FILE PROCESSING APPROACHES

There are two commonly used file processing approaches, namely :

(1) Traditional Approach of File Processing

(2) Database Approach of file Processing

(1) TRADITIONAL APPROACH TO INFORMATION PROCESSING :

The traditional approach to information processing is file-oriented. Each program or

Application is designed in isolation in the sense that it has its own set of data items. Each
application maintains its own master-file and generally has its own set of transaction
files.

Purchasing
Program
Purchase
Purchasing Master file
Transaction file
Purchasing
output

Genral
Ledger
General Ledger
General ledger Master file
Transaction file
G.L.
Output

Files are custom designed for each application and generally there is little or no
sharing of data among various applications.

Example :

Personnel Information System

Emp-Code Name Desig Depart D.O.J

: : : : :
: : : : :

Payroll System

Emp-Code Name Desig Basic Y-T. Earning

: : : : :
: : : : :
 Programs are dependent on the files and vice-versa; that is when the physical format of
the file is changed, the program also has to be changed (as the storage as well as access
logic are embedded in the program).

There are a number of disadvantages of this conventional approach of file processing :

i. Data Redundancy : Often identical data are stored in two or more files. For
Example, a customer may have a saving A/C, a current A/C and some fixed deposits.
In such a case, the name and address will be found in three different files.

ii. Data Integrity : The problem of data integrity arises due to redundancy. The same
data may be found in different forms in different files.

For example, if a customer changed his address and notified it to the bank, the
address may have been changed in the savings A/C file, but not in the fixed
deposit file. Thus two different addresses may be found for the same person.

iii. Lack of Data Integration : Data on different master files may be related, as in the
case of payroll and Personnel master file. If someone wants a report displaying Emp-
Code, Name, Basic and department, traditional approach does not allow this.

iv. Data Availability : Data is scattered in many files. If a customer’s credit worthiness
in the bank has to be checked before he is given a loan, it would be necessary to look at
many files. Due to non-uniformity in file-design, the same customer may have different
identification number in different files and hence obtaining the necessary data will be
difficult.

v. Management Control : As data is scattered in different files and relating them is not
easy, it is difficult to implement uniform policies in an organization.

vi. Program/Data Dependence : Under the file-oriented approach, programs are tied to
master files and vice-versa. Changes in the physical format of the master file, such as
the addition of a data field, require changes in all programs that access the master file.
Consequently, for each of the application programs that a programmer writes or
maintains, he must be concerned with data management.

vii. Lack of Flexibility : The information retrieval capabilities of most traditional systems
are limited to predetermined requests for data. Therefore, the system produces
information in the form of scheduled reports and queries which it has been previously
programmed to handle. If managements needs unanticipated data, the information can
perhaps be provided if it is in the files, but extensive programming is often involved.
Thus by the time the programming is completed, the information may no longer be
required or useful. Ideally, information processing should be able to mix related data
elements from several different files and produce information with a fast turnaround to
service unanticipated request for information.
(2) DATABASE APPROACH TO INFORAMTION PROCESSING :

A database is a collection of related data necessary to manage an organization. A

database models the data resource of an organization using the relationships between
different data items. The model is independent of any application program. Parts of one
database may be used by different application programs for different applications.
Application programs may require different “views” of portions of data from a database,
and it should be possible to provide them.

A View is an imaginary table created from existing tables; a view may contain data from
more than one table .

Table 1 Table 2
----
----
---- ∼∼
----
----
∼∼
----

----- ∼∼
----- ∼∼
----- ∼∼
----- ∼∼
----- ∼∼

View
DBMS

A database management system is a set of procedures that manage the database and
provide access to the database in the form required by any application program (users). It
effectively ensures that necessary data in the desired form is available for diverse
applications of different departments in an organization.

Application Programs
Purchasing

Accounts
Payable

DBMS
Inventory

Payroll Database

Personnel
Thus, DBMS is a set of programs that serve as an interface between application programs
and a set of co-ordinated and integrated physical files called a database.

A DBMS provides the capabilities for creating, maintaining and changing a database.

In case of DBMS, the data among the physical files are related with various pointers and
keys, which not only reduce data redundancy but also enable unanticipated retrieval of
related information.

Application Application
Program #1 Program #2

Logical View

DBMS
DBMS provides the facility
to view data in logical form
(Data Hiding),
Physical view Insulting the user from
Concerns about how the data
are Physically stored

Database

Physical View
Logical View :

TitleAuthor

Au-id Title-id
Title-id Titles Primary Key
Title-id
Title-name Foreign Key.
Au-id Pub-id
Price
Edition Sales Foreign Key
Authors Store-id
Au-id Ord-num
au-name Date
au-address Foreign Key
Qty
au-city Title-id
Publisher
Pub-id
Pub-name
Pub-address
Pub-city
Stores
Store-id
Store-name
Store-addr

Objectives of Database Management System (DBMS) :

(1) Data Sharing : The main motivation for designing a system to manage a database is
share-ability of data. It means not only the current applications can share the data, but
this should also serve needs of future applications.

(2) Data Independence : is an essential requirement to enable the design of application

programs independent of the physical format, storage and access methods of data.
The ability to write applications programs without knowing the representation details
of database is called data independence.

(3) Control (Reduce) Redundancy : The system should identify existence of common
data and avoid duplicate recording. Relationships or pointers should be used to locate
data which are used many time.

(4) Relating Data Items : Relationships between data items should be specified.

(5) Data Integrity : (or Inconsistency can be avoided) : Consistency of data values and
relationship must be preserved. In order to achieve this, the system must ensure
validity of data by using good data editing, synchronizing, updating of data and
propagating changes to other related data elements.

(6) Data Security : This is concerned with protecting access to data. Protection is
needed at many levels for access, modification, deletion or display. Access
restriction may be for individual data items or group of items. For example, access to
salary of employees may be allowed to the financial controller but access by him may
be barred to the medical records.
(7) Database Performance : The system should be able to provide timely information as
required.
DATABASE

An Organization maintains records on the various facts of its operations by building an

appropriate model of the diverse classes of objects of its interest. These models capture
the essential properties of the objects and record relationships among them. Such related
data is called a database.

A database system is an integrated collections of related files, along with details of

interpretation of the data contained there in.

The objective of the DBMS is to provide a convenient and effective method of defining,
storing and retrieving the contents in the database. To represent this information, some
means of modeling is used.

A DBMS is a software system capable of supporting and managing any number of

independent databases. The data in a database are usually organized according to some
data model.

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

DBMS are large, complex Software packages that are written in languages such as BAL
(Basic Assembler Language), FORTRAN, COBOL, PL/1 or C. They have filled a large
portion of the gap between the ordinary user (e.g., order entry clerk, marketing vice-
president), the application programmer, and the computer. Non-programmer user can
now at least “Shake hands” on their own with the computer.

A database management system could be defined as a complex software system that

organizes the storage of data in such a way to facilitate its retrieval for many different
applications.

Thus DBMS is a collection of software which constructs, expands and maintains database
and it also provides the interface between the user and the data in the base.

Now, it is clear that the Software that controls the input, storage and retrieval of
information from the database is called DBMS. DBMS is a tool for managing
information stored on a computer.

In other words DBMS is a collection of the h/w and s/w that provides the means for
organizing and structuring data in files, records and fields and has the ability to:
(i) Maintain the data in database by adding new records, deleting `dead’ records
and amending records.
(ii) Expand the base by defining and adding new data files.
(iii) Easily retrieve data interactively in a variety of ways.
(iv) Generate reports based on data in the database.
(v) Maintain the integrity and consistency of data.
(vi) Provide security for data in the base eg., protection against unauthorized
access, safeguard data against corruption.
(vii) Provide recovery and restart facilities after a h/w or s/w failure.
 Also the DBMS provides facilities for different types of file processing. It can

(i) Process a complete file.

(ii) Process required records.
(iii) Retrieve individual records.

FUNCTIONS OF DBMS :
(1) The DBMS allocates storage to Data
(2) The DBMS maintains the data in database by
(i) Adding new records
(ii) Deleting dead records
(iii) Amending records
(3) The DBMS provides an interface with user-programs.
(4) It provides facilities for different file processing, e.g.
-process the complete file
- process the required record
-retrieve the individual record.
(5) Provides security and protection for data against
- accidental or intentional intrusion
- against corruption
- against catastrophes (natural disasters)
(6) Provides recovery and restart facility after a H/w or S/w failure.
(7) DBMS ensures data integrity (accuracy of data entered)
(8) It ensures data privacy
(9) DBMS keeps statistics of the use of data in the database and allows data which is
frequently used in readily accessible form
(10) DBMS makes use of description (catalog) of all data types.

SIGNIFICANT FEATURES OF A DATABASE SYSTEM

A database is a comprehensive, consistent, controlled and coordinated collection of

structured data-items.

A database is a single organized collection of structured data, stored with a minimum of

duplication of data items so as to provide a consistent and controlled pool of data. The
data is common to all users of the system but is independent of programs, which use the
data.

Followings are the significant features of a Database system :

(i) Controlled-Redundancy : It is often wrongly stated that there is no

duplication of data in a database. Data may be duplicated, but it is important
that the duplication are minimized and controlled.

(ii) Consistency : Files is/are updated as soon as new information is available.

Database is a collection of files in an organized fashion with controlled/no
inconsistency. One of the primary functions of a database system is to
 maintain the integrity of the database i.e. to preserve the consistency and
correctness of data.

(iii) Program/Data independence : This means that the programs and the data
are mutually independent i.e. data can be reconstructed without the need to
make alterations to the programs. Similarly a program change does not call for
rearrangement of the data layout. The independence of the database and
programs using it, means that one can be changed without changing the other.

The ability to separate the logical database definition from its physical storage
organization increases the capabilities to redefine and restructure the database.
That is, the storage structures and access strategies may be altered in response
to changing requirements, without having alteration in existing applications.
There are, in fact, two distinct levels of data-independences :
a) Physical data Independence insulates applications from the
underlying physical storage organization of the data.
b) Logical data independence, which insulates applications from
changes made to the logical organization of data e.g., the addition
of new record types or relations.

(iv) Data interrelationship :The data items in the base are linked or chained to
each other so that any required relationship between different items of data
can be established. As the base is expanded or as user’s requirement change,
these relationship can be changed and new relationships can be established.
- Include all the necessary structural interrelations of data.
- necessary owing to the fact that the various applications use data in
different ways.

(v) The database is common to all users of the database system. That is database
system is Integrated and shared and have a common approach to the
retrieval, insertion and amendments of data.

(vi) Centralized Storage : All the information are stored in a central place i.e.
database is stored in a centralized computer system.

(vii) A database requires to be stored on large-capacity direct-access devices. The

usual medium is the magnetic disk. For security purposes a copy of the
database may be held on magnetic tape or disk.

Wastage of storage space is reduced. ( Efficient storage).

(viii) A database system must provide mechanisms for the protection of data from
unauthorized intrusion, whether accidental or malicious. Strict authorization
checks are provided for privacy and confidential purposes.

(ix) Security checks are provided to safeguard database from security-hazards eg.
Thieves, fire and natural-disaster.

(x) Response time is very low. A DBMS must offer a high standard of
performance and efficiency, especially for on-line query processing.
 (xi) Usable by all programs – A database needs to be usable by not only all the
existing applications but also by all foreseeable applications

(xii) Reduced programming effort: A user need not write programs for activities
such as querying database, report generation, addition/deletion of data etc.

A database must be open ended so as to accept new sets of data items and
changes to existing data item sets.

DISADVANTAGES OF DBMS

- Problems associated with centralization

- Cost of Software /Hardware and migration
- Complexity of backup and recovery

COMPONENTS OF DBMS :
A database management system consists of five major components.
1. Data
2. Hardware
3. Software
4. Users Application Programmer
→ End Users
DBA
DDL
5. DBMS Facilities
DML

1. Data : Data Stored in the system is partitioned into one or more databases. The
data stored in the database, in general, are both shared and integrated.

By shared data we mean that the individual piece of data in database is shared
among several users. By integrated we mean that a database may be considered
as a unification of different strings of data files. Sharing of data also implies
concurrent sharing such that the ability of different users to access the database at
the same time. The data are shared among different users and applications, but a
common and controlled approach is used for inserting, deleting, modifying and
retrieving data.

The data in the database is referred to as operational data.

2 .Hardware : Hardware consists of the secondary storage volume drums, disks or

tape on which the data-base resides together with other associated devices, control
unit, Channel etc.

3. Software : Software is in between the database (physical) and the user of the
system. All requests of data by user is entertained by DBMS, a complex Software
system.
4. Users : May be of three different types :

i) Application programmer
ii) End user
iii) D.B.A.
(i) Application Programmer : is responsible for writing application
programs in higher level languages to be utilized by End users.
(ii) End Users : End users are those who access the database from a terminal
and may employ query language provided as an integral part of the
system. The user may invoke a user written program, that accepts a
command from the terminal and in this issue requests to the DBMS on end
user’s behalf.
(a) Naïve user : Users who need not be aware of the presence of the
database system or any other system supporting their usage, are
considered naïve users. These users work through a menu oriented
application program.
(b) On line user : These users may communicate with the database directly
via an online terminal or directly via a user interface and application
program. They use DML to manipulate database directly.

(iii) DBA : Centralized control of the database is exerted by a person or group

of persons under the supervision of a high level administrator. An
individual with an overview of one or more databases, who controls the
design and use of system. Actually he assigns work to different persons.
The DBA is the custodian of the data and controls the database structure.
Thus DBAs are responsible for protecting the valuable resource - data.
DBA has to coordinate the functions of collecting information about data,
designing, implementing and maintaining the database and its
security.Database Administrators like Bank Managers are custodian of the
data (and not the owner) and is responsible for :

- Deciding the information contents of the database

- Liaising with users
- Defining authorization checks and validation procedures.
- Defining strategies for back-up and recovery
- Monitoring performance and responding to changes in requirement.
- Protecting the valuable resource – data.
-Coordinating the functions of collecting information about data,
designing, implementing and maintaining the database and its security.

5. DBMS Facilities: DBMS provides certain facilities like stored procedures to

perform certain routine or frequently used tasks, data dictionary language (DDL)
to define data storage schema and data manipulation language (DML) to
manipulate (store, maintain and retrieve) data in the database.
i) DDL : Data Definition Language is used to define the conceptual scheme and
also give some details about how to implement this schema in the physical
devices used to store the data. These definitions, which can be described as
metadata about the data in the database, are expressed in the DDL of the DBMS
and maintained in complied form, known as Data Dictionary, directory or system
 catalog. The data dictionary contains information on the data stored in the
database and is consulted by the DBMS before any data manipulation operation.

ii) DML : Data Manipulation Language is used to manipulate data in the

database. Data manipulation involves retrieval of data from the database, insertion
of new data into the database, and deletion or modification of existing data. The
first of these data manipulation operations is called a query. A query is a
statement in the DML that requests the retrieval of data from the database. The
sub-set or DML used to pose a query is known as a query language.

Schematically, DBMS can be represented as :

Secondary Storage
Device

End Users
Application
Programmers

AP1

AP2

AP3

Simplified Picture of DBMS

A DBMS can give these users (non-programmer users) relatively powerful commands
without having to be introduced a programmer or some other technically proficient
computer intermediary.

Likewise, DBMS have greatly extended the application programmers’ ability to handle
complex data associated structures and to supply timely reports for a variety of users,
with less difficulty and a smaller investment in programming time than ever before.
To the user of the DBMS, more of the internal operations and data structure are
transparent. Although, the degree of transparency varies among different packages, it has
the net effect of isolating user’s from technical considerations.

Database System Architecture :

A database system is partitioned into modules that deal with the responsibilities of
the overall system. In almost all the cases the underlying operating system provides only
the most basic services and the database system has to build itself on top of it.

Beginners Application Sophisticated DBA

Programmer users

Application Application Query Databases

interfaces Programs

DML Query DDL

Pre-Compiler Processor Complier

Application
Programs Database
Object code Manager
DBMS

File Manager

Data Files

Data
Dictionary Disk

Database Manager is an interface between low level data stored in the database and the
application programs and queries submitted to the system.

File manager is supposed to manage the allocation of space on Disk, storage and
maintain the data structures used to represent information stored on disk.
OPERATION & CONTROL FEATURES OF DBMS

To accommodate the needs of technically skilled users, a DBMS has a number of

operational and control features.

1. Access : Users direct the DBMS by employing either a query language, which
is composed of special English like statements, or a host computer language
such as COBOL, FORTRAN, BASIC. Mode of access may be either batch
(Payroll) or interactive (travel agency making airline reservations).

2. Identification : Users can identify data to a DBMS by one of the three

methods:

Sequential
Direct processing
Identification by attributes.

3. Security : Security is achieved :

Against unauthorized intrusion
Against accidental or intentional alteration
By allotting Password/Logs/ Edit checks.

4. Concurrency: DBMS allows concurrent/simultaneous access of database by

several users.

5. Backup and Recovery : DBMS provides facility to take up backup of

database and also provides recovery facility after H/W and S/W failure.

6. Administration and Control : A database must respond to the changes in its

operating environment and the changing user requirement. The operation and
maintenance of a large, multi user database system requires centralized
administration and control, and extensive documentation. This is done by
Database Administration and providing Data Dictionary facilities.
DBMS Availability

The followings are some of the most popular, commercially available DBMS:

1. ADABAS ------ Software AG of North America supported by IBM and IBM-

compatible processors.

2. IDMS ---------- Marketed by Cullinanne Corporation. Also supported by

IBM- processors.

3. IMS ------------ IBM-product

4. SYSTEM 2000 – Intel system corporation; Besides IBM-processors, it is

supported by CDC Cyber Series and UNIVAC’S 1100
series processors.

5. TOTAL ------------ is supported by most major mini Computers

7. DMS 1100 – Supported by UNIVAC’S 1100 series processors

8. ORACLE - A Product of Oracle Corporations Inc.

9. INGRESS

10. UNIFY

11. SYBASE

12. Advanced SQL Server

13. MS-Access

14. FoxPro

15. dBase
ARCHITECTURE OF DBMS

An outline of the generalized architecture of a DBMS is given below. There are three
levels and that’s why this DBMS is called Three Level Architecture. A large number of
commercial and research database models fit into this framework.

The architecture is divided into three levels: The External, Conceptual and Internal. The
view at each of these levels is described by a schema. A Schema is an outline or a plan
that describes the records and relationship existing in the view.

i) External View : The external or user view is at the highest level of

database abstraction where only those portion of database of concern to a
user or application program are included. A number of user views may
exist for a given global or conceptual view. Each external view is
described by means of a schema called an External schema.

ii) Conceptual View : Conceptual view is defined by conceptual schema and

at this level all the database entities and relationship among them are
included.

iii) Internal View : This describes how the actual database is stored on the
storage device and also describes the data structures and access method (or
retrieval method) to be used by database.

External Level View View View View

(Logical view) #1 #2 #3 #n
Individual user Application
View
Nearer to Users Mapping supplied by DBMS to
(Program/Data Independence) achieve logical data independence
Conceptual Level CONCEPTUAL VIEW
(Community Users’ View)
Database (Defined by DBA)
DBMS/ OS Mapping to achieve
Physical data independence
Internal Level
(Storage View) INTERNAL VIEW
How the actual database is
stored in the storage device.
Example: To make these ideas clear, we take an example of personnel information
system .

EXTERNAL FORTRAN COBOL

EMP_NO A6 01 EMPC
DEPT_NO A4 02 EMPNO PICX(6)
SALARY F5.2 02 DEPTNO PICX(4)

CONCEPTUAL
EMPLOYEE
EMPL-NUM Character (6)
DEPT-NUM Character (4)
SALARY Numeric (5)

INTERNAL
Length of records in Bytes, Index, Pointers etc.

Personnel Information System Payroll System

Emp-name Emp-name
Emp-address Emp-Soc-Sec-No
Emp-address
Emp-salary

Emp-name : String
Emp-Soc-Sec-No : Pr. Key
Emp-address : String
Emp-Skill : String
Emp-salary : integer

Employee record
Length-120 Name : String length 25 offset 0
Soc-Sec-No. : 9 decimal offset 25 unique
Deptt. : String length 6 offset 34
Address : String length 51 offset 40
Skill : String length 20 offset 91
Salary : 9.2 decimal offset 111
DATABASE MODELS

The data in the database are usually logically organized according to some data model.
Database systems are generally based on one of the three data models, namely:

• Relational database model

• Hierarchical database model
• Network model
Data Independence is the central to the approach adopted for the constructions of
Database systems.

1. Relational Database Model

This model is based on the mathematical notion of a relation. In this model both the data
objects and their inter relationships are represented by two dimensional tables.

Relational database model use two dimensional table to store data. They order data in a
table comprising of rows and columns and differ remarkably from their hierarchical and
network counterparts. There are no parent and child data set. Consider the following
tables containing information of employees and department.

Employee Table

Emp_ID Name Dept_Code Salary Location

Each 34211 John 413 1100 New Delhi

record 34212 Mery 413 1000 New Delhi
is also 34213 David 414 1200 Mumbai
known 34214 Nathan 415 4000 Chennai
as tuple

Dept Table

Dept_Code Department

413 Personnel
414 Accounts
415 MIS

(Values under certain column is known as domain e.g. domain of Dept_Code is 413,414,415 )

The rows (records) of this table is known as tuple and column as domain. A domain is a
pool of values from which the actual values appearing in a given column are drawn. A
relational database is composed of relations and tabular representation is easy to
comprehend and implement. All others database model can be converted to relational
structure very easily and searching is very fast. The examples of relational database are
SQL/DS, INGRESS, UNIFY, ORACLE, SYBASE, FOXPRO, dBASE III Plus.
 T-CODE T-NAMS SEPECIALIZATION CORSE

N:N

ST- ID ST-NAME COURSE HALL T-CODE

BASICS OF RDBMS
1. Entity : Things, objects or events about which we collect information. An entity is an object or
event which can be distinctly identified. Entities are distinguishable objects of concern and are
modeled using their characteristics or attributes.

For example: a student with Enrolment_No U3199 is an entity. Similarly, an employee with
emp_id CS001 is an entity.

2. Attributes : Attributes are the set of information which are collected about an entity, i.e., a set of
attributes defines the characteristics or properties of an entity.

For example, Entity : Student

Attributes : Enrol_No, Roll_no, Name, Dept, etc.

3. Relation : A relation is similar to a table which consists of rows and columns. The programmer
views a relation as a file in the database. Each row in the relation represents a record whereas the
various columns represent the fields within the record.

4. Domain : The Domain is a set of possible values that an attribute can have.

For example, the attribute salary may have a domain such that salary of an employee in any value
between 1000 and 5000.

5. Tuple : A row in a relation is also called a tuple. A tuple having set of n. numbers of attributes is
termed as n-tuple.
At a given instance of time, the number of tuples in a relation is known as cardinality. And the
number. of attributes in a tuple is known as degree of the tuple or relation.

6. Key : Each relation has at least one column (or attribute) for which, each row must have a unique
value. Such an attribute is called a key . In other words, A key uniquely identifies a record in the
file. For example, Emp_No is a key in the relation.

The Hierarchical and Network data models are inherently unstable because of the hidden
pointers in the records. In the event of system errors, the chain of address between the
records could be damaged resulting in reduced data integrity.

The relational model was proposed by Dr. E.F. Codd in 1970. This model simplified the
database structure.

Limitation: The Size of the database becomes very large.

2. Hierarchical Model : Data can be represented as an ordered tree in the sense that it
consists of parent child data structure in which each child belongs to one parent. This
model represents one-to-many relationship between a parent and its children in the form
of hierarchical tree. Example of Hierarchical DBMS are IBM’s IMS/VS, Intel’s system
Corporation SYSTEM 2000.

Hierarchical structure makes it difficult to express the relationship where a child has
more than one parent. But the database is easy to comprehend, modify and search.

One-to-many relationship

STUDENT

Parent Child Relations

COURSE 1 COURSE 2 COURSE 3

Limitation:

1. Non-hierarchical relationships are difficult to map on this model. Thus, it is inflexible.

2. The processing is sequential along the branches of the tree and therefore the access
time becomes longer.
3. This hierarchical tree is implemented through pointers from parents to their children.
This requires extra storage.
4. Deletion of parent deletes its children nodes.
5. Changes in relationships require changes in the entire structure of the database.

3. Network Model : It is a parent child data structure where in child records can have
more than one parent. It is more flexible than the hierarchical model and is suitable to
represent many-to-many relationships.

In this model the database is represented by a directed graph, the nodes of which
represent the data objects (record type) and the arcs of which define the relationships
among the data objects.

Examples are HP’s IMAGE, UNIVAC’s DMS 1100 and DEC’s DBMS 10-20. Networks
system allows very general interdependencies to be expressed conveniently. But the
resulting structure can be difficult to comprehend, modify and reconstruct in case of
failure.
Many-to-Many Relationship

TEACHER

STUDENT 1 STUDENT 2 STUDENT 3

COURSE 1 COURSE 2 COURSE 3 COURSE 4 COURSE 5

Limitations:

1. Number of links tend to be extremely large as the complexity increases.

2. Extra storage is required for pointers.
3. A high level language is needed to program the database.

DATABASE MODELLING

Steps in Database Design Process:

i) Identify the various Entities involved .

ii) Identify the attributes and their types for each Entities.
iii) Entities along with their attributes (Properties) are represented in the form of a
relation (Table).
iv) Identify all possible relationships amongst various entities and
diagrammatically express it with the help of a tool, known as E-R Diagram.
Relationships are used to model the interactions that exist among different
enities.
v) Refine the relations by normalizing the data.
vi) Modify the ER diagram and normalize the relation, if need be. The process
is repeated until the desired database design is complete.

E-R Diagram: E-R Diagram is a tool which helps in expressing the relationships
amongst various entities and helps in modeling (deciding/designing) the database.

1
Teacher

1 Teaches
Teac
hes

m m

Student m Enrolled m Courses