Article
New Metallic Damper with Multiphase Behavior for Seismic
Protection of Structures
Amadeo Benavent-Climent *, David Escolano-Margarit, Julio Arcos-Espada and Hermes Ponce-Parra
Citation: Benavent-Climent, A.;
Escolano-Margarit, D.;
Arcos-Espada, J.; Ponce-Parra, H.
New Metallic Damper with
Multiphase Behavior for Seismic
Protection of Structures. Metals 2021,
11, 183. https://doi.org/
10.3390/met11020183
Academic Editor: Ravi Kiran
Yellavajjala
Received: 1 January 2021
Accepted: 19 January 2021
Published: 20 January 2021
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neu-
tral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and insti-
tutional affiliations.
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and con-
ditions of the Creative Commons At-
tribution (CC BY) license (http://cre-
ativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Metals 2021, 11, 183. https://doi.org/10.3390/met11020183
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, 28006 Madrid, Spain;
d.escolano@upm.es (D.E.-M.); julio.aespada@upm.es (J.A.-E.); hermes.ponce@upm.es (H.P.-P.)
* Correspondence: amadeo.benavent@upm.es; Tel.: +34-910677237
Abstract: This paper proposes a new metallic damper based on the plastic deformation of mild steel.
It is intended to function as an energy dissipation device in structures subjected to severe or extreme
earthquakes. The damper possesses a gap mechanism that prevents high-cycle fatigue damage un-
der wind loads. Furthermore, subjected to large deformations, the damper presents a reserve of
strength and energy dissipation capacity that can be mobilized in the event of extreme ground mo-
tions. An extensive experimental investigation was conducted, including static cyclic tests of the
damper isolated from the structure, and dynamic shake-table tests of the dampers installed in a
reinforced concrete structure. Four phases are distinguished in the response. Based on the results of
the tests, a hysteretic model for predicting the force-displacement curve of the damper under arbi-
trary cyclic loadings is presented. The model accurately captures the increment of stiffness and
strength under very large deformations. The ultimate energy dissipation capacity of the damper is
found to differ depending on the phase in which it fails, and new equations are proposed for its
prediction. It is concluded that the damper has a stable hysteretic response, and that the cyclic be-
havior, the ultimate energy dissipation capacity and failure are highly predictable with a relatively
simple numerical model.
Keywords: metallic damper; mild steel; shake-table test; cyclic loading; energy dissipation
1. Introduction
The 1994 Northridge (California) and 1995 Kobe (Japan) earthquakes highlighted
that a conventional seismic design—where the beams and columns of the main structure
are designed to dissipate energy through plastic deformations under a severe ground mo-
tion—results in significant structural and nonstructural damage and the interruption of a
building’s use after the event. Since the beginning of the 21st century, seismic engineering
has undergone a transition toward so-called Performance-Based Design (PBD), aimed at
controlling/minimizing the consequent damage and financial losses. Structures with en-
ergy dissipation systems have proven to be a very effective solution to attain the objectives
of PBD. They consist of a main structure that supports the gravity loads and an energy
dissipation system working in parallel. The latter is formed by special structural elements
called energy dissipation devices (EDDs), or simply dampers, plus the auxiliary elements
that connect the EDDs with the main structure. The EDDs are in charge of absorbing most
of the energy input by the earthquake, releasing the main structural elements from dissi-
pating energy through plastic deformations. During the earthquake, the response of the
main structure is essentially elastic, and at the end of the event it is basically undamaged.
The damage concentrates in the EDDS, which is purposely designed to be easily in-
spected, replaced or repaired after a severe (commonly called “design earthquake”) or an
extreme (“maximum credible earthquake”) ground motion. This allows for the continu-
ous use of a building without interruption, enhancing resilience. Since its first application
www.mdpi.com/journal/metals
Metals 2021, 11, 183 2 of 30

in the early 1970s [1], the addition of EDDs has proven to be an effective technology for
the seismic protection of buildings. EDDs can be classified as either displacement-depend-
ent or velocity-dependent. The former includes metallic dampers (also called hysteretic
dampers) and friction dampers [2–5]. This paper is focused on metallic EDDs, whose
source of energy dissipation is the yielding of metals [6]. They are built with well-known
and reliable material (mild steel) that have a stable hysteretic behavior and a large inher-
ent plastic deformation capacity. A comprehensive state-of-art review of the development
and implementation of metallic EDDs can be found in [7]. Different types of metallic EDDs
have been proposed in the literature and used in practical applications. Among the most
popular are the Added Damping and Stiffness damper (ADAS) [8] and its triangular ver-
sion (TADAS) [9], the buckling restrained brace [10], or the steel plate with slits [11], also
called slit-type damper herein. The latter consists of strips of steel having constant or var-
iable width, made by opening slits—either simple (Figure 1a) or double (Figure 1b)—in a
steel plate. The mechanism for energy dissipation resides in plastic bending/shearing de-
formations of the steel strips.
The slit-type damper has been successfully implemented in actual building designs
such as the Sapporo Hotel in Japan [12] and several studies have been carried out over the
last decade. Chan and Albermani [6] proposed a slit-type damper that is fabricated from
a standard structural wide-flange section by opening slits in the web. Oh et al. [13] verified
through cyclic tests the seismic performance of steel structures with slit-type dampers at
the bottom flange and confirmed their satisfactory performance. Striving to optimize the
EDD, Ghabraie et al. [14] and Zheng et al. [15] investigated new shapes for the steel strips
(i.e., with a variable section) to enhance their energy dissipation capacity. Lee et al. [16]
tested the cyclic performance of three different shapes in order to reduce stress concentra-
tion: dumbbell-shaped strip, tapered strip and hourglass-shaped strip. Amiri et al. [17]
studied a block slit damper with a very low height-to-thickness ratio. Shao et al. [18] in-
vestigated the double slit configurations (spine) shown in Figure 1b. Benavent–Climent
[19] proposed a tube-in-tube damper based on flexural/shear yielding of the steel strips
formed by opening slits on the walls of hollow structural sections (Figure 1c). A similar
concept was applied by Lee and Kim [20], who proposed a box-shaped steel slit damper.
In the last ten years, hybrid dampers that use two different passive elements combined in
a single device have been proposed, e.g., viscoelastic dampers and metallic dampers [21],
or friction dampers and metallic dampers [22]. Nowadays, a limited body of work exists
for hybrid dampers, but it is an interesting solution that receives increasing attention [23].

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1. Deformed shapes of slit-type steel plates with (a) simple or (b) double configuration, and (c) steel tubes with
openings in the walls.

Metallic dampers are conceived to dissipate energy through plastic deformations in

case of severe earthquakes. However, under wind loads, they are subjected to thousands
of cycles within the elastic range that can cause high cycle fatigue damage, compromising
the efficiency of the damper against the main shock. This problem is not exclusive of me-
tallic dampers; it affects steel structures in general [24]. In the past, high cycle fatigue due
to wind loads has caused severe damage or even collapse in steel elements such as canti-
lever steel structures or poles [25]. Low-to-mid-rise buildings designed following modern
codes are generally stiff enough to render the dynamic response induced by the wind as
Metals 2021, 11, 183 3 of 30

negligible, so that it can be endured by the main structure with no need for dampers [26].
This paper presents a new damper that avoids the problem of high cycle fatigue by intro-
ducing a gap mechanism. The proposed damper is intended to be used in low-to-mid-rise
buildings (up to about 12 floors) designed following modern codes, that can endure wind
loads with no need for braces.
Another characteristic feature of most metallic dampers is that beyond a given dis-
placement (typically large), they present a significant increase of the restoring force and
plastic stiffness. In the case of the slit-type damper, this occurs when the displacement of
the ends of the steel strip in the direction of its axis are restrained. This restriction gives
rise to important axial forces in the steel strips (in addition to bending and shear forces),
that result in the aforementioned significant increase of the restoring force and stiffness.
This is not exclusive of slit-type dampers; it occurs with other types of metallic dampers
(e.g., the TADAS damper [9]) and can be prevented using appropriate connections (e.g.,
using pin-connections and slotted holes) at the expense of incrementing the production
cost of the damper. The increment of restoring forces at large displacements can be con-
sidered as a flaw from the standpoint of the additional forces that this overstrength im-
poses upon the main structure and foundation. Yet if it is anticipated on design, and the
main structure is prepared for it, it may prove beneficial as a reserve of strength and en-
ergy dissipation capacity, being necessary in the case of an extremely high amplitude
earthquake. In fact, as shown later in this paper, the reserve of energy dissipation capacity
of the damper is very large when the restoring force starts to increase significantly until
failure. An additional reason why this increase in the restoring force under large displace-
ments is often ignored is that it cannot be easily captured by the numerical models typi-
cally used to characterize the hysteretic behaviour of metallic dampers (i.e., the Bouc–Wen
model). This paper presents a simple numerical model that can accurately reproduce the
increment of restoring force at large displacements, as well as the amount of dissipated
energy, and predict the force displacement hysteretic curves of the metallic damper under
arbitrarily applied cyclic loading until failure.

2. Design Concept of the New Metallic Damper and Materialization

2.1. Design Concept
The concept of the metallic EDD investigated in this study is depicted in Figure 2 and
will be called herein the Multi-Phased Tube-in-Tube Damper (MP-TTD). It consists of two
tubes arranged in a telescopic configuration that can be installed in the main structure as
conventional brace/diagonal members. Two faces of the outer tube are slitted to form two
rows of steel strips that constitute the part of the device that undergoes plastic defor-
mation. The damper is suitable for easy transformation into a hybrid damper by inserting
a viscoelastic material between the tubes, in the two faces of the outer tube that are not
slitted (Figure 2a). Investigation of this latter possibility lies beyond the scope of the pre-
sent paper, which instead focuses on the metallic damper that uses the plastic deformation
of the steel strips as a source of energy dissipation.
To safeguard the metallic damper from high cycle fatigue damage when subjected to
wind loads, a mechanical gap is introduced; it avoids plastic deformations on the steel
strips within the range of building displacements below the gap width 𝛿 . The metallic
damper has a multiphase nature. For displacements along the axis of the damper 𝛿 below
𝛿 , the damper is not activated and will be referred to as Phase I herein. Beyond Phase I,
the damper is activated and exhibits three additional phases. Phase II occurs between 𝛿
and the yield displacement 𝛿 in which the damper only provides stiffness and stores
elastic strain energy. Phase III would be between 𝛿 and the displacement associated
with the onset of the 𝛿 in which the damper provides stiffness and plastic strain
energy dissipation capacity at a nearly constant force. Finally, in Phase IV beyond
𝛿 , the damper increases both stiffness and strength significantly, while dissipating
energy through plastic deformations. The displacements associated with the transition
Metals 2021, 11, 183 4 of 30

from one phase to the following can be determined upon design by using appropriate
values for 𝛿 , for the geometry and number of steel strips and for the geometry of the
outer tube. The values of the displacements can be tuned so that under wind loads the
damper’s response is within Phase I, under moderate (frequent) earthquakes it does not
exceed Phase II, under a severe (“design earthquake”) motion the response does not go
beyond Phase III, and under a rare (“maximum credible earthquake”) ground motion the
damper enters Phase IV.

Figure 2. Concept of the damper: (a) section A–A’; (b) elevation; (c) plan.

2.2. Materialization
The design concept explained above is materialized in the metallic damper shown in
Figure 3a. It is made of two standard hollow structural sections. In two faces of the outer
tube (Figure 3b), slotted holes are opened using a waterjet cutting system in order to have
smooth finished surfaces and to prevent altering the properties of the steel by heat. The
steel strips between the slotted holes have a spinal configuration. To prevent out-of-plane
buckling of the strips, the central part of the spine is strengthened with a rectangular plate
fixed with pre-stressed high strength bolts to the outer tube. The inner tube (Figure 3c)
has four stoppers fixed with high strength steel rods that are post-tensioned in order to
avoid any slippage of the stopper with respect to the inner tube. The well-pondered loca-
tion of these stoppers allows for the gap 𝛿 . Figure 3d offers a photo of the metallic damp-
ers used in the test campaign explained next. Figure 4 reflects the implementation of the
metallic damper in a frame structure.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Metals 2021, 11, 183 5 of 30

Figure 3. Materialization of the metallic damper: (a) assembled damper; (b) outer tube; (c) inner
tube; (d) photograph of the specimens used in the tests.

Figure 4. Installation of the damper in a frame.

3. Experimental Research
The performance of seven identical MP-TTD specimens, referred to as MP-TTD -0 to
MP-TTD-6 herein, up to failure was studied experimentally under quasi-static cyclic tests,
dynamic seismic shake table tests, and a mixture of dynamic plus quasi-static tests. For all
test types, failure was assumed to occur when the restoring force opposed by the damper
started to decrease under increasing imposed deformations.
Specimen MP-TTD-0 was tested isolated from the structure under quasi-static cyclic
loadings. Specimens MP-TTD-1 to MP-TTD-6 were installed in a reinforced concrete (RC)
structure that was subjected to realistic seismic loadings on a shake table. During the dy-
namic shake table tests, specimens MP-TTD-2 and MP-TTD-3 reached failure, specimens
MP-TTD-1 and MP-TTD-4 suffered severe plastic deformations, and specimens MP-TTD-
5 and MP-TTD-6 remained within the elastic range. After the dynamic shake table tests,
specimens MP-TTD-1, MP-TTD-4, MP-TTD-5 and MP-TTD-6 were removed and isolated
from the RC structure, then subjected to additional quasi static cyclic loading tests until
failure.

3.1. Description of MP-TTDs Tested, Material Properties and Predicted Axial Strength and
Yield Deformation
All dampers were made from the same hollow tubes in order to ensure identical char-
acteristics for the steel. The nominal dimensions of the outer tube were #200.120.4 (width,
depth, and thickness in mm), while the inner tube was #180.100.4. Figure 5 shows the
geometry of the tested specimens, including detailed geometry of the steel strips. The
specimens represent at a 2/5 scale the dampers that would be installed in a full-scale struc-
ture having 6500 mm span length and 3800 mm story height. As shown in Figure 5, the
value selected for the gap was 𝛿 = 5 mm. The axial deformation 𝛿 = 5 mm in the
scaled damper corresponds to an inter-story drift of 0.38%. This inter-story drift is smaller
than the maximum value (about 0.5%) that typical reinforced concrete or steel structures
can endure in the elastic range. Therefore, the scaled damper was designed with a gap of
𝛿 = 5 mm because typical structures can endure the lateral displacements associated
with this gap without damage. In practical application, for fastening the assembly of the
inner and outer tubes so that the two gaps are equal, the brace damper would be supplied
with provisional and easily removable steel blocks that close the gap. These steel blocks
would be removed once both ends of the brace damper are fixed to the main structure.
Metals 2021, 11, 183 6 of 30

The steel class was S-275JR. The material properties were determined from three cou-
pon tensile tests. Table 1 summarizes the mean Young modulus E, yield stress σy, ultimate
stress σu, and the corresponding strains εy and εu.

Table 1. Material mechanical properties.

E σy σu εy εu
(GPa) (MPa) (MPa) (%) (%)
210 362 530 0.349 9.702
Assuming that the ends of the steel strips are perfectly clamped (no rotation), and
replacing the total height of the strip h + 2r (see Figure 5d) by an equivalent height h′ given
by h′ = h + (2r2/(h + 2r)) to take into account the rounded ends [19]. The meanings of h (=65
mm) and r (=5 mm), are shown in the detail of the strip of Figure 5d. The mechanical
properties of the MP-TTD can be predicted through simple mechanical principles. Con-
sidering an MP-TTD constituted of n steel strips, the force Q (see Figure 1b) when all fibers
of the cross-section of the strips reach σy (referred to as yield strength Qy hereafter), and
the force when all fibers of the cross-section reach σu, (referred to as strength QB herein)
are given by [19]:
𝜎 𝑡𝑏 𝜎 𝑡𝑏
𝑄 =𝑛 ; 𝑄 =𝑛 (1)
2ℎ′ 2ℎ′
The meanings of t (= 4 mm) and b (= 5 mm) are shown in the detail of the strip of
Figure 5d. The yield displacement 𝛿 of a MP-TTD with n steel strips can be estimated
as follows [19]:
𝑄 ℎ′ ℎ + 2𝑟
𝛿 = 1 + 3 ln (2)
𝑛𝐸𝑡𝑏 ℎ′
Using the material properties of Table 1 and the above equations, the predicted
strengths and axial displacement of the specimens are Qy = 23.15 kN, QB = 33.89 kN and
𝛿 = 1.06 mm.
Metals 2021, 11, 183 7 of 30

Figure 5. MP-TTD damper specimen: (a) section A-A’; (b) elevation; (c) detail of the stoppers; (d) detail of a single steel
strip; (e) cross-section; (f) cross-section; (g) detail of the part of the outer tube that restrains the movement of the ends of
the strips along their axes. Units in mm.

3.2. Quasi-Static Tests

3.2.1. Experimental Set-Up and Loading Histories
The hysteretic behavior and energy dissipation capacity of specimens MP-TTD-0,
MP-TTD-5 and MP-TTD-6 were determined through quasi-static uniaxial cyclic tests con-
ducted until failure. It is worth recalling that prior to the quasi-static tests, specimens MP-
TTD-5 and MP-TTD-6 were subjected to dynamic loadings within the RC structure tested
on the shake table, but the response was purely elastic and the number of cycles applied
was far lower than that discussed in the high-cycle fatigue phenomena. Therefore, the
energy dissipation capacity through plastic deformations of these two specimens is en-
tirely obtained through quasi-static loadings. Figure 6a shows the test set-up. The tests
were carried out using a universal testing machine SAXEWAY T1000 (MOOG Inc., East
Aurora, NY, USA) with a maximum load capacity of 1000 kN (Figure 6b). For the tests,
the inner tube was post-tensioned against the base of the apparatus, whereas the outer
tube was post-tensioned against the loading plate connected to the actuator. The instru-
mentation comprised two LVDTs that measured and controlled the relative displacement
within the inner and outer tube and the load cell of the testing machine. Following the
loading protocol in ATC-40 [27], the three different loading histories shown in Figure 7a–c
were applied to the specimens. They consisted of cycles of incremental amplitude Δ𝛿, herein
normalized by the yield displacement 𝛿 and expressed by the coefficient 𝜙 = Δ𝛿/𝛿 .
The differences among them were the value of 𝜙 (𝜙 = 2 for MP-TTD-0, 𝜙 = 3 for MP-
Metals 2021, 11, 183 8 of 30

TTD-5 and 𝜙 = 1 for MP-TTD-6), and the number of repetitions per amplitude applied
(two for specimens MP-TTD-0 and MP-TTD-6, one for specimen MP-TTD-5).

Actuator

Load cell

Outer tube

LVDT

Inner tube

(a) (b)
Figure 6. Experimental set-up for quasi-static tests: (a) components, (b) photograph.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 7. Loading histories: (a) MP-TTD-0, (b) MP-TTD-5 and (c) MP-TTD-6.

3.2.2. Force-Displacement Curves of the Dampers

Figures 8–10 show the load Q versus displacement 𝛿 loops obtained in the quasi-
static tests. The two most noteworthy characteristics of these curves are: (i) the shifts of
the loops along the X axis due to the presence of the gap, and (ii) the increment of plastic
stiffness in the large deformation range (beyond about 20 mm in Figure 9). These features
are shown in Figure 11 and described next. First, there is a free movement in which both
gaps 𝛿 are opened, which delays the engagement of the damper producing the horizon-
tal segment 0–1. Second, one of the gaps closes and the steel strips start to deform follow-
ing the loading segment 1–2. Third, upon unloading, the sign of the displacement changes
moves from point 2 to 3, and follows a line whose slope coincides with the initial elastic
stiffness. Fourth, upon increasing the imposed displacements with the same sign (i.e., to-
wards the negative horizontal axis), there is free movement until the other gap closes cov-
ering a distance along the X axis of 2𝛿 (horizontal segment 3–4). Fifth, further increasing
the imposed displacements with the same sign, the strip deforms, keeping approximately
Metals 2021, 11, 183 9 of 30

constant the restoring force Q until point 5. Sixth, when the deformations are very large,
the restoring force Q starts to increase significantly (segment 5–6). The latter is caused by
restriction on the movements of the ends of the strips in the direction perpendicular to the
applied force Q (i.e., in the direction of the strip’s axis). In the specimens tested, the last
(sixth) effect appears for axial deformations beyond approximately 20 mm, which corre-
sponds to an inter-story drift of about 1.5% in a conventional frame structure. The defor-
mation associated with the onset of the overstrength (i.e., point 5 in Figure 11) depends
on the level of restriction of the relative movements of the ends of the strips perpendicular
to the axis of the MT-TTD, which can be tuned by controlling the stiffness of the lateral
parts of the outer tube; that is, the inertia of the elements shown in Figure 5g with respect
to the x–x′ axis passing through its centroid. Figures 8–10 show with dot lines the force-
displacement relationships after the peak strength is reached. It is worth noting that the
degradation of strength after the assumed point of failure is gradual; this is due to the
successive (i.e., not simultaneous) failure of the steel strips.

Figure 8. Force-displacement curves of damper MP-TTD-0.

Figure 9. Force-displacement curves of damper MP-TTD-5.

Figure 10. Force-displacement curves of damper MP-TTD-6.

Metals 2021, 11, 183 10 of 30

Figure 11. Main features of the force-displacement curves.

3.3. Dynamic Shake Table Tests

3.3.1. Experimental Set-Up
The performance of the MP-TTDs installed in a structure and subjected to realistic
dynamic seismic loading was examined through shake table tests. Specimens MP-TTD-1
to MP-TTD-6 were installed as diagonal structural elements inside the column grid of a
RC structure built at the Laboratory of Structural Dynamics of the University of Granada
(Spain). The RC structure was a 2/5 scaled test specimen that represents a portion of a
three-story prototype structure consisting of RC waffle-flat plates supported by RC col-
umns. The structure was assumed to be located in the region of moderate-to-high seismic-
ity of Granada (Spain) on soil type C (180 m/s < vs. < 360 m/s, where vs. is the shear wave
velocity). The reference acceleration aR of the design earthquake (associated with a return
period RP = 475 years) established by the 2012 Spanish seismic hazard map in rock is aR =
0.23 g (here g is the acceleration of gravity) and the soil amplification factor for soil type
C is 1.34; therefore, the peak ground acceleration (PGA) of the “design earthquake” is 0.31
g (=0.23⋅1.34).
The RC test specimen comprises a waffle-flat plate supported on three rectangular
columns, symmetrical along the X axis and irregular along the Y axis, as shown in Figure
12. Figure 13 offers a photograph of the RC structure with the MP-TTDs before the tests.
Since this research is focused on the dampers, a detailed description of the RC structure
is not pertinent. A detailed description of the RC structure can be found in [28]; in this
reference a similar RC structure was tested with a different type of damper. In order to
reproduce the inertial forces acting on the specimen during an earthquake, the total mass
of the upper floors was replaced by steel plates pinned to the top columns. Each damper
was instrumented with two displacement transducers (LVDTs) that measured the defor-
mations along their axis. For each damper, the strains were measured at several points of
two sections of the brace extenders; they are shown in Figure 12b for damper MP-TTD-02.
One section (identified as section C-C′ in Figure 12b) was located at the middle of the
upper brace extender and strains were measured at six points. The other section was at
the lower brace extender (identified as section D-D’ in Figure 12b) and strains were meas-
ured at four points. The average value of the strains measured by the gauges located in
the same section (C-C′ or D-D′) was used to estimate the axial force acting in the section.
The axial forces estimated in section C-C′ and in section D-D′ were close, but the value in
section C-C′ was judged more reliable and was used as an axial force acting on the
damper. Since these brace extenders remained perfectly elastic during testing, the axial
force in the damper was readily obtained by multiplying the strain measured by the
gauges by Young’s modulus and the cross-section of the brace extender.
Metals 2021, 11, 183 11 of 30

A Section B-B' 3970

508

A
B
278

1510
MP-TTD-06
6

MP
-TT
D-0
4
3016

2000

A'
-05
-TTD
MP
6

1510
278

1269 2445 256

508

(a)

(b)
Figure 12. Shake table test experimental set-up: (a) aerial plan view; (b) elevation. Units in mm.
Metals 2021, 11, 183 12 of 30

Figure 13. Photograph of the RC structure with the MP-TTDs before the tests.

3.3.2. Dynamic Loadings and Force-Deformation Curves of the Dampers

The dynamic tests were performed with the bidirectional MTS 3 × 3 m2 shake table
(MTS, Eden Prairie, MN, USA) of the Laboratory of Structures of the University of Gra-
nada (Spain). Prior to the seismic tests, the control system of the shake table was trained
with white noise signals; the table peak acceleration during this training was approxi-
mately ± 0.05 g. During this training, the forces developed on the MP-TTD were zero, since
the maximum displacements measured along their axes (ranging roughly ±2 mm) did not
exceed the gap (𝛿 = 5 mm). This confirmed the satisfactory response of the MP-TTD un-
der low intensity dynamic excitations, such as those induced by wind.
Once the shake table was trained, the RC structure with the MP-TTDs was subjected
to four bidirectional seismic tests of increasing intensity, referred to here as C100, C200,
C300 and C400. In each test, the shake table reproduced simultaneously the NS and EW
horizontal components of the ground motion recorded at Calitri during the Campano-
Lucano earthquake, scaled in time by the factor λt = 0.63 (in order to satisfy similitude
requirements), and respectively scaled in amplitude to 100%, 200%, 300%, and 400%. The
resulting peak accelerations applied to the shake table were 0.16 g, 0.31 g, 0.47 g, and 0.62
g. These peak accelerations can be related with the seismic hazard levels established for
Granada. Seismic test C100 is associated with a return period of RP = 93 years, represent-
ing a frequent earthquake. C200 is associated with PR = 475 years and represents the “de-
sign earthquake”. C300 and C400 are respectively associated with RP = 1357 and RP = 2687
years, and represent very rare earthquakes (“maximum credible earthquakes”). Figure 14
shows the history of accelerations applied to the shake table in each direction during test
C100.
Metals 2021, 11, 183 13 of 30

(a) (b)
Figure 14. History of accelerations applied to the shake table in X (a) and Y (b) directions.

The following discussion is focused on dampers MP-TTD-1, MP-TTD-2, MP-TTD-3,

and MP-TTD-4, since dampers MP-TTD-5 and MP-TTD-6 remained perfectly elastic in all
simulations, as indicated at the beginning of this section.
Seismic test C100 represents a frequent earthquake. During this test, the response of
dampers MP-TTD-1, MP-TTD-2, MP-TTD-3, and MP-TTD-4 was basically elastic. The
maximum displacements along the axis of the damper were up to about 7 mm, very close
to the sum of the gap (5 mm) and the yield displacement (𝛿 = 1.06 mm). Figure 15
shows, for illustrative purposes, the response of specimen MP-TTD-3; the other dampers
behaved similarly. That is, under the “frequent earthquake”, the dampers enacted Phase
II of their multi-phased behavior.
During seismic test C200, representing the “design earthquake”, the specimens MP-
TTD-1 (Figure 16a) and MP-TTD-4 (Figure 17a) experienced some (minor) excursions in
the plastic range, reaching maximum axial displacements of up to about 8 mm. In contrast,
specimens MP-TTD-2 (Figure 18a) and MP-TTD-3 (Figure 19a) underwent significant
plastic deformations, reaching maximum axial displacements 𝛿 up to 18 mm. This
𝛿 is far beyond the yield deformation (about 17 times 𝛿 = 1.06 𝑚𝑚), but no signifi-
cant increase of strength or plastic stiffness is seen in the curve. This means that the damp-
ers remained in Phase III under the “design earthquake”. The axial deformation 𝛿 =
18 mm corresponds to an inter-story drift of about 1.3% (=100(𝛿 /𝐻 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼), where 𝛼 =
0,53 𝑟𝑎 is the angle of the axis of the damper with the horizontal, and Hi = 1510 mm is the
height of the first story of the RC structure). This inter-story drift is smaller than the upper
bound value (1.5%) assigned by the Structural Engineers Association of California
(SEAOC) in the well-known document Vision 2000 [29] to the performance level of “Life
Safety”, meaning that the dampers protected the main structure satisfactorily and kept
the RC frame within acceptable limits of lateral displacements. A careful inspection of the
RC frame after test C200 served to confirm that it was basically undamaged (i.e., only
minor hairline cracks in the concrete at the ends of the columns).
In turn, during seismic test C300, representing the “maximum credible earthquake”,
dampers MP-TTD-1 (Figure 16b) and MP-TTD-4 (Figure 17b) underwent plastic defor-
mations, though much smaller than those of MP-TTD-2 (Figure 18b) and MP-TTD-3
(Figure 19b). Particularly, the maximum axial deformation of damper MP-TTD-2 reached
𝛿 = 30 mm (i.e., 28 times the yield deformation 𝛿 ), and the hysteretic curve pre-
sented a significant increase in strength and stiffness. This indicates that damper MP-TTD-
2 entered Phase IV of its multi-phase behaviour. The maximum displacement of damper
MP-TTD-3 was 𝛿 = 20 mm, and the curves do not reflect any significant increase of
plastic stiffness; thus damper MP-TTD-3 did not enter Phase IV. In terms of maximum
inter-story drift, the axial deformation 𝛿 = 30 mm corresponds to 2.3% (=100(𝛿 /
𝐻 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼)). This value is close to the 2.5% assigned by SEAOC [29] to the performance level
of “near collapse”. Inspection of the RC frame after test C300 showed only limited plastic
deformations at column ends, but the RC structure kept its capacity to sustain the vertical
loads, with no signs of being close to collapse.
Metals 2021, 11, 183 14 of 30

Since the RC frame was not severely damaged and retained its capacity to sustain the
vertical gravity loads, and since none of the dampers reached failure, it was decided that
the seismic shakings should continue with the additional test, C400. It is worth recalling
that C400 corresponds to a very rare earthquake, with higher intensity than the “maxi-
mum considered earthquake” prescribed by seismic codes for structures of normal im-
portance (e.g., residential buildings). The return period of the earthquake simulated by
test C400 (RP = 2687 years) is close to the value assigned by the European seismic code
Eurocode 8 (2500 years) for verifying the “near collapse” limit of buildings pertaining to
consequence class CC3a (i.e., buildings whose seismic resistance is of great importance in
view of the consequences, e.g., schools, assembly halls, cultural institutions, etc.) During
test C400, dampers MP-TTD-2 (Figure 18c) and MP-TTD-3 (Figure 19c) reached their ulti-
mate energy dissipation capacity and failed. Both entered clearly in Phase IV of their
multi-phase behaviour, as evidenced by the significant increases of strength and plastic
stiffness. Before failure, dampers MP-TTD-2 and MP-TTD-3 were able to sustain ex-
tremely large axial deformations (39 mm MP-TTP-2 and 30 mm MP-TTD-3), up to 37 and
28 times the yield deformation, and develop very large forces of 145 kN (MP-TTD-2) and
110 kN (MP-TTD-3), which are about six times the nominal yield force Qy (=23.15 kN).
These very large forces are attributed to the development of large axial forces along the
axis of the steel strips when the damper is subjected to large deformations along its axis.
The maximum deformation 𝛿 = 39 mm corresponds to an inter-story drift of 3%
(=100(𝛿 /𝐻 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼))—that is, above the value (2.5%) specified by SEAOC [29] as indica-
tive of collapse. Inspection of the RC frame after test C400 revealed extensive plastic de-
formations at column ends, but the RC structure did not collapse. In sum, the overstrength
and the associated increase of the plastic stiffness, together with the additional energy
dissipation capacity provided by the dampers in Phase IV, prevented the RC structure
from collapse under a ground motion of extreme severity with a PGA as large as 0.62 g.
Dampers MP-TTD-1 (Figure 16c) and MP-TTD-4 (Figure 17c) also experienced large plas-
tic deformations and maximum axial displacements up to 𝛿 = 17 mm, but they did
not fail; they remained in Phase III. For this reason, in order to investigate their ultimate
energy dissipation capacity, it was decided to subject dampers MP-TTD-1 and MP-TTD-4
to additional quasi-static cyclic deformations until failure, as explained below.

Figure 15. Response of damper MP-TTD-3 during C100.

(a)
Metals 2021, 11, 183 15 of 30

(b)

(c)

(d)

Figure 16. Response of damper MP-TTD-1 during tests: (a) C200, (b) C300, (c) C400 and (d) quasi-static test.

(a)

(b)
Metals 2021, 11, 183 16 of 30

(c)

(d)

Figure 17. Response of damper MP-TTD-4 during tests: (a) C200, (b) C300, (c) C400, and (d) quasi-
static.

(a)

(b)
Metals 2021, 11, 183 17 of 30

(c)

Figure 18. Response of damper MP-TTD-2 during tests: (a) C200, (b) C300 and (c) C400.

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 19. Response of damper MP-TTD-3 during tests: (a) C200, (b) C300 and (c) C400.
Metals 2021, 11, 183 18 of 30

3.3.3. Additional Quasi-Static Tests Conducted on Dampers MP-TTD-1 and MP-TTD-4

Dampers MP-TTD-1 and MP-TTD-4 were subjected to additional quasi-static cyclic
tests, using the experimental setup explained in Section 3.2. The histories of loading ap-
plied are indicated in Figure 20. They consisted of cycles of incremental amplitude, with
𝜙 (= Δ𝛿/𝛿 ) equal to 𝜙 = 0.5 for damper MP-TTD-1 and to 𝜙 = 4 for damper MP-TTD-
4, applied until the dampers failed. The additional hysteretic loops obtained are shown in
Figures 16d and 17d, respectively; it is worth noting that although the dampers were al-
ready severely damaged by previous dynamic tests, the hysteretic loops are very stable,
showing no signs of strength or stiffness deterioration until the point where failure occurs.
It is also noticeable that after the peak strength is reached, the strength degrades progres-
sively, that is, it is not seen as a sudden drop of resistance.

(a) (b)
Figure 20. Additional quasi-static loading histories: (a) MP-TTD-1 and (b) MP-TTD-4.

4. Discussion
4.1. Decomposition into Skeleton and Bauschinger Parts
Previous research on metallic structural elements [30] has shown that the ultimate
energy dissipation capacity is path-dependent, that is, it varies with the loading pattern
applied. In the case of seismic loadings, the cyclic loading pattern that a future earthquake
will impose upon a metallic damper cannot be foreseen, because the history of ground
acceleration in itself is unpredictable. A convenient way to address this load-path depend-
ency and characterize the energy dissipation capacity of the damper consists of decom-
posing the hysteretic loops into two parts: the so-called skeleton part and the Bauschinger
part [31]. Let us consider the typical hysteresis Q-δ curve obtained for a damper until fail-
ure that is shown in Figure 21a. To simplify the explanation, and given that the presence
of a gap, 𝛿 does not affect the decomposition, in the following explanation it is consid-
ered that 𝛿 = 0.
Within each domain of loading (positive or negative), the skeleton is defined through
a sequential connection of the segments that exceed the maximum load Q attained by the
metallic element in previous cycles of the same load domain. As depicted in Figure 21a,
that would be the blue fragments 0–1, 5–6, 11–12, and 17–18 for positive loading, and 2–3,
8–9, and 14–15 for negative loading. Reassembling all the extracted skeleton parts succes-
sively in a continuous plot, the skeleton curve shown in Figure 21b is retrieved. Kato and
Akiyama [31] showed that the shape of the skeleton curve is independent of the charac-
teristics of the history of loading applied; but the end points, that is, the maximum accu-
mulated deformations 𝛿 , 𝛿 , do indeed depend on the loading history. Furthermore,
these authors demonstrated experimentally that the shape of the skeleton part approxi-
mately coincides with the Q-δ relationship that would be obtained under monotonic load-
ing. Given the independency of the shape of the skeleton part from the history of loading,
the shape of the skeleton curves obtained for each damper were approximated in this
study by a single pentalinear curve that is shown with dash and dot lines in Figure 21b.
This pentalinear curve is characterized by Qy = 23.15 kN, QB = 33.89 kN, δy = 1.06 mm, Ke =
Qy/δy = 21.83 kN/mm, Kp1 = 8.73 kN/mm; and Kp2 = 1.56 kN/mm, Kp3 = 3.64 kN/mm, Kp4 =
Metals 2021, 11, 183 19 of 30

14.55, QB2 = 50.1 kN, QB3 = 96.4 kN. Referring to Figure 21b, the deformations 𝛿 , 𝛿 ,
𝛿 corresponding to the end of the segments with stiffness Kp1, Kp2, Kp3, respectively, are
𝛿 = 2.3 𝑚𝑚, 𝛿 = 12.9 𝑚𝑚 and 𝛿 = 25.6 𝑚𝑚. The values of Qy, QB and 𝛿 ,
can be predicted with Equations (1) and (2). For convenience, the approximated pentalin-
ear skeleton curve can be expressed in nondimensional form in terms of the following
parameters:

𝑘 = ; 𝑘 = ; 𝑘 = ; 𝑘 = ; 𝜏 = ; 𝜏 = ; 𝜏 = (3)

For the dampers tested in this study, their values are: kp1 = 2/5, kp2 = 1/14, kp3 = 1/6, kp4
= 2/3, 𝜏 = 1.46, 𝜏 = 𝜏 + 10𝑘 , 𝜏 = 𝜏 + 10𝑘 + 12𝑘 .
The areas enveloped by the skeleton curves in each domain of loading (i.e., the
shaded areas in Figure 21b) until 𝛿 , 𝛿 will be denoted by SWu+ and SWu− and repre-
sent the energy dissipated by the damper on the skeleton part, in each domain of loading.
Since 𝛿 , 𝛿 depend on the history of loading, SWu+ and SWu− are different for each
damper tested.
The Bauschinger part comprises the remaining segments of the Q-δ curve which,
starting at Q = 0, seek the point corresponding to the maximum load attained in the pre-
ceding cycles for each loading domain. In Figure 21a that would be the green fragments
4–5, 10–11, and 16–17 for positive loading, and 7–8, and 13–14 for negative loading. Figure
21c shows all the Bauschinger parts extracted from Figure 21a and plotted correlatively.
The sum of the areas enveloped by the Bauschinger parts in each domain of loading, BWu+
and BWu−, represents the fraction of the total plastic strain energy dissipated by the damper
that is consumed on the Bauschinger part. The unloading branches in both the skeleton and
Bauschinguer parts (i.e., segments 1–2, 6–7, 12–13, 18–19, 3–4, 9–10, and 15–16 in Figure 21b,c)
have the initial elastic stiffness Ke.
Metals 2021, 11, 183 20 of 30

Figure 21. Decomposition of Q-δ: (a) overall curve, (b) skeleton part and (c) Bauschinger part.

4.2. Ultimate Energy Dissipation Capacity and Failure

Once the hysteresis Q-δ curve is decomposed into its skeleton and Bauschinger parts,
the corresponding energies and the ultimate displacements for the positive and negative
domains in the skeleton and Bauschinger parts can be expressed by the nondimensional
parameters 𝜂 ± , 𝜂 ± and 𝜂 ± defined as:
± ± ±
𝜂± = ; 𝜂± = ; 𝜂± = (4)
Metals 2021, 11, 183 21 of 30

The total energy dissipation in its nondimensional form for skeleton, Bauschinger
and overall can be simply assessed as follows:
𝜂= 𝜂 + 𝜂 ; 𝜂= 𝜂 + 𝜂 ; 𝜂= 𝜂 + 𝜂 ; 𝜂= 𝜂+ 𝜂 (5)
Following the procedure explained in Section 4.1, the Q-δ hysteresis loops obtained
for each damper until failure were decomposed into the skeleton and Bauschinger parts.
The values for the nondimensional ratios defined in Equations (3)–(5) were obtained and
are summarized in Table 2 for the dampers that did not enter Phase IV, and in Table 3 for
the dampers that entered Phase IV. Figure 22 plots the discrete values of 𝜂, 𝜂, and 𝜂
against 𝜂. Both the dampers that did not enter Phase IV and those that entered Phase
IV are represented together for comparison purposes.
Figure 22a shows the discrete values of 𝜂 against 𝜂 obtained from the tests.
Since the relation between 𝜂 against 𝜂 depends only on the shape of the skeleton
curve, it can be easily predicted from the pentalineal approximation of the skeleton curve
adopted in Section 4.1 (see Appendix). The 𝜂 − 𝜂 curve predicted in this way is plot-
ted in Figure 22a, with a solid bold line, and is given by:
For 𝜂 ≤ 𝜂 :
𝑘
𝜂=2 𝜂+ 𝜂 (6)
1−𝑘

For 𝜂 ≤ 𝜂 ≤ 𝜂 :
𝑘 ( 𝜂− 𝜂 )
𝜂= 𝜂 (1 + 𝜏 ) + ( 𝜂 − 𝜂 ) 2𝜏 + (7)
(1 − 𝑘 )

For 𝜂 ≤ 𝜂 ≤ 𝜂 :
𝑘 𝜂 − 𝜂
𝜂= 𝜂 (1 + 𝜏 ) + 𝜂 − 𝜂 2𝜏 +
1−𝑘
(8)
𝑘 𝜂− 𝜂
+ 𝜂− 𝜂 2𝜏 +
1−𝑘

For 𝜂 > 𝜂 :
𝑘 𝜂 − 𝜂
𝜂= 𝜂 (1 + 𝜏 ) + 𝜂 − 𝜂 2𝜏 + +
1−𝑘
(9)
𝑘 ( 𝜂 − 𝜂 ) 𝑘 ( 𝜂 − 𝜂 )
( 𝜂 − 𝜂 ) 2𝜏 + +( 𝜂 − 𝜂 ) 2𝜏 +
(1 − 𝑘 ) (1 − 𝑘 )

Note that both the dampers not entering Phase IV and those entering Phase IV lie
approximately on the same 𝜂 − 𝜂 curve. This is because the shape of the skeleton
curves is similar for all dampers, and 𝜂 is uniquely determined by the amount of defor-
mation accumulated on the skeleton part 𝜂.
Likewise, Figure 22b plots the discrete values of 𝜂 against 𝜂 . Two groups of
points must be distinguished here. The first are the points corresponding to the dampers
that did not enter Phase IV, and the second group those of the dampers that entered Phase
IV. The points of the first group lie approximately on a line defined by:
𝜂=𝑎∙ 𝜂+𝑏 (10)
With a = −18.4 and b’ = 965. On the other hand, the points of the second group lie on
a line parallel to that of the first group of points, but displaced upward, vertically; the
equation of the second line being determined by Equation (10) using a = −18.4 and b’ =
1295. This means that, for similar deformations accumulated on the skeleton part, the
Metals 2021, 11, 183 22 of 30

dampers that enter Phase IV dissipated about 35% more energy in the Bauschinger part
that those that did not reach Phase IV.
Finally, Figure 22c shows the total ultimate energy dissipation capacity. Since the
curve corresponding to the Bauschinger part is different for the dampers that entered
Phase IV and for those that did not, two curves (in red) are obtained for the normalized
ultimate energy dissipation capacity. These curves can be used to predict the failure of the
damper when subjected to arbitrarily applied loading (as would be induced by earth-
quakes), to be explained in the model proposed in the next section.

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 22. Ultimate energy dissipation capacity: (a) skeleton part, (b) Bauschinger part, and (c)
total energy dissipated.

Table 2. Ultimate energy dissipation capacity of the dampers that did not enter Phase IV.

Specimen Loading δ
S u+ δ
S u− η
ep + η
ep − η
S + η
S − η
B + η
B − η S Bη η
MP-TTD 0 Quasi-Static 12.69 13.08 10.94 11.30 21.96 22.99 213.15 235.47 44.95 448.62 493.57
MP-TTD 5 Quasi-Static 21.80 18.33 19.50 16.24 41.72 36.75 113.20 142.09 78.47 255.29 333.76
MP-TTD 6 Quasi-Static 15.06 9.45 13.16 7.89 24.27 17.05 293.86 309.69 41.32 603.55 644.86
MP-TTD 1 Mixed 6.24 10.43 4.87 8.81 10.78 19.09 376.73 389.42 29.87 766.15 796.02
MP-TTD 4 Mixed 22.13 20.60 19.81 18.38 46.49 51.78 142.47 195.73 98.27 338.21 436.47

Table 3. Ultimate energy dissipation capacity of the dampers that entered Phase IV.

Specimen Loading δ
S u+ δ
S u− η
ep + η
ep - η
S + η
S − η
B + η
B − Sη B η η
MP-TTD 2 Dynamic 7.06 28.96 5.64 26.23 8,90 87.38 386.41 327.91 96.28 714.32 810.61
Metals 2021, 11, 183 23 of 30

MP-TTD 3 Dynamic 11.58 18.82 9.89 16.7 18.72 48.56 483.58 317.26 67.28 800.84 868.13

5. Model for Predicting the Hysteretic Curve under Arbitrary Cyclic Loading and Fail-
ure
The same rationale as explained in Section 4.1—to deconstruct the force displacement
curve Q-δ obtained by subjecting a metallic damper to arbitrary cyclic loadings until fail-
ure—can be applied to construct (i.e., to predict) the hysteretic Q-δ loops developed by
the damper if it is subjected to arbitrary cyclic loadings. It can be attained by means of a
simple polygonal hysteretic model that requires characterization of the shape of the skel-
eton and Bauschinger parts. This is accomplished in the next subsections. Aside from its
simplicity (easy implementation for example in subroutines for conducting non-linear
time history analyses), the main advantages of the polygonal hysteretic model proposed
next with respect to other well-known smooth hysteretic models based on the Bouc–Wen
formulations are: (i) it can accurately reproduce the damper’s energy-consumption path
along the skeleton and Bauschinger parts, and is therefore able to predict the failure of the
damper; and (ii) it can accurately capture the significant increment of strength and stiff-
ness in the range of large deformations.

5.1. Modelization of the Shape of the Skeleton Part

The shape of the skeleton part has been already been defined in Section 4.1; it is
merely summarized here for convenience. The shape of the skeleton curve is characterized
by Qy, QB, and 𝛿 calculated with Equations (1) and (2), and the nondimensional param-
eters kp1, kp2, kp3, kp4, 𝜏 , 𝜏 defined in Equation (3), whose values for the dampers inves-
tigated in this study are kp1 = 2/5, kp2 = 1/14, kp3 = 1/6, kp4 = 2/3, 𝜏 = 1.46, 𝜏 = 𝜏 + 10𝑘 ,
𝜏 = 𝜏 + 10𝑘 + 12𝑘 .

5.2. Modelization of the Shape of the Bauschinger Part

Each Bauschinger part, plotted in blue in Figure 21c, can be approximated by two
lines as shown in Figure 23. The first segment starts at point “a”, whose ordinate is Q = 0,
and ends at point “c”, whose ordinate is the maximum force Qmax attained by the damper
in previous cycles in the same domain of loading. The slope of the first line is taken to be
equal to the elastic stiffness Ke. Having defined the bilinear approximation, it is necessary
to know the value of the Bauschinger deformation 𝛿 that defines point “c”, and the or-
dinate 𝑄 of the point “b” in Figure 23. To this end, the shape of the Bauschinger seg-
ments obtained in the tests were analyzed as follows. First, for a given Bauschinger seg-
ment whose deformation is 𝛿 , the amount of deformation accumulated on the skeleton
part, ∑ 𝛿 , up to the start of this Bauschinger segment, was computed. For instance, given
the Bauschinger segment 10–11 of Figure 21a 𝛿 = 𝛿 (see Figure 21c), ∑ 𝛿 would be
the sum of the deformation accumulated on the skeleton part until point 10, i.e., the de-
formation accumulated in the skeleton segments 0–1, 2–3, 5–6, and 8–9 in Figure 21a or
21b, hence ∑ 𝛿 = 𝛿 + 𝛿 + 𝛿 + 𝛿 . The pair of values (∑ 𝛿 , 𝛿 ) obtained in this
way for the Bauschinger segments are plotted in Figure 24a. They are seen to lie approxi-
mately in a line that can be expressed by:

𝛿=𝛽 𝛿 (11)

With 𝛽 = 0.9. Secondly, for a given Bauschinger segment whose maximum force at
the end point is Qmax, the value of 𝑄 was computed, making the area below the actual
Bauschingher segment (bold line in Figure 23) and the area below the bilinear approxima-
tion (dash line in Figure 23) equal. The pair of values (𝑄 , 𝑄 ) calculated in this way for
the Bauschinger segments obtained from the tests are plotted in Figure 24b. They lie ap-
proximately in a line given by the following expression, where 𝛼 = 0.5:
𝑄 = 𝛼𝑄 (12)
Metals 2021, 11, 183 24 of 30

Figure 23. Bilinear approximation of the Bauschinger segments.

(a) (b)

Figure 24. Parameters that characterize the shape of Bauschinger segments: (a) 𝛽; (b) 𝛼.

5.3. Hysteretic Model for Predicting the Hysteretic Curves

Once the shape of the skeleton and Bauschinger parts are defined, the construction
of the force-displacement Q-𝛿 hysteretic curve of the damper until failure is straightfor-
ward, being exemplified in Figure 25. Let us consider that the MP-TTD damper, whose
skeleton curve is that shown in Figure 25a, has a gap 𝛿 , and is subjected to the history of
forced displacements shown in Figure 25b. The Q-δ curve is shown in Figure 25c and it is
constructed as follows. First, the damper is forced to move from point 1 to 3 in Figure 25b;
from point 1 to point 2 the gap is opened and the force is zero. From point 2 to 3 the gap
is closed, the damper is activated and it consumes the skeleton part following a Q-δ path
that is equal to the segment 2–3 in Figure 25a. Second, the damper is forced to move from
point 3 to point 7 in the loading history of Figure 25b. The segment 3–4 is an unloading
branch with a stiffness equal to the elastic stiffness Ke. From points 4 to 5 the gaps are not
closed and the damper displaces the amount 2𝛿 without opposing any force. Since before
point 5 the damper has accumulated the plastic deformation 𝛿 on the skeleton part
(i.e., from 2 to 3), the Q-δ curve starting at point 5 is a Bauschinger segment that ends at
point 6, where Q = Qy, and it has the deformation amplitude 𝛿 = 0.9 𝛿 , as prescribed
by Equation (11). From point 6 onward, the damper again starts consuming the skeleton
part (now in the negative loading domain) and the Q-δ curve coincides with the segment
6–7 in Figure 25a. Third, the damper is forced to move from point 7 to 12 in the loading
history of Figure 25b. The initial segment 7–8 is an unloading branch of slope Ke. From 8
to 9 the damper deforms an amount 2𝛿 with a zero restoring force, since the gap is open.
After point 9, the Q-δ curve is a Bauschinger segment ending at point 11 whose force is
equal to the force at point 3, and the deformation amplitude is 𝛿 = 0.9( 𝛿 + 𝛿 ),
as prescribed by Equation (11). The ordinate of point 10 is half the ordinate of point 3, as
Metals 2021, 11, 183 25 of 30

prescribed by Equation (12). From point 11 onward the damper starts consuming the skel-
eton part again, and the Q-δ curve coincides with segment 11–12 of Figure 25a.

Figure 25. Construction of the hysteretic curve: (a) skeleton curve, (b) load history and (c) hysteretic curve.

The energy consumption path followed by the damper under the loading history of
Figure 25b can be plotted in the 𝜂 − 𝜂 plane of Figure 21c, which is redrawn in Figure
26 for convenience. The energy dissipated by the damper from point 1 to 4 in Figure 25c
is the area below the Q-δ curve, W4, that can be expressed in nondimensional form by
𝜂 = 𝑊 /(𝑄 𝛿 ). Meanwhile, the deformation accumlated on the skeleton part up to point
4 in a nondimensional form is 𝜂 = 𝛿 /𝛿 . The point of coordinates ( 𝜂 , 𝜂 ) is
shown in Figure 26. Since from point 1 to 4 all the energy has been consumed entirely by
the skeleton part, the segment representing the load path 1–4 in the ( 𝜂 , 𝜂 ) space
follows the curve that represents the energy dissipated by the skeleton part. From point 4
to 6, the damper dissipates an increment of energy 𝛥𝜂 = 𝑊 /(𝑄 𝛿 ), where 𝑊 is
the area of the Q-δ curve between points 4 and 6 in Figure 25c. Since between these points
all the dissipated energy consumed only the Bauschinger part, then 𝛥 𝜂 = 0 and the
segment 4–6 in the ( 𝜂 , 𝜂 ) space is a vertical line. The end point of coordinates ( 𝜂 ,
𝜂 ) is shown in Figure 26. From point 6 to 8, the damper dissipates an increment of en-
ergy 𝛥𝜂 = 𝑊 /(𝑄 𝛿 ), where 𝑊 is the area of the Q-δ curve between points 6 and
8 in Figure 25c. Between these points, all the dissipated energy consumed only the skele-
ton part with 𝛥 𝜂 = 𝛿 /𝛿 , then the segment 6–8 in the ( 𝜂 , 𝜂 ) space is par-
alell to the curve that represents the energy dissipated by the skeleton part. The end point
of coordinates ( 𝜂 , 𝜂 ) is shown in Figure 26. Following this procedure, the energy
consumption path in the ( 𝜂 , 𝜂 ) space can be traced, and the damper will fail when
the curve that represents the ultimate energy dissipation capacity of the damper is at-
tained; yet if the damper does not enter Phase IV, the ultimate energy dissipation curve to
Metals 2021, 11, 183 26 of 30

be used is the solid red line of Figure 26; and if the damper enters Phase IV, the failure
curve is the dash red line.

Figure 26. Energy dissipation path and failure prediction.

6. Conclusions
This paper investigated a new metallic damper intended for use in protecting struc-
tures subjected to earthquakes. The damper has a gap mechanism that prevents high cycle
fatigue damage under wind loads. Seven identical specimens representing the damper
were tested under quasi-static and dynamic loadings on a shake table until failure. The
force-displacement curves were decomposed into the skeleton and Bauschinger parts to
verify the shape of the hysteretic curves and the ultimate energy dissipation capacity of
the damper. The following conclusions are reached:
1. The damper presents a very stable hysteretic response until failure, without any
sign of strength or stiffness degradation.
2. The damper features a multi-phased behavior. In Phase I the damper is not acti-
vated because the gap is not closed. In Phase II the damper remains in the elastic range.
In Phase III the damper dissipates energy through plastic deformations, keeping the re-
storing force approximately constant. In Phase IV the damper exhibits a significant in-
crease in strength and stiffness, and keeps dissipating energy. The damper can be de-
signed to remain in Phase I for wind loads, in Phase II for frequent earthquakes, in Phase
III for the “design earthquake”, and in Phase IV for the “maximum credible earthquake”.
3. The ultimate energy dissipation capacity of the damper if it enters Phase IV is about
35% larger that if it remains in Phase III.
4. A simple polygonal hysteretic model is proposed to predict reasonably well the
response of the damper under arbitrarily applied cyclic loads; it is able to capture the sig-
nificant increase in strength and stiffness in the large deformation range.
5. Equations defining the ultimate energy dissipation capacity of the dampers are
proposed, together with a criterion which, if applied in conjunction with the proposed
hysteretic model, allows one to reliably and accurately predict the failure of the damper.
6. A reinforced concrete structure equipped with the new metallic dampers was
tested on a shake table under realistic dynamic seismic loadings. During the preliminary
low intensity white noise signals applied for training the shake table, the dampers did not
become activated (i.e., they remained within Phase I). In the seismic tests representing a
frequent earthquake, the damper remained elastic (i.e., within Phase II). Under the seismic
test representing the “design earthquake”, the dampers experienced severe plastic defor-
mations but did not exhibit any significant associated increase in strength/stiffness (i.e.,
they remained in Phase III), and they kept the main structure basically undamaged. Under
the seismic tests that represented “maximum credible earthquakes”, the dampers exhib-
ited a significant increase of strength and stiffness, entering Phase IV; this protected the
main structure, limiting the damage and preventing collapse.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.B.-C., and D.E.-M.; methodology, D.E.-M., J.A.-E.

and H.P.-P.; software J.A.-E. and H.P.-P.; validation J.A.-E. and H.P.-P.; formal analysis J.A.-E.;
investigation A.B.-C., D.E.-M., J.A.-E., H.P.-P.; resources A.B.-C.; data curation, J.A.-E., H.P.-P.;
Metals 2021, 11, 183 27 of 30

writing—original draft preparation D.E.-M.; writing—review and editing, A.B.-C.; supervision,

A.B.-C.; project administration A.B.-C.; funding acquisition A.B.-C. All authors have read and
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitivity, research
project reference MEC BIA2017 88814 R and received funds from the European Union (Fonds Eu-
ropéen de Dévelopment Régional).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement: Data available on request due to restrictions e.g., privacy or ethical.

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Appendix A
Figure A1 shows the approximated pentalineal skeleton curve in a given domain of
loading (positive or negative) expressed in nondimensional form with the coefficients de-
fined in Equations (3) and (6)–(9). Figure A2 shows with shaded areas a detail of the en-
ergy dissipated in the range 0 − 𝜂 (Figure A2a) and in the range 𝜂 − 𝜂 (Figure
A2b). For the range of deformation on the skeleton part 𝜂 − 𝜂 a Figure similar to
Figure A2b can be drawn replacing 𝜏 with 𝜏 and 𝑘 with 𝑘 . For the range of de-
formation on the skeleton part 𝜂 > 𝜂 , a Figure similar to Figure A2b can be drawn
replacing 𝜏 with 𝜏 and 𝑘 with 𝑘 .
Focusing on Figure A2a, the relation between a given ordinate x and 𝜂 is:
(𝑥 − 1)
𝜂= − (𝑥 − 1) (A1)
𝑘
and solving for x gives:
𝑘 𝜂 + (1 − 𝑘 )
𝑥= (A2)
(1 − 𝑘 )
The shaded area in Figure A2a can be expressed by:
( )
𝜂= (A3)

Substituting x given by Equation (A2) in Equation (A3) gives:

For 𝜂≤ 𝜂 : 𝜂= 𝜂+ 𝜂 (A4)
( )

Similarly, if 𝜂 is in the range 𝜂 − 𝜂 (Figure A2b), the relation between x’

and 𝜂 is:
(𝑥 − 𝜏 )
𝜂− 𝜂 = − (𝑥 − 𝜏 ) (A5)
𝑘
And solving for x′ gives:
( ) ( )
𝑥′ = (A6)
( )

and the shaded area in Figure A2b can be expressed by:

𝜂 (1 + 𝜏 ) ( 𝜂 − 𝜂 )(𝜏 + 𝑥′)
𝜂= + (A7)
2 2
Substituting x′ given by Equation (A6) in Equation (A7) gives:
Metals 2021, 11, 183 28 of 30

( ) ( ) ( )
For 𝜂 ≤ 𝜂 ≤ 𝜂 : 𝜂= + 2𝜏 + (A8)
( )

Proceeding in the same way, 𝜂 for 𝜂 in the range 𝜂 − 𝜂 is:

For 𝜂 ≤ 𝜂 ≤ 𝜂 :
𝜂 (1 + 𝜏 ) ( 𝜂 − 𝜂 ) 𝑘 ( 𝜂 − 𝜂 ) ( 𝜂− 𝜂 ) 𝑘 ( 𝜂− 𝜂 )
𝜂= + 2𝜏 + + 2𝜏 + (A9)
2 2 (1 − 𝑘 ) 2 (1 − 𝑘 )

For 𝜂 > 𝜂 :
𝜂 (1 + 𝜏 ) ( 𝜂 − 𝜂 ) 𝑘 ( 𝜂 − 𝜂 )
𝜂= + 2𝜏 +
2 2 (1 − 𝑘 )
( 𝜂 − 𝜂 ) 𝑘 ( 𝜂 − 𝜂 )
+ 2𝜏 + (A10)
2 (1 − 𝑘 )
( 𝜂 − 𝜂 ) 𝑘 ( 𝜂 − 𝜂 )
+ 2𝜏 +
2 (1 − 𝑘 )

Noting that under cyclic loading the damper dissipates energy in the positive and in
the negative domains of loading and assuming that 𝛿 = 𝛿 , the total energy dissi-
pated on the skeleton part is two times that expressed by Equations (A4), (A8)–(A10), and
this gives the Equations (6)–(9) in Section 4.2.

Figure A1. Normalized skeleton curve.

(a) (b)

Figure A2. Detail of the energy dissipated in the range: (a) 0 − 𝜂 and (b) 𝜂 − 𝜂 .
Metals 2021, 11, 183 29 of 30

References
1. Skinner, R.I.; Kelly, J.M.; Heine, A.J. Hysteretic dampers for earthquake-resistant structures. Earthq. Eng. Struct. Dyn. 1974, 3,
287–296.
2. Soong, T.T.; Spencer, B.F., Jr. Supplemental energy dissipation: State-of-the-art and state-of-the-practice. Eng. Struct. 2002, 24,
243–259.
3. Constantinou, M.; Soong, T.; Dargush, G. Passive Energy Dissipation Systems for Structural Design and Retrofit; Monograph No. 1;
MCEER: Buffalo, NY, USA, 1998.
4. Symans, M.D.; Constantinou, M.C. Semi-active control systems for seismic protection of structures: A state-of-the-art review.
Eng. Struct. 1999, 21, 469–487.
5. Housner, G.W.; Bergman, L.A.; Caughey, T.K.; Chassiakos, A.G. Structural control: Past, present, and future. J. Eng. Mech. 1997,
123, 897–971.
6. Chan, R.; Albermani, F. Experimental study of steel slit damper for passive energy dissipation. Eng. Struct. 2008, 30, 1058–1066.
7. Javanmardi, A.; Ibrahim, Z.; Ghaedi, K.; Ghadim, H.B.; Hanif, M.U. State-of-the-art review of metallic dampers: Testing, devel-
opment and implementation. Arch. Comp. Meth. Eng. 2020, 27, 455–478.
8. Whittaker, A.S.; Bertero, V.V.; Thompson, C.L.; Alonso, L.J. Seismic testing of steel plate energy dissipation devices. Earthq.
Spect. 1991, 7, 563–604.
9. Tsai, K.; Chen, H.; Hong, C.; Su, Y. Design of steel triangular plate energy absorbers for seismic-resistant construction. Earthq.
Spect. 1993, 9, 505–528.
10. Kobori, T.; Miura, Y.; Fukuzawa, E.; Yamada, T.; Arita, T.; Takenaka, Y.; Miyagawa, N.; Tanaka, N.; Fukumoto, T. Development
and application of hysteresis steel dampers. In Proceedings of Tenth World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Rotterdam,
The Netherlands, 19–24 July 1992; pp. 2341–2346.
11. Benavent-Climent, A.; Oh, S.; Akiyama, H. Ultimate energy absorption capacity of slit-type steel plates subjected to shear de-
formations. J. Struct. Constr. Eng. 1998, 63, 139–147.
12. Watanabe, A.; Hitomi, Y.; Saeki, E.; Wada, A.; Fujimoto, M. Properties of brace encased in buckling-restraining concrete and
steel tube. In Proceedings of Ninth World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Tokyo-Kyoto, Japan, 2–9 August 1988; pp.
719–724.
13. Oh, S.; Kim, Y.; Ryu, H. Seismic performance of steel structures with slit dampers. Eng. Struct. 2009, 31, 1997–2008.
14. Ghabraie, K., Chan, R.; Huang, X.; Xie, Y.M. Shape optimization of metallic yielding devices for passive mitigation of seismic
energy. Eng. Struct. 2010, 32, 2258–2267.
15. Zheng, J.; Li, A.; Guo, T. Analytical and experimental study on mild steel dampers with non-uniform vertical slits. Earthq. Eng.
Eng. Vibr. 2015, 14, 111–123.
16. Lee, C.; Ju, Y.K.; Min, J.; Lho, S.; Kim, S. Non-uniform steel strip dampers subjected to cyclic loadings. Eng. Struct. 2015, 99, 192–
204.
17. Amiri, H.A.; Najafabadi, E.P.; Estekanchi, H.E. Experimental and analytical study of block slit damper. J. Constr. Steel Res. 2018,
141, 167–178.
18. Shao, F.; Gu, T.; Jia, L.; Ge, H.; Taguchi, M. Experimental study on damage detectable brace-type shear fuses. Eng. Struct. 2020,
225, 111260.
19. Benavent-Climent, A. A brace-type seismic damper based on yielding the walls of hollow structural sections. Eng. Struct. 2010,
32, 1113–1122.
20. Lee, J.; Kim, J. Development of box-shaped steel slit dampers for seismic retrofit of building structures. Eng. Struct. 2017, 150,
934–946.
21. Marshall, J.D.; Charney, F.A. Seismic response of steel frame structures with hybrid passive control systems. Earthq. Eng. Struct.
Dyn. 2012, 41, 715–733.
22. Lee, C.; Kim, J.; Kim, D.; Ryu, J.; Ju, Y.K. Numerical and experimental analysis of combined behavior of shear-type friction
damper and non-uniform strip damper for multi-level seismic protection. Eng. Struct. 2016, 114, 75–92.
23. Hashizume, S.; Takewaki, I. Hysteretic-viscous hybrid damper system with stopper mechanism for tall buildings under earth-
quake ground motions of extremely large amplitude. Front. Built Environ. 2020, 6, 1–16.
24. Fang, Z.; Li, A.; Li, W.; Shen, S. Wind-induced fatigue analysis of high-rise steel structures using equivalent structural stress
method. Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 71.
25. Repetto, M.P.; Solari, G. Wind-induced fatigue collapse of real slender structures. Eng. Struct. 2010, 32, 3888–3898.
26. West, M.A.; Fisher, J.M.; Griffis, L.G. Serviceability Design Considerations for Steel Buildings; Design Guide 3; AISC: Chicago, IL,
USA, 2003.
27. Krawinkler, H. Guidelines for Cyclic Seismic Testing of Components of Steel Structures; ATC: Redwood City, CA, USA, 1992.
28. Benavent-Climent, A.; Donaire-Avila, J.; Oliver-Saiz, E. Seismic performance and damage evaluation of a waffle-flat plate struc-
ture with hysteretic dampers through shake-table tests. Earthq. Eng. Struct. Dyn. 2018, 47, 1250–1269.
29. Structural Engineers Association of California (SEAOC) & Vision 2000 Committee. Vision 2000: Performance Based Seismic Engi-
neering of Buildings; SEAOC & California Office of Emergency Services: Sacramento, CA, USA, 1995; Volume 1.
Metals 2021, 11, 183 30 of 30

30. Benavent-Climent, A. An energy-based damage model for seismic response of steel structures. Earthq. Eng. Struct. Dyn. 2007,
36, 1049–1064.
31. Kato, B.; Akiyama, H.; Yamanouchi, H. Predictable properties of structural steels subjected to incremental cyclic loading. In
IABSE Symposium on Resistance and Ultimate Deformability of Structures Acted on by Well Defined Loads; International Association
for Bridge and Structural Engineering: Lisbon, Portugal, 1973; pp. 119–124.