, leg and foot alontg the
course of sciatica nerve
Scurvy Disease due to Vitamin C deficiency
Sedative Substance having calming effect, releasing anxiety and tension with a tendency to
cause drowsiness
Soporific Somniferous
Suture Cord on thread used for stitching wound
Trimmer Involuntary trammeling or shivering
Tranquilizer Substance having calming effect on nerve releasing anxity and tension, less likely to
cause drowsiness than sedative
Varicose vein A condition in which the superficial vein esp. of legs become distant, lengthen and
tortious
Vasodilator Used in hypertension, dilates blood vessels
Vorleth Stone or calculus in urinary tract
Vulnerary Substance that counter act inflammation and promotes the healing of wounds

Pharmacy Exam Guide

 Poisonous Plants of Pakistan 49

REFERENCE BOOKS
1. Alkaloids, Manske R.H.F. Vol. V-XVI, Academic Press, New York (1955- 1977).
2. Atlas of Microscopy of Medicinal Plants, Culinary Herbs and Spices, Betty P. Jackson, CBS Publishers (2000).
3. Ayurvedic Pharmacognosy,Partab Chauhan, Ed., Sonali Publications, New Delhi (2007).
4. Baker B.M. and Bender D.A. Vitamins in Medicine, Vol. 1-2 (1980-82)
5. Biologically Active Natural Products: Pharmaceuticals, Horace G. Cutler, Eds., Illustrated Edition, CRC Press
Publisher, New York (2000).
6. Biosynthesis of Natural Products, Mannito P., John Wiley & Sons, New York (1981).
7. Herbal Drugs and Phytopharmaceuticals, Nornam G. Bisset, Ed., Medpharm Scientific Publishers, Stuttgart
(1994).
8. Herbs and Natural Supplements: An evidence-Based guide, Lesley Braun, Marc Cohen, Elsevier Mosby,
London, (2005).
9. Medicinal Natural Products: A Biosynthetic Approach, Paul M Dewick, 1st ed., John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.,
Chichester (1997).
10. Medicinal Plants of the World, Vol. I, II, III, Ivan A Ross, 2nd ed., Humana Press, Totowa (2003).
11. Monographs of Unani Medicine, Vol. I, BAIT AL Hikmah, Hamdard Foundation Pakistan, DC and TMD,
National Institute of Health, Islamabad (2003).
12. Nutraceuticals: A Guide for Healthcare Professionals, Brain Lockwood, Lisa Rapport, Pharmaceutical Press,
London (2007).
13. Pharmacognosy, Varro E. Tyler, Lynn R. Brady, James E. Robbers, 10th ed., Lea and Febiger, Philadelphia
(2001).
14. Poisonous Plants of all Countries, A Bernard Smith, 2nd ed., Peridical Expert Book (1988).
15. Poisonous Plants of All Countries, Arthur-Bernhard Smith, 2nd ed., Periodical Expert Book, Delhi, (1988).
16. Poisonous Plants: A Hand Book for doctors, Pharmacists, Toxicologists and Veterinarians, Dietrich Forhne,
Han J Pfander, Manson Publishing, London, (2005).
17. The Hand book of Natural Flavonoids, Vol. 1-2 by Jeffery B. Harborne & Herbert Baxter, Eds., John Willey &
Son, Chiester (1999).
18. The Practical Evaluation of Phytopharmaceuticals, K. R. Brain, T.D. Turner, Wright-Scientechnica, Bristol
(1975).
19. Trease and Evans‘ Pharmacognosy, William C. Evans, George E. Trease, Daphne Evans, 16th ed., Illustrated
Elsevier Health Sciences Division Publisher (2009).
20. Tyler V.E., Brady E.R. and Robbers J.E. Pharmacognosy, 9th ed., Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia (1988).

Pharmacy Exam Guide