 john joseph dalton — an english school
physical science
atoms from the eyes of philosophers and
scientist
 empedocles — according to this greek
philosopher matter are made up of four
elements namely fire, air, water and earth.
 aristotle — he supported the idea of
empedocles and added a fifth element he
called aether or ether - his ideas were
supported by alchemist during 300 bc until
the end of 17th century.
 alchemist — comes from the word alchemy,
which has an origins in the greek word
khemeia "which means art of transmuting
metals." considered as the very early
chemist because of their work of trying to
transform base metals into gold, discover a
universal cure for diseases, and discover a
means of prolonging life, however none of
these aims succeeded.
 democritus — believed that all matter is
made up of very small particles called atoms
came from the greek word atomos means
indivisible, indestructible and uncuttable. -
this idea of democritus was purely based on
hypothetically mental experience and
reasoning.
 law of definite proportions — states that
teacher, a chemist and physicist greatly
extended the man's idea about an atom by
performing a series of experiments that led
him to the formulation of the well-known
atomic theory today. his postulates may be
summed up to what is known as "dalton's
atomic theory"
 elements are made up of small particles
called atoms.
 in any given pure element, the mass and
other properties of all the atoms are the
same. atoms of different element differ in
mass and other properties.
 compounds are composed of atoms of more
than one element. the constituent atoms in a
given compound are present in a constituent
or constant whole number ratio.
 in a chemical reaction, atoms are neither
created nor destroy. they simply combine,
separate or rearranged.
 ❖ the third postulate of dalton was
supported by joseph proust about the
composition of matter.
 in 1779 proust proposed an important
principle that revealed quantitative analysis
of chemical reactions which is a law of
definite proportions.
Postulates
elements always combine in a similar
proportions by mass regardless of the size of
the sample. example: if you examine the
carbon dioxide gas in manila and carbon
dioxide in baguio, they are just the same
carbon dioxide with same ratio of carbon to
oxygen, which is 1:2.
 law of multiple proportions—the third
postulates of dalton also supports this law.
which states that if two or more different
compounds are composed of the same two
elements, then the ratio of the masses of the
second element combined with a certain
mass of the first element is always a ratio of
small whole numbers. example: co and co2
 law of conservation of mass — this law
states that mass is neither created nor
destroyed during a chemical reactions.
 dalton's last postulates supported this law.
example: when a reaction is done in a closed
container, the total mass before and after the
reaction is the same.
structure of an atom
 atoms - considered as the tiniest particle of
an element that retains the chemical
properties of that element. - all atoms are
made up of the nucleus and the electrons.
  nucleus - is at the center of an atom
composed of protons and neutrons called
nucleons.
 wilhelm conrad roentgen or wilhelm rontgen
- discovered the x-rays on nov. 8, 1895.
 john joseph thomson - discovered the
electrons and proposed the plum pudding
model of an atom. which illustrated how the
negatively charged electrons (plums) are
mixed with smeared out positive charges
(pudding).
 James chadwick - discovered the neutrons a
neutral charged particle.
 ernest rutherford - discovered the protons a
positively charged particle.
Isotopes
 isotopes - elements with the same number of
protons but different in number of neutrons
or with the same atomic number but
different in atomic mass.
 example: hydrogen has 3 isotopes namely
protium, deuterium, tritium and
isotopes are the first forms of matter after
the big bang explosion.
Quantum Numbers
Quantum numbers can be used to describe the
trajectory and the movement of an electron in an
atom. The quantum numbers of all the electrons in a
given atom, when combined, must comply with the
Schrodinger equation.
What are Quantum Numbers?
The values of the conserved quantities of a quantum
system are given by quantum numbers. Electronic
quantum numbers (the quantum numbers describing
electrons) can be defined as a group of numerical
values which provide solutions that are acceptable
by the Schrodinger wave equation for hydrogen
atoms.
Quantum Numbers and Atomic Orbitals
Four quantum numbers can be used to completely
describe all the attributes of a given electron
belonging to an atom, these are:
 Principal quantum number, denoted by n.
 Orbital angular momentum quantum number
(or azimuthal quantum number), denoted by
l.
 Magnetic quantum number, denoted by ml.
 The electron spin quantum number, denoted
these by ms.
Azimuthal Quantum Number (Orbital
Momentum Quantum Number)
The Four Quantum Numbers that Describe an
Electron
Principal Quantum Number
 Principal quantum numbers are denoted by
the symbol ‘n’. They designate the
principal electron shell of the atom. Since
the most probable distance between the
nucleus and the electrons is described by it,
a larger value of the principal quantum
number implies a greater distance between
the electron and the nucleus (which, in turn,
implies a greater atomic size).
 The value of the principal quantum number
can be any integer with a positive value that
is equal to or greater than one. The value
n=1 denotes the innermost electron shell of
an atom, which corresponds to the
lowest energy state (or the ground state) of
an electron.
 Thus, it can be understood that the principal
quantum number, n, cannot have a negative
value or be equal to zero because it is not
possible for an atom to have a negative
value or no value for a principal shell.
 When a given electron is infused with
energy (excited state), it can be observed
that the electron jumps from one principle
shell to a higher shell, causing an increase in
the value of n. Similarly, when electrons
lose energy, they jump back into lower
shells and the value of n also decreases.
 The increase in the value of n for an electron
is called absorption, emphasizing the
photons or energy being absorbed by the
electron. Similarly, the decrease in the value
of n for an electron is called emission, where
the electrons emit their energy.
Angular
 The azimuthal (or orbital angular
momentum) quantum number describes the
shape of a given orbital. It is denoted by the
 symbol ‘l’ and its value is equal to the total
number of angular nodes in the orbital.
 A value of the azimuthal quantum
number can indicate either an s, p, d, or f
subshell which vary in shapes. This value
depends on (and is capped by) the value of
the principal quantum number, i.e. the value
of the azimuthal quantum number ranges
between 0 and (n-1).
 For example, if n =3, the azimuthal quantum
number can take on the following values –
0,1, and 2. When l=0, the resulting subshell Shapes of Orbitals (as per the corresponding
is an ‘s’ subshell. Similarly, when l=1 and Quantum Numbers)
l=2, the resulting subshells are ‘p’ and ‘d’ The value of the magnetic quantum number is
subshells (respectively). Therefore, when dependant on the value of the azimuthal (or orbital
n=3, the three possible subshells are 3s, 3p, angular momentum) quantum number. For a given
and 3d. value of l, the value of ml ranges between the interval
 In another example where the value of n is -l to +l. Therefore, it indirectly depends on the value
5, the possible values of l are 0, 1, 2, 3, and of n.
4. If l = 3, then there are a total of three
angular nodes in the atom. For example, if n = 4 and l = 3 in an atom, the
possible values of the magnetic quantum number are
-3, -2, -1, 0, +1, +2, and +3.

Azimuthal Corresponding Possible

Quantum Number of Values of
Combinations of the Principal and
Number Value Orbitals (2l + 1) ml
Azimuthal Quantum Numbers
The allowed subshells under different combinations 0 (‘s’
of ‘n’ and ‘l’ are listed above. It can be understood 2*0 + 1 = 1 0
subshell)
that the ‘2d’ orbital cannot exist since the value of ‘l’
is always less than that of ‘n’.
1 (‘p’
2*1 + 1 = 3 -1, 0, and 1
subshell)
Magnetic Quantum Number
The total number of orbitals in a subshell and the 2 (‘d’ -2, -1, 0, 1,
orientation of these orbitals are determined by the 2*2 + 1 = 5
subshell) and 2
magnetic quantum number. It is denoted by the
symbol ‘ml’. This number yields the projection of the
angular momentum corresponding to the orbital along -3, -2, -1,
a given axis. 3 (‘f’ subshell) 2*3 + 1 = 7 0, 1, 2, and
3

The total number of orbitals in a given subshell is a

function of the ‘l’ value of that orbital. It is given by
the formula (2l + 1). For example, the ‘3d’ subshell
(n=3, l=2) contains 5 orbitals (2*2 + 1). Each orbital
can accommodate 2 electrons. Therefore, the 3d
subshell can hold a total of 10 electrons.
Electron Spin Quantum Number
 The electron spin quantum number is
independent of the values of n, l, and ml.
The value of this number gives insight into
the direction in which the electron is
spinning, and is denoted by the symbol ms.
 The value of ms offers insight into the
direction in which the electron is spinning.
The possible values of the electron spin
quantum number are +½ and -½.
 The positive value of ms implies an upward
spin on the electron which is also called
‘spin up’ and is denoted by the symbol ↑. If
ms has a negative value, the electron in
question is said to have a downward spin, or
a ‘spin down’, which is given by the symbol
↓.
 The value of the electron spin quantum
number determines whether the atom in
question has the ability to produce a
magnetic field. The value of ms can be
generalized to ±½.
Summary
In order to simplify the details of the four different
quantum numbers that are related to atomic physics, a
tabular column detailing their names, symbols,
meanings, and possible values is provided below.
Name and Meaning and Possible
Symbol Values
Principal quantum
Electron shell, n ≥ 1
number, n
Azimuthal Subshells (s=0, p=1,
To learn more about quantum numbers and their uses
quantum number, l etc.) , (n-1) ≥ l ≥ 0 in writing electron configurations, download the
BYJU’S mobile application on your smartphone.
Total number and
Magnetic quantum
number, ml
orientation of orbitals, Electron Configuration
l≥ml≥-l
Because of the force of attraction between objects of
Electron spin opposite charge, the most important factor
The direction of electron
quantum number, influencing the energy of an orbital is its size and
spin, ms = ±½
ms therefore the value of the principal quantum
number, n. For an atom that contains only one
It is important to note that it is impossible for two electron, there is no difference between the energies
electrons of the same atom to have exactly the same of the different subshells within a shell. The 3s, 3p,
quantum state or exactly the same values of the set of and 3d orbitals, for example, have the same energy in
quantum numbers, as per Hund’s rules. a hydrogen atom. The Bohr model, which specified
the energies of orbits in terms of nothing more than
Solved Examples the distance between the electron and the nucleus,
therefore works for this atom.
What are the Possible Subshells when n = 4? How
Many Orbitals are Contained by Each of these The hydrogen atom is unusual, however. As soon as
Subshells? an atom contains more than one electron, the different
subshells no longer have the same energy. Within a
When n = 4, the possible l values are 0, 1, 2, and 3. given shell, the s orbitals always have the lowest
This implies that the 4 possible subshells are the 4s, energy. The energy of the subshells gradually
4p, 4d, and 4f subshells. becomes larger as the value of the angular quantum
number becomes larger.
 The 4s subshell contains 1 orbital and can
hold up to 2 electrons. Relative energies: s < p < d < f
 The 4p subshell contains 3 orbitals and can
hold up to 6 electrons. As a result, two factors control the energy of an
 The 4d subshell contains 5 orbitals and can orbital for most atoms: the size of the orbital and its
hold up to 10 electrons. shape, as shown in the figure below.
 The 4f subshell has 7 orbitals and can hold
A very simple device can be constructed to estimate
up to 14 electrons.
the relative energies of atomic orbitals. The allowed
Thus, a total of 4 subshells are possible for n = 4. combinations of the n and l quantum numbers are
organized in a table, as shown in the figure below and
What are the Possible ml values for l = 4? arrows are drawn at 45 degree angles pointing toward
the bottom left corner of the table.
Since the value of the magnetic quantum number
ranges from -l to l, the possible values of ml when l =
4 are: -4, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4.

The order of increasing energy of the orbitals is then
read off by following these arrows, starting at the top
of the first line and then proceeding on to the second,
third, fourth lines, and so on. This diagram predicts
the following order of increasing energy for atomic
orbitals.
1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p <4s < 3d <4p < 5s < 4d <
5p < 6s < 4f < 5d < 6p < 7s < 5f < 6d < 7p <
8s ...
Electron Configurations, the Aufbau
Principle, Degenerate Orbitals, and
Hund's Rule
The electron configuration of an atom
describes the orbitals occupied by
electrons on the atom. The basis of this
prediction is a rule known as
the aufbau principle, which assumes
that electrons are added to an atom, one
at a time, starting with the lowest
energy orbital, until all of the electrons
have been placed in an appropriate
orbital.
A hydrogen atom (Z = 1) has only one
electron, which goes into the lowest
energy orbital, the 1s orbital. This is
indicated by writing a superscript "1"
after the symbol for the orbital.
H (Z = 1): 1s1
The next element has two electrons and
the second electron fills the 1s orbital
because there are only two possible
values for the spin quantum number
used to distinguish between the
electrons in an orbital.
He (Z = 2): 1s2
The third electron goes into the next
orbital in the energy diagram, the
2s orbital.
Li (Z = 3): 1s2 2s1
The fourth electron fills this orbital.
Be (Z = 4): 1s2 2s2
After the 1s and 2s orbitals have been
filled, the next lowest energy orbitals
are the three 2p orbitals. The fifth
electron therefore goes into one of
these orbitals.
B (Z = 5): 1s2 2s2 2p1
When the time comes to add a sixth
electron, the electron configuration is
obvious.
C (Z = 6): 1s2 2s2 2p2
However, there are three orbitals in the
2p subshell. Does the second electron
go into the same orbital as the first, or
does it go into one of the other orbitals
in this subshell?
To answer this, we need to understand
the concept of degenerate orbitals. By
definition, orbitals are degenerate when
they have the same energy. The energy
of an orbital depends on both its size
and its shape because the electron
spends more of its time further from the
nucleus of the atom as the orbital
becomes larger or the shape becomes
more complex. In an isolated atom,
however, the energy of an orbital
doesn't depend on the direction in
which it points in space. Orbitals that
differ only in their orientation in space,
such as the 2px, 2py, and 2pz orbitals,
are therefore degenerate.
Electrons fill degenerate orbitals
according to rules first stated by
Friedrich Hund. Hund's rules can be
summarized as follows.
 One electron is added to each of
the degenerate orbitals in a
subshell before two electrons are
added to any orbital in the
subshell.
 Electrons are added to a subshell
with the same value of the spin
quantum number until each
orbital in the subshell has at least
one electron.
When the time comes to place two
electrons into the 2p subshell we put
one electron into each of two of these
orbitals. (The choice between the 2px,
2py, and 2pz orbitals is purely arbitrary.)
C (Z = 6): 1s2 2s2 2px1 2py1
The fact that both of the electrons in the
2p subshell have the same spin
quantum number can be shown by
representing an electron for which s =
+1/2 with an
arrow pointing up and an electron for
which s = -1/2 with an arrow pointing
down.
The electrons in the 2p orbitals on
carbon can therefore be represented as
follows.
When we get to N (Z = 7), we have to
put one electron into each of the three
degenerate 2p orbitals.
N (Z = 7): 1s2 2s2 2p3
Because each orbital in this subshell
now contains one electron, the next
electron added to the subshell must
have the opposite spin quantum
number, thereby filling one of the
2p orbitals.
O (Z = 8): 1s2 2s2 2p4
The ninth electron fills a second orbital
in this subshell.
F (Z = 9): 1s2 2s2 2p5
The tenth electron completes the
2p subshell.
Ne (Z = 10): 1s2 2s2 2p6
There is something unusually stable
about atoms, such as He and Ne, that
have electron configurations with filled
shells of orbitals. By convention, we
therefore write abbreviated electron
configurations in terms of the number
of electrons beyond the previous
element with a filled-shell electron
configuration. Electron configurations
of the next two elements in the periodic
table, for example, could be written as
follows.
Na (Z = 11): [Ne] 3s1
Mg (Z = 12): [Ne] 3s2