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Ship Design PDF
Ship Design PDF
Ship Design
Thepurposeofthisresearchwastoestimatethetransversalloadingactingonarudderlocatedbehinda
working propeller of a passenger ferry. A specific interest was in the nonstationary forces, which are
particularly interesting when considering fatigue damage of a rudder stock. The information on an
unsteadyflowexperiencedbyarudderwastakenfromthemodeltestsusingPIVinstrument.
The mathematical model of evaluating the steady part of loading is based on the extended lifting line
theory. The results were compared to values derived from literature. The nonstationary loading was
estimatedusingtheoscillatingthinairfoiltheoryofTheodorsen.
Theresultsshowthatthenonstationarycomponentoftransversalforceisapproximately20percentofthe
stationary component at 10 degrees rudder angle. The prevailing frequency of force oscillation is two
timesthebladefrequency.
Unsteady,Liftforce,Rudder
The steering forces of a ship rudder have been studied extensively in branch basic literature, eg. Brix,
1993, Molland et al, 2006. However, the nonstationary transversal forces acting on a ship rudder have
beenstudiedless.Inordertostudyfatiguedamages,researchersneedtoknowboththestationaryandthe
nonstationaryforces.Whenforcesandforcecyclesareknown,fatigueofashipruddercanstudiedwith
differentmethods,forinstancewithGoodmandiagram.
The calculation of lift force coefficient of a ship rudder is presented for instance in Brix, 1993. The
coefficientformulasarebasedonabroadmeasureddataofdifferenttypesofrudders.Nevertheless,using
thesecoefficientsrequiresasimplificationoftheinflowwhichrudderisexperiencingandthereforedonot
allowtheusageofversatilemeasuredinflowdata.Howeverthesemethodsshouldbevalidformostcases
toobtainthestationaryrudderforcesastheyarebasedonextensivemodeltests.
Theliteraturedoesnotcoverwellinasimilarmannerthecoefficientsofnonstationaryrudderforces.The
forcesaregreatlydependentoninflowandontheruddergeometry.Nonetheless,thenonstationaryflow
effectshavebeenstudiedinothercases,forexampleinsects(Rozhdestvenskyetal,2003).Becausethe
167
relevantflowphenomenaaredependentoftheStrouhalnumberandoftheReynoldsnumber,whichare
partlydifferentordersofmagnitudeforarudder,themethodscannotbedirectlyusedinthiscase.
Inadditiontoliftforce,adragforceisactingonarudder.However,itisexcludedfromthestudy.The
flowisassumedtobeinviscidandincompressible.Theliftforceisassumedtoconsistoftwocomponents:
astationarycomponentandanonstationarycomponent.
ThisstudydealswithtwotypesofruddersusedinRoPaxvessels:aspaderudder,whichconsistsofsingle
piecebladeandasemibalancedrudder,whichconsistsofabladeandafixedrudderhorn.Ruddersare
presentedinfigure1.
(a) (b)
Fig.1.Theruddertypesincludedinthisstudy.a)Thespaderudderconsistofsingleturningblade.b)Thesemi
balancedrudderconsistofbladeandfixedrudderhornwithpintlebearing.FiguresVuorivirta,2008.
TheliftinglinetheoryintroducedbyLudwigPrandtlisoneofthesimplestmethodstocalculatethelift
force and the drag force acting on a lifting surface of a finite span. Flow is assumed to be inviscid,
incompressibleandstationarypotentialflow.Theliftingsurfaceisconsideredtobeinfinitesimallythin.
Thecambermustbezero,centerlinestraightandtheangleofattacksmall.Theliftinglinetheoryisbased
oncalculatingvorticesontheliftinglinewhichissituatedonthequarterlineoftheliftingsurface.Inthe
extendedliftinglinetheory,liftingsurfaceisstillconsideredtobeindefinitelythin,butcamberandcenter
linesweepingareincluded.(Matusiak,2006)
Theliftforcecoefficientofarudderisdefinedbytheformula1,inwhich isinflowvelocity,isthe
ruddersurfaceareaandisthewaterdensity.(Mollandetal,2006)
0.5
168
TherudderaspectratioΛisdefinedbythefollowingformula2,inwhichistherudderheightand
ruddersurfaceprojectedarea.(Mollandetal,2006)Theliftforcecoefficientofatypicalsemibalanced
rudderasafunctionofrudderangleisillustratedinBrix,1993.
(2)
Λ
TheoscillatingthinairfoiltheoryofTheodorsenisbasedontheassumptionofatwodimensionalflow.
Therudderisdividedintocrosssectionalprofiles.Theliftforcecomponentinducedbyanonstationary
flowiscalculatedforeachprofile.Theaccelerationofinflowissimplifiedtotheheaveaccelerationofa
rudderstrip.Furthermore,theverticalvelocitiesofinflowareneglected.
AccordingtoKatzetal,1991,theliftForcecausedbyrudderaccelerationcanbecalculatedfromformula
3, in which is waterdensity, istheheave acceleration ofrudder profile and is Strouhal number
(formula5).CistheTheodorsenfunction(formula4).
2 (3)
1 C
H (4)
C
H H
H istheHankelfunctionofsecondkind.TheStrouhalnumberisdefinedinformula5,inwhich
isangularfrequency,isthehalflengthofthewingprofileand istheinflowvelocity.
(5)
TheTheodorsenfunctionasafunctionoftheStrouhalnumberisillustratedinfigure2.
(a) (b)
Fig.2.TheTheodorsenfunctionCasafunctionoftheStrouhalnumber:a)realpart;b)imaginarypart.
169
Inordertocalculatetheliftforceonarudder,itisworthwhiletomakesomeassumptions.Letusconsider
that the lift force consist of two components, the stationary and the nonstationary component. The
componentscanbesummed(formula6).
(6)
Furthermore,thenonstationaryliftforceisconsideredtobeindependentfromrudderangle.Therefore,
rudderanglehasaneffecttothestationaryliftforceonly.
Theevaluationofstationaryliftforceisbasedontheextendedliftinglinetheory.Themethodhasbeen
extendedtousenonhomogenousinflow.AFortranprogram(Matusiak,2006)takesthemeasurementsof
liftingsurfaceandtheinflowdatafromaninputfile.Theprogramcalculatessplinefitfunctionsfromthe
input data.Then the program calculates the lift anddrag forces for each segment. Finally, the program
calculatesthesumsofthesegmentforces.
The rudder lift force is calculated for the whole rudder including the fixed rudder horn. The greatest
disadvantage of the program is its inability to handle points of discontinuation. The rudder surface is
assumedtobecontinuousintherudderbaseandinthebondagepointsofbladeandhorn.Theprogram
calculateshydrodynamicforcesforamirroredrudderwithhalfaspectratiocomparedtooriginal.Finally,
theforcesarehalved.
TheoscillatingthinairfoiltheoryofTheodorseniswrittenasaMatlabfunction.Therudderisdividedto
31 profiles. Nonstationary lift force is calculated for each profile in timedomain. Spline functions are
fitted on the inflow angle data from which the program calculates inflow velocities perpendicular to
rudder.Theperpendicularaccelerationiscalculatedasanaverageoftwoadjacentvelocityvariations.The
rudder is modeled as a completely rigid body and therefore the fluid structure interaction is only one
directional. We can assume that the vibration of arealrudderis smallcompared to the variation of the
inflow.
InflowdatafromParticleImageVelocimetry(PIV)measurementswereusedtocalculatetherudderforces
ofatypicalRoPaxvessel.PIVisasystemwhichuseslaseranddigitalcameratomeasurevelocityfieldof
aflow.Itmeasuresparticlevelocitywithphotographedparticlepositionsandtimebetweenphotographs.
(Mikkolaetal,2007)
170
(a) (b)
Fig.3. a)TheTimeaveragedflowfieldofstarboardpropellerinthemodelscale.Thedistanceofflowfieldplane
frompropelleris143mm.b)TheVelocitycomponentsofthemiddlesectionoftheflowdata.(Mikkolaetal,2007)
PIV measurements were conducted at the Ship Laboratory of Aalto University for a model of RoPax
vessel,whichissubsequentlyreferredasshipB.Athreedimensionalvelocityfieldatfourdifferentplanes
asafunctionoftimewasderived.Figure3aillustratestheusedvelocityfielddata.Tobeabletousethe
datainprograms,asectionistakenfromthemiddleoftheplan.Thesectionvelocitydataisillustratedin
figure3b.Inevitable,thiscausessomeerrorasthereiscertainlateralvelocityvariationofxdirectional
velocitycomponent.Onlythezandxvelocitycomponentsareused.Asonlytheangularvariationdatais
availableasafunctionoftime,theabsolutevalueofflowspeedonxzplaneissupposedtobeconstantin
thenonstationaryforcecalculations.
ThespecificationsoftheusedtypicalRoPax,shipA,shipBandthemodelofshipBareshowninTable
1. Velocity fields derived from model tests are scaled to ship scale. Angle of attack is calculated with
spreadsheetprogramusingtheruddermeasurements.Forcesarecalculatedforthestarboardrudder.The
PIVdataisalsoforthestarboardpropeller,however,thedirectionofrotationdifferent.Thereforewehave
tomirrortheyaxis.Positivedirectionsfortherudderangleandtheangleofattackarespecifiedinfigure
4a.Thepositivedirectionofliftforceisthepositivedirectionofangles.
Therudderbladebelowthehornismodeledasstraightplane.Therefore,thecamberangle iszeroatall
rudderangles.Asshowninfigures4band5a,attheupperpart,camberandmodifiedrudderangle
growswhenrudderanglegrows.Therealangleofattack isthesumofinflowangleofattack ,
ruddermontageangle andmodifiedrudderangle asseeninfigure6b.Thezeroliftforceangle
designatesthecamberofprofile.Asinputtheprogramwasgiveninflowdataat31points.
171
Table1.ThespecificationsoftheshipsandthemodelusedinPIVmeasurements.
(a) (b)
Fig.4.a)Thepositivedirectionsofrudderandinflowangle.b)Theanglesofsemibalancedrudder.Themodified
rudderangle increaseswhenrudderangleincreases.
(a) (b)
a)The zero lift forceangle designates the camber of profile.The red point is at quarter line of rudder.
b)Therealinflowangleofattack isthesumof , and .
172
Theprogrambasedontheliftinglinetheorygivesusastraightlinewhenstationaryliftforceforstarboard
rudderisdrawnasafunctionofrudderangle(figure6a).Thepositivedirectionofliftforceistotheright.
Therefore,thevesselturnsleftwhenrudderangleispositive,seefigure4a. Thefigure6agivesusa75
kN/°slopeoftheliftforce.Thesameprogramgivesuscurveshowninfigure6bforthebendingmoment
attheruddershaftlowerbearingduetotheliftforceasafunctionofrudderangle.However,inthereal
casetherearealsoothermomentsasthesupportingmomentsofpintlesituatedintherudderhorn.
(a) (b)
Fig.6. a)Thestationaryliftforceasafunctionofrudderangle.b)Thebendingmomentattheruddershaftlower
bearingduetothestationaryliftforceasafunctionofrudderangle.
The turning of vessel is not taken into consideration. The forces and moments are calculated in the
beginningofturning.Atthispointtheshipdoesnotturnbuttherudderisfullyturned.Thismethodgives
usthemaximumvaluesforforcesandmoments,becausewhenthevesselturns,theangleofattackand
thereforeforcesdecrease.
The limitations of the lifting line theory cause error. The program is unable to handle point of
discontinuation correctly and the rudder is considered to be infinitesimally thin. Therefore, the results
givenbytheprogramareonlyqualitative.Theprogramismostpreciseatzerorudderangle,inwhichcase
theeffectofpointsofdiscontinuationissmallest.
The oscillating thin airfoil theory of Theodorsen gives us a curve illustrated in figure 7a. The bending
momentattheruddershaftlowerbearingduetotheliftforceisillustratedisfigure7b.
Theabsolutevaluechangeasafunctionoftimeisnotincludedintheinflowvelocitydata.Therefore,a
constantabsolutevalueisused,onlytheanglebetweenthetwovelocitycomponentschanges.Thismay
have a significant error effect on the nonstationary lift force as the lateral accelerations may differ
significantlyfromtherealvalue.Thenonstationaryliftforceandaccelerationareproportional.Also,the
173
calculation model does not contain the variation of velocity field caused by the turning of rudder. The
velocityfieldisassumedtobeconstantalongxaxis(seefigure3).
(a) (b)
Fig.7.a)Thenonstationaryliftforcecycleintimedomain.Thetimeisboundtopropellerangle.b)Thebending
momentattheruddershaftlowerbearingduetothenonstionaryliftforceintimedomain.
The flow oscillation is modeled as a rudder oscillation in a steady flow. Furthermore, the rudder is
modeledascompletelyrigidobject,inotherwordstherudderdoesnotfollowtheflowoscillation.Ifthe
rudderoscillatedalongtheflow,thenonstationaryliftforceamplitudewouldbesmaller.
TheflowoscillationStrouhalnumberissignificant,approximately10.WhenStrouhalnumberexceeds1,
therealpartofTheodorsenfunctionisapproximately0.5andimaginarypartalmostzeroasseeninfigure
2.
The nonstationary lift force has two periods at the time of one blade period (figure 7). The second
amplitude is approximately half of the first. The greatest amplitude is around 180 kN, which is
approximately10percentofstationaryliftforceat20degreerudderangle.Thepercentagesarewrittenin
Table2.
Table2.Thenonstationaryliftforceamplitude(180kN)comparedtostationaryliftforce.
174
ComparedtocalculatedforcesofShipB(Vuorivirta,2008),ourcalculatedforcesofshipAareinasmall
marginthesameifweperceivethedifferentdirectionofrotationofthepropellers.Thisisaresultofusage
of the same PIV data and the similarity of the two ships. The figure presented in Brix, 1993 and the
formula1givesusa68kN/°slopeoftheliftforcewheninflowisaveragedandthewholeruddersurface
areaisused.Inasimilarmanner,theslopeoftheliftforceis60kN/°fortherudderbladearea.Wecan
assumethattherealvalueissomethingbetweentheseboundaries.
Theextendedliftinglinetheorygivesusa75kN/°slopeoftheliftforce,whichisslightlylargerthanthe
literature gives. We can assume that the slope is slightly too steep, resultedfrom the restrictions of the
usedtheory.Theflowisidealizedindiscontinuationpoints.
ThethinairfoiltheoryofTheodorsengivesusa180kNamplitudeofnonstationaryforces.Thecalculated
amplitude is over 10 percent of the stationary lift force at 20 degrees rudder angle. The percentage
increasesconsideringthetoolargeforcesgivenbyliftinglinetheory.Thepercentageissignificant.
Usageofliftinglinetheorytocalculateloadsactingonarudderisnotthemosttypicalsolution.Thereare
lift force coefficients tables availablefor different kinds of rudder. Also,thereare many coefficientsto
improvetheusageonliftingsurfacetheory.Thesepointsaddedtolowaccuracychallengestheusageof
liftinglinetheoryinthecaseofasemibalancedrudder.Forspaderuddersthetheoryisprobablymore
accurateasspaderuddershavelessdiscontinuationpoints.However,thismethodmoreappropriateina
moreextraordinarysituationinwhichextensiveliftforcecoefficienttablesarenotavailableandinflowis
known. The thin airfoil theory of Theodorsen can be considered suitable for a situation in which the
Strouhalnumberissmall.InthecaseofaRopax,themethodcouldbeinaccurate.
Brix, J., (1993). Rudders, typical constructions and additional in: Brix, J. (Eds.), Manoeuvring Technical Manual, Seehafen
Verlag,Hamburg.
Molland,A.F.,TurnockS.R.,(2006).MarineRuddersandControlSurfaces:Principles,Data,DesignandApplication.Elsevier,
Oxford
Rozhdestvensky,K.V.,RyzhovV.A.,(2003).Aerohydrodynamicsofflappingwingpropulsors.
ProgressinAerospaceSciences39:8,pp.585–633.
Vuorivirta,L.,(2008).EffectofaPropelleronRudderCavitationandNoise,TKK,Otaniemi.
Matusiak,J.,(2006)http://www.tkk.fi/Yksikot/Laiva/Opinnot/Kurssit/vanhat/Kul24.117/kantopinta1.pdf
Katz,J.,Plotkin,A.,(1991).LowSpeedAerodynamics:FromWingTheorytoPanelMethods.McGrawHill,NewYork.
Mikkola,T.,Hanhirova,K.,(2007).PIVMeasurementsforaCruiseFerry.TKK,Otaniemi.
175
Initial stability of a ship is very important in terms of her survivability and seakeeping qualities. It
influencesnotonlytherollmotioncharacteristicssignificantlybutalsothepassengerandcrewcomfort.
Rollmotionofashipmaypresentimportantevidenceaboutheroverallstabilityinaseaway.
Thispaperoutlinesdetailsofaparametricexperimentalstudywhichwascarriedoutfordeterminingthe
effectofcatamarancharacteristicsonrollmotionandstability.Allrelevanttermswhichaffectrollmotion
were addressed clearly, however only predominant catamaran characteristics were chosen as working
parameters.Howtheseparametersaffecttherollperiod,characteroftherollmotionandthemetacentric
height()havebeeninvestigated.
Theparameterswerevariedsystematicallyforeachspecificcondition.Thecatamaranmodelwasforced
torollfreelyandtherollperiodsweremeasured.valuesforeachconditionwerecalculatedbyusing
theexperimentalresults.Theuncertaintyanalysisoftheexperimentswasalsostudied.Finally,theresults
werepresentedingraphicalformsanddiscussedindetails.
Catamaran,Stability,RollMotion,ParametricExperiment,RollDecayTest,GM
Apositivemetacentricheight,,whichisameasurementofinitialstability,isthefirstrequirementfor
a stablely floating body. is one of the most important parameters that affect the survivability and
seakeepingqualitiesofaship.Hence,valuesshouldbecheckedinordertocontrolthesafetyofthe
vesselbeforeanyfurtherdetailedanalysis.
Anegativeorverylowvaluescancausecapsizing,onthecontrary,veryhighvaluescausehigh
rollfrequency,lowrollperiod,hencedisturbingrollmotion.Itisapparentlyanundesirablepropertyfora
shipandthistypeofshipsarethesocalledstiffships.Catamaransareinherentlystiffshipsbecauseof
theirhighvaluesandbyreasonofthefactthatcatamaransareusedinservicesector.Peoplefirstly
expecthighspeedandpassengercomfortfromthem.Thus,havinghighvaluesisalsoaproblemin
177
termsofrollmotionandstabilityforcatamarans,whichshouldbetakenintoconsiderationforbothship
manufacturersandshipdesigners.
Thispaperpresentsthedetailsofaparametricexperimentalstudywhichwascarriedoutfordetermining
theeffect ofcatamaran characteristics onroll motion andstability. Thecatamaran characteristics which
werechosenasworkingparametersarenamelythebreadthofthecatamaran()andtheverticalcenter
ofthegravity().Theinfluenceoftheseparametersontherollperiod,thecharacteroftherollmotion
andhasbeeninvestigatedbymeansoftherollperiodtest.Itisasimplemethodforestimatingthe
naturalrollperiod,.
Theparameterswerevariedsystematicallyforeachspecificcondition.Thus12conditionswereanalyzed
in total and natural roll periods, natural roll frequencies, and values of the catamaran were
obtainedforeachcondition.Asseeninthefollowingsections,andhavesignificantinfluenceon
metacentric height and natural roll frequency. The results are shown and discussed in the following
sections.
The characteristics of a catamaran that affect the roll motion are displacement (), vertical center of
gravity(),draft,freeboard,depth,trim,lengthonthewaterline(),breadthonthewaterline(),
weightdistribution,formcoefficients,externalforces,shiftingofweights,etc.Howeveronlypredominant
catamarancharacteristicswerechosenasworkingparameters,and.Theparameterswerevaried
systematicallyforeachspecificconditionwhiletheotherswerekeptconstant.Hence,theeffectofthese
characteristicsonrollmotionandstabilitycanbeeasilymonitoredbymeansofexperimentalanalyses.
Thecatamaranmodelwasdesignedinawayespeciallytoprovideflexibilityinchangingand,in
ordertomonitortheeffectsoftheseparametersonrollmotionandstability.Themodelhastwotransverse
connections between the demihulls which make it possible to change and three floors as
superstructureforanadditionalweighttobemovedverticallywhichmakeitpossibletochange.The
initialconditionofthemodelisshowninFigure1,whichisthefirstconditionofexperiment.
Thecatamaranmodel
178
Bwl has four different values and has three different values throughout the experiments, therefore
twelvedifferentconditionsweretestedintotal.Theverticalpositionoftheaddedweightisvaried(itis
shiftedtotheupperfloor)respectivelywhilekeptconstantatitsinitialvalueandthisprocedurehas
beenrepeated for each value. The natural rollperiods and frequencies, the metacentric heights and
valueswerecalculatedbymeansofrollperiodtestforeachconditionandtheuncertaintyanalysisof
theexperimentwascarriedout.
Asetofrollperiodtests(rolldecaytests)ofacatamaranmodelwasperformedtodeterminethenatural
rollperiodandareasonableapproximationoftheship’smetacentricheight,GM.
TheprincipledeterminationofthenaturalrollperiodisshowninFigure2.Itshowsatypicalrolldecay
testwhichmayalsobeperformedwithafullscaleship.Theshipisinclinedtoaninitialheelandthen
released.Theresultisanoscillationaroundthestaticheelofequilibrium,andtheshiposcillatesinitsown
natural period. As the oscillation is damped, the amplitudes decrease. From such a test, the natural roll
period, 0 andthedampingincrementcanbedetermined.(Krüger,Kluwe,2008)
Determinationofnaturalrollperiodbyrolldecaytest
Therelationshipbetweenthemetacentricheightandthenaturalrollperiodcanbeexpressedas(Sabuncu,
1993):
2
2π 1 (1)
=
0
usingtheareamomentofinertia(I)andthewaterplanearea()
179
(2)
=
Inphysicalexperimentsuncertaintyanalysis,orexperimentaluncertaintyassessment,dealswithassessing
theuncertaintyinameasurement.Anexperimentdesignedtodetermineaneffect,demonstratealaw,or
estimate the numerical value of a physical variable will be affected by errors due to instrumentation,
methodology,presenceofconfoundingeffectsandsoon.Experimentaluncertaintyestimatesareneeded
toassesstheconfidenceintheresults.(Stern,1999).Totaluncertaintyforis:
=
2
2 + 2 (3)
Whereisbiasuncertaintyandisrandomuncertainty.Systematicuncertaintiesarecausedby
systematicerrorsthatusuallycomefromthemeasuringinstrumentsandrandomuncertaintiesarecaused
byrandomerrors.Randomerrorsinexperimentalmeasurementsarecausedbyunknownand
unpredictablechangesintheexperiment,suchasenvironmentalconditions.
2 2
∂ ∂ (4)
( ) ( )
2 2
= 0 +
∂ ∂
arethesensitivitiesofthemeasurementdevices.
()0.5(5)
whereisthecoveragefactor,isstandarddeviationand isthenumberofmeasurements.
For≥10maybeassumedtobe2(Sternetal.,1999).
1
( −
)
2 2
= ∑
(6)
=1 −1
rollperiods.
Naturalrollperiodswerefoundforeachspecificconditionbymeansofrollperiodtestshencenaturalroll
frequencies, metacentric heights and KG values were evaluated, and uncertainty analysis of the
experimentwascarriedout(Equation3).Itshouldbenotedthatbiasuncertainty(Equation4)isverylow
(min.±1.4% max. ±1.7%) while random uncertainty (Equation 5) is significantly high (min.±11.7%
max. ±19.2%) due to the limited repetitions in the experimental procedure that results in high total
uncertaintylevels(between±11.7%and±19.23%).ThecomparisonofGMvaluesfromrollperiodtests
180
againstGMvaluesfromincliningexperimentswasestablishedtoinvestigatetheaccuracyofthetestandit
wasseenthatbothvalueswerealmostthesame.Thedifferencebetweenthemvarieswithintherangeof
±0.7%and±4.3%.
Naturall roll frequency is nondimensionalized (Okan, 2010), metacentric height is also
nondimensionalized(Webb,2001)andcomparedwiththenondimensionalquantitiesofthecatamaranas
showninthefigures.ItshouldbenotedthatKGisnondimensionalizedbydivisiontothedepthofthehull
(KG/D)andBWLisnondimensionalizedbydivisiontothelengthonthewaterline(BWL/LWL).
Figure 3 displays the effect of changing breadth values on the metacentric height of the catamaran for
threedifferentverticalcenterofgravityvalues.Asexpected,GMincreaseswithascendingBWL.
Relationbetweenbreadthandmetacentricheight
Figure 4 illustrates the effect of changing breadth values on the natural roll frequency of the rolling
catamaranforthreedifferentverticalcenterofgravity.Itmaybenotedthatthereisastrongdependenceof
ω0onBWL.
Relationbetweenbreadthandnaturalrollfrequency
181
A parametric experimental study has been carried out in order to determine the effect of catamaran
characteristicsonrollmotionandstability.Theuncertaintyanalysisandthecomparisonsrevealedthatthe
rollperiodtestisanefficientmeantoanalysesuchparameters.
Itisseenthatthebeamofthecatamaranisanimportantfactoronitsnaturalrollfrequency.Therefore,it
hasasignificantimportanceonstabilityandseakeepingqualities.Theverticalcenterofgravitydefinitely
affectsthestabilityandseakeepingqualities.
Thegraphsobtainedfromtheexperimentsmaybeusedforapreliminaryapproachtodeterminetheinitial
stabilityandrollmotioncharacteristicsofacatamaraneveninthepreliminarydesignstage.
The authors wish to thank Assoc. Prof. Emin Korkut and Assist. Prof. Yalçın Ünsan for their help during the
experimentalsetupandvaluableadvice.Theauthors wouldalsoliketothank ResearchAssistantsOnurUstaand
EmreÖzen,whoofferedassistanceduringtheexperiments.
Krüger,S.,Kluwe,F.,(2008).Asimplifiedmethodfortheestimationofthenaturalrollfrequencyofshipsinheavy
weather,HANSA09/08,Hamburg.
Okan,B.,(2010).Gemilerindalgalararasındakihareketlerinindinamikanaliziiçinsayısalbiryöntemgelitirilmesi:
teorikvedeneyselbirçalıma.TÜBĐTAKProjesiNo:106M481.
Sabuncu,T.,(1993).GemiHareketleri,Đ.T.Ü.GemiĐnaatıveDenizBilimleriFakültesiOfsetAtölyesi,Đstanbul
Stern, F., Muste, M., Beninati, M. L., Eichinger, W.E., (1999). Summary of experimental uncertainty assessment
methodologywithexample,IIHRTechnicalReportNo.406,Iowa.
Webb, P. W., (2002). Control of posture, depth, and swimming trajectories of fishes. Integrative& Comperative
Biology.42;pp.94101.
182
Afishingboathullwasusedasanexampleofhowhullformoptimizationcanbeaccomplishedusing
a Multi Objective Genetic Algorithm (MOGA). The particular MOGA developed during the study
allowed automatic selection of a few Pareto Optimal results for examination by the designers while
searchingthecompleteParetoFront.Theoptimizationusesthreeperformanceindicesforresistance,
seakeeping, and stability to modify the hull shape to obtain optimal hull offsets as well as optimal
values for the principal parameters of Length, Beam and Draft. The modification of the 148/1B
fishing boat hull, the parent hull form of the Đstanbul Technical University (ĐTÜ) series of fishing
boats,ispresentedfirstbyfixingtheprincipalparametersandallowingthehulloffsetstochange,and
secondly by simultaneously allowing variation of both the principal parameters and the hulloffsets.
Improvements in all three objectives were found. However, further research in how to develop the
methodology to allow forother performance objectives, such as cost or specific mission objectives,
raisestheissueofusingenhancedperformancepredictionsolversaswell.Inaddition,theproblemof
validatingtheresultsoftheoptimizationisraised.
Optimization,MultiObjective,FishingVessel,Resistance,Seakeeping,Stability
AMultiobjectiveGeneticalgorithm(MOGA)study(Gammon,2011)wasconductedusingafishing
boat as an example to develop a technique for hull form optimization to enhance ship performance.
The study used three performance indicators to improve performance in resistance, seakeeping and
stability. As the hull is a fundamental component of a vessel, it has a significant influence on the
performanceandsuccessofadesign.Ideally,anoptimumhullwouldhavetheminimumresistance,
while maximizing stability and minimizing ship motions to enhance the seakeeping behaviour.
However,minimizingresistance,forexample,mightresultinminimizingbeamwhichinturnleadsto
lessstability,afeaturethatdirectlyimpactsthesafeoperationofthevesselandwhichisconstrained
by regulations. In other words, a compromise is required to achieve an optimal design. For that
purpose,Paretooptimality,namedafterVilfredoPareto,isused,inwhichanobjectiveisminimized
183
(ormaximized)withoutmakinganotherobjectiveworse(Web1).ParetoOptimalityisachievedwhen
nofurtherimprovementinanyoneobjectivecanbemadewithoutmakinganotherobjectiveworse.
Inordertosearchefficientlythroughthedesignspace,aMOGAwasdesignedthatincorporatesthree
performance indices for each of the objectives for resistance, seakeeping and stability. While
numerous studies have been conducted in optimization of single objectives, commonly for
minimizationofresistance(Danımanetal,2001),multipleobjectivesrequireadditionalconsideration
aswellastheburdenofrequiring,inthecaseofcomputationalresources,increasedcomplexity.For
thisreason,asingleperformanceindexrepresentingeachindividualobjectiveaidsintheformulation
ofthe multiple objective problem. This leads us to the next section on formulating the optimization
problem.
Ageneralformofthemultipleobjectiveproblemisgivenbythedeterminationofavectorofdecision
variables(Coello,Coello,1996)asfollows;
* = 1* , 2* , 3* ,.... * (1)
where , = 1,2,... are the decision variables. The decision variables include the principal
parameters of the vessel and the hull offsets, i.e., where , and are the length, beam and draft,
respectively represent the principal hull parameters and the decision variable represents the hull
offsetsasamatrix.Thesolutionmustalsosatisfyanumberofinequalityconstraintsandanumber
ofequalityconstraintswhereshouldbelessthan toavoid beingoverconstrained.Thesolutions
mustoptimizethevectorfunction;
() ()
= 1 , 2 ,...
() (2)
where representobjectivefunctionsforresistance,seakeepingandstability.
1 ( ) 2 ( ) 3 ()
TheresistanceperformanceindexorResistanceCoefficientIndex()iscomposedofaselectionof
speedsorFroudenumbersandthecorrespondingcoefficientsfortotalresistance,asfollows;
−1
1
=∑ ( + +1 )( +1 − )
=1 2 (3)
whereisgivenby
) )mod + (1 + ) +
=
(4)
For the calculation of CW, or the wave resistance coefficient, a transom modified Michell’s integral
using potential flow theory was utilized (Gammon, 1990), while for the frictional resistance
184
coefficientor,theITTC1957frictionallineusingtheReynoldsnumberisused.Theformfactor
is used for the ITU 148/1B series of fishing boats (Kafalı et al., 1979), while is a correlation
allowance.Astudywasconductedthatshowedtheconsiderableeffectofthetransomonvesselswith
alowratio,andgoodagreementcouldbeobtainedasseeninFigure1forthewaveresistanceup
toaFnof0.4,oravesselspeedofapproximately10knots(GammonandAlkan,2001).Whilethis
approach provided a key performance indication at reasonable computational cost, the question of
usinghigherfidelitysolversisraisedlater.
TheseakeepingperformanceindexoriscomposedofaselectionofspeedsandtheVertical
Motionindexateachspeedasfollows;
−1
1
=∑ ( + +1 )( +1 − )
=1 2 (5)
Theverticalmotionisacalculationthatcombinesheave, withpitch, φ atthebowandheave
acceleration, asfollows;
= + sin (φ )
(6)
2
Thisallowedforasimplifiedapproachtoderivingasingleperformanceindexforthisobjective,as
showninFigure2,butnaturally,raisesanumberofissueswhicharedescribedlater.
ComparisonofMichellandTransommodifiedWaveResistancewithExperimentalResultforITU
FishingBoatITU148/1BataparticularLoadCase(L.C.1)
185
PitchandHeaveMotionCombinedintoTotalVerticalMotion
Asintheprevioustwoobjectives,thestabilityperformanceisgivenbythefollowingindexbasedona
combinationoftransversestabilityparametersasfollows;
φ
= φ ∫ (φ ) φ
0 (7)
where φ istheangleatwhichmaximumoccursandtheintegraluptothe vanishingangle φ
gives the area under the curve as shown in Figure 3. This stability index should also be
consideredalongwithminimumstabilityconstraintssuchasaminimumrequirement.
G Z max
Φ
Φ m 1rad Φ v
GZcurvewithStabilityIndexElements
Geneticalgorithmshaveprovenusefulinawiderangeofoptimizationproblems.Multipleobjective
genetic algorithms (or MOGAs) have produced a wide body of research and applications (Gen and
Cheng,2000).Geneticalgorithms,asastochasticoptimizationapproach,havebeenusedtooptimize
shiphullformstominimizeresistance(Dejhallaetal,2001)and(Yasukawa,2000),wherethefocus
wastomakesmallchangesinthehullform,keepingthebasicprincipalparametersthesame.Inthe
currentstudy,theuseofmultipleobjectivesiscombinedwithchangingbothprincipalparametersof
length, beam and draft, as well as finding optimal hull offsets. In order to achieve that goal, the
canonical Genetic Algorithm by Goldberg (Goldberg, 1989) is modified as shown in Figure 4 by
186
treatingeachobjectivesequentially.Foreachobjectivethepopulationisevaluatedseparately,andthe
geneticoperationsappliedaftereachevaluationtogeneratethenextpopulation.Thecurrentoptimum,
ifthereisone,isreturnedateachevaluation.Thisapproachoptimizeseachoftheobjectiveswhileat
thesametimegivingamorecompromisedsolutiontothenormalmethodoffindingsolutionsallalong
the Pareto Front. A populationof 100 hullforms was used, though 20 hulls could also give a good
solution, and these were evaluated by each objective in turn and the better candidates combined
geneticallyforthenextiteration,forNgenerations.Nwastypicallysetat100generations.
MultiObjectiveGeneticAlgorithmApproach
187
TwodifferentcasesweretriedusingtheITUfishingboatITU148/1Bseries.Thefirstmaintainedthe
principalparameters,whichthesecondcaseallowedtheseaswellasthehulloffsetstobemodified.
Figure5showsthechangesinthehullformshapechangingonlyhulloffsetsandkeepingthelength,
beam and draft the same. The results in Figure 6 show how each of the objectives improve over
subsequentgenerations.
ITU148/1BOriginalandModifiedHullwithFixedPrincipalParameters
Stability,SeakeepingandResistanceIndexImprovementsbyGeneration
Thesecondcaseallowsvariationofprincipalparametersincludinglength,beamanddraft,aswellas
hulloffsets.AsshowninFigure7,thebeamincreasessignificantly,andthedraftshallows.Whilenot
shown, the length increased to the maximum limit. Figure 8 shows a plot between resistance and
seakeeping performance indices, showing the trend on how the population is evolving towards the
respectiveminimums,andwiththe67thgenerationplottedshowingafinalcompromisesolution.
188
ChangingBothPrincipalParametersandHullOffsetsforITU148/1B
SKIvsRCIforITU148/1BwithChangingPrincipalParametersandHullOffsets
Thestudyin(Gammon,2011)usedMichell'sintegralforpotentialflowanalysisofwaveresistance.A
higher fidelity solver could be used instead to obtain more accurate solutions for the resistance.
However, the most significant issue regarding the use of a higher fidelity solver is the increase in
computational time, perhaps by an order of magnitude or 10 times or more. When using genetic
algorithms,akeyparameterfortheoptimizationisthepopulationsize;inthestudythepopulationsize
wasingeneralsetat100hulls.Thenumberofgenerationsisalsoimportantforthedeterminationof
all possible optimal solutions; for the study the number of generations was set at 100 to obtain a
reasonablesolution.Using100hullforms,and100generations,thenumberofsampleswas10,000at
eachFroudenumber.Arangeof10Froudenumberswasalsoused.Theresultingnumberofrequired
calculations was then approximately 100,000 calculations for which the computations in this study
tookonlypartofasecondtocompute.Theresultingtimeforthetotaloptimizationwasintheorderof
aboutthreetofourhours.
Dejhallaetal(2001)usedapanelmethodbasedonDawson(Dawson,1977)forthewaveresistance
calculation.Thepopulationsizewas80hulls,eachwith11stationsandfourwaterlinesor44offsets.
The number of generations was set at 20 generations. The optimization was conducted at a single
Froude number. The result is a requirement for 1600 resistance calculations. More recently, other
189
researchershavecombineddifferentpackagestogetherinoptimizationsoftwareforshipoptimization
(Jacquin et al, 2004). MARIN has also successfully optimized various hull forms with small
parametricvariationsinthehullsthatcomparetheresultsfrom216variantsofaparticularhullform
with100computationsofthewavesurfaceusingRAPID(Raven,2007)inhalfanhour(Ravenand
Hoekstra,2003).
Onewaytomitigatesomeofthecomputationalresourcesis,asmentioned,touseasmallerpopulation
size using, for example, 20 hull forms, and using fewer generations (perhaps 50 generations versus
100)thatwouldallow1000variantstobetestedinsteadof10,000asshowninTable1.However,it
wouldstillbenecessarytocomputethewaveresistanceinamatterofseconds,aseven10secondsper
calculationwouldrequire10,000secondsorapproximately14hourstoproduceoptimalresultsusing
ageneticalgorithmapproach.Forthisreason,manyresearchershavealsotriedalternativemethodsfor
theoptimizationprocess.Inaddition,experimentalvalidationwouldberequiredtoconfirmresutls.
RelativeTimeUnitstoComputeWaveResistance
Higher
NumberofInitial Numberof Michell's
Fidelity
HullForms Generations Integral
Method
100 100 10,000 100,000
80 20 1600 16,000
216 100 n/a 21,600
20 50 1000 10,000
A methodology with some results from using a MultiObjective Genetic Algorithm (MOGA) is
presented. While the current approach is useful in rapidly prototyping preliminary design of fishing
boathullforms,extrapolationtolargershiphullsmayrequiretheuseofhigherfidelitysolverswherea
few percent difference in performance can mean substantial fuel savings and can possibly impact
criticalstabilityandseakeepingconstraints.However,anumberofissueshavebeenidentified,suchas
thepriceofusingmoreintensivecomputations,whichmeansgenerallyareductionintheexploration
ofthedesignspace.Futureeffortswouldinvestigatefastercomputationalpackagescombinedwitha
reductionintheinitialvariantpopulationandfewergenerationsthatmayallowtheuseofaMOGAas
ameansofprovidingreasonablehydrodynamicoptimizationwithhigherfidelitysolvers.
The author wishes to thank members and faculty of Yıldız Technical University and Istanbul
TechnicalUniversity.Aswell,aspecialthanksgoestoDr.JimmyChuangofDalhousieUniversity.
190
Coello Coello, C.A., (1996). An empirical study of evolutionary techniques for multiobjective optimization in
engineeringdesign.PhDthesis,TulaneUniversity,NewOrleans,Louisiana.
Danisman, D.B., Goren, O. Insel M. and Atlar M., (2001). An optimization study for the bow form of High
SpeedDisplacementCatamarans,in:MarineTechnology,vol.38,no.2.
Dawson,C.W.,(1977).APracticalComputerMethodforSolvingShipWakeProblems,in:Proceedingsofthe
2ndInternationalConferenceonNumericalShipHydrodynamics,UniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley,pp.3038.
DejhallaR.,MrsaZ.,andVukovic,S.,(2001).Applicationofgeneticalgorithmforshiphullformoptimization,
in:InternationalShipbuildingProgress,vol.48,no.2,pp.117133.
Gammon, M.A.,(1990). Modifyingthinship waveresistance computationfortransom sternships”, Master of
AppliedSciencethesis,DalhousieUniversity,Halifax,Canada.
Gammon,M.A.andAlkan,A.D.,(2001).AresistancestudyoflowL/BvesselswithTransoms,in:Proceedings
oftheTechnicsandTechnologyofFishingVesselsConference,Ancona,Italy.
Gammon,M.A.,(2011).OptimizationofFishingVesselsusingaMultiObjectiveGeneticAlgorithm,in:Ocean
Engineering,vol.38,pp.10541064.
Gen, M. and Cheng, R., (2000). Genetic Algorithms and Engineering Optimization. WileyInterscience, New
York.
Goldberg, D.E., (1989). GeneticAlgorithmsinSearch, Optimization and Machine Learning,AddisonWesley
Longman,Reading,Massachusetts.
Jacquin,E.,Derbanne,Q.,Bellevre,D.,Cordier,S.,Allessandrini,B.,Roux,Y.,(2004),Hullformoptimization
using a Free Surface RANSE Solver, in: Proceedings of the 25th Symposium on Naval Hydrodynamics, St.
John's,Newfoundland,Canada.
Kafalı,K.,aylan,Ö.andalcı,A.(1979),DevelopmentofHullFormsof FishingBoatsSuitableforTurkish
Waters (in Turkish), TÜBĐTAK (The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey), Project
NumberG416,Istanbul,Turkey.
Raven,H.C.,andHoekstra,M.,(2003),Apracticalsystemforhydrodynamicoptimizationofshiphullforms,in:
Proceedings,VNSIInnovatiedag,Wageningen,availablefromtheMARINwebsite.
Web1,http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pareto_efficency
Yasukawa,H.,(2000).Shipformimprovementusinggeneticalgorithm,in:ShipTechnologyResearch,vol.47,
pp.3544.
191
IlluminationSimulationsinYachtInteriorDesign
MustafaAdilKasapseçkin,BarıBarlas,DamlaAltuncu
Abstract
Keywords:
1.Introduction
193
194
2.IlluminationSimulations
2.1.TechnicalSpecificationsoftheMotorYacht
195
2.2.Methodology
196
197
3.Results
198
Fig.9.
Fig.10.
Fig.11.
199
Fig.12
Conclusions
References
McCullough, M., Mitchell, W.,
Yıldırım,M.T.,
200
High Speed Planing Hulls Resistance Prediction Methods and
Comparison
Faculty of Naval Arch. and Ocean Eng., Istanbul Technical University, Turkey, kukner@itu.edu.tr,
mertcanyasa@gmail.com
Abstract
In this study, a brief history and basic information have been provided and the following, starting
from planing hull resistance prediction methods, prismatic equations, planing hull series and
numerical methods and finally empirical methods are explained. Several prediction methods have
been researched and are provided herein. These are Savitsksy’s method, which is the best for
planning speed ranges, Radojcic’s method which is series 62/65 regression, Blount-Fox method,
Clement’s series 62 model tests, and Clement’s simplified method which is also derived from
model tests. These methods have been examined, represented, and plotted. The results are
presented here.
1. Introduction
Significant research into high speed planing hulls and their resistance prediction methods
were begun about 90 years ago. When those studies are examined, it is clear to see that the
first experiments had been done on sea planes. Following experiments and studies have
been carried out on prismatic planing surfaces and later on planing hulls. The first
experiments on planing surfaces were Baker’s studies in 1910 (Savitsky, 1964). More
comprehensive studies on planing surfaces were carried out by Sottorf. In addition to those
studies, there were more experiments conducted by Shoemaker, Sedov, Sambraus and
Locke. These studies help us understand hydrodynamic characteristics of different planing
surfaces. Empirical equations have been created for practical use by using the relations and
variables of hydrodynamic lift force, drag force, pitching moment and wetted area
(Savitsky, 1964).
201
Baird in 1998, states that high speed vessels including all monohulls, catamarans, and
trimarans having speeds greater than 30 knots the Froude number will be greater than 0.4.
It can be stated that there are two different pressure types acting on the hull. These are
known as hydrostatic pressure and hydrodynamic pressure. Hydrostatic pressure is known as
buoyancy which is proportional to displacement of the vessel. Hydrodynamic pressure is dependent
on the flow around hull and proportional to the velocity square. In general, when the Froude
number is less than 0.4, hydrostatic forces (buoyancy) are more predominant than the
hydrodynamic pressure forces. Vessels in this speed zone are called displacement vessels. When
Froude number is between 0.4 and 1.0 (likewise 0.5 and 1.2), vessels in this speed zone are called
semi-displacement vessels. Finally, when the Froude number is greater than 1.0 (likewise 1.2)
hydrodynamic forces have an impact on hull and creates lift; these vessels (in this speed region) are
called planing hulls.
According to Archimedes, a vessel’s underwater volume displacement is equal to the force applied
by water to the hull. When the vessel speed is equal to zero (V = 0), the force applied by water to
the hull structure is hydrostatic pressure, and will be equal to the floating weight. Conversely, as
the body begins moving (speed is greater than 0), water particles are put into motion by the force
applied to them. The effect of the force in the opposite direction creates another force known as
hydrodynamic pressure. Hydrodynamic pressure forces can cause two different drags. The first one
is known as viscous pressure drag, the second is known as wave drag. The component of a pressure
through the body results in frictional drag, and the vertical component of the pressure leads to an
elevation of the hull (if the effect is in the opposite direction, it may cause the body sink) and trim.
As the speed increases, the vertical pressure component, which is known as lift force, is increasing
and the hydrostatic forces (buoyancy) will cause the vessel to be lifted out of the water. When
hydrodynamic forces are dominant, these vessels are known as planing hulls (Blount & Fox, 1976).
Hydrodynamic and hydrostatic pressure forces can vary and subject to the Froude number.
Generally, the planing regime starts for Froude number Fn > 1.2 and Fn = 1.0 being the lower limit
for the planing regime (Faltinsen, 2005). For this reason, it is possible to categorize high speed
vessels with respect to the Froude number, as well as hull forms and their resistances.
Fig. 1. According to Froude Number, Variation of Effectual Forces on Hull (Larrson & Eliasson, 2000)
202
3. High Speed Planing Hulls Resistance Prediction Methods
There are some variables which are use to predict resistance of hulls. These are speed and
displacement, length and beam, deadrise angle and LCG (Almeter, 1993). Although these
parameters show main dimensions and loading of the vessel, they are not capable of specifying the
hull form. For this reason, it is necessary to identify hull form subject to beam taper, hull wrap,
concave/convex form or straight sections. Nevertheless, it is difficult to include all these variables
to the prediction method. Therefore the planing hull series aim is to predict resistance by fixing hull
form but changing one dimension of that form. The most accurately matched resistance predictions
are based on methods which are developed by planing hull forms (Almeter, 1993).
There is abundant information regarding hull form, therefore it is possible to choose the best
prediction method for known hull form. Additionally, any similar hull forms having similar main
dimensions and speed ranges may have very close resistance predictions. As explained previously,
fundamental speed ranges are shown below;
Pre-Planing
Semi-Planing
Fully-Planing
4. Resistance Prediction
Resistance prediction methods are categorized in the following:
Planing Hull Series
Prismatic Equations
Numerical Methods
Empirical Calculations
Theoretical
All prediction methods mentioned above are based on the same data, experiments, and observations
of planing hull models tests. The observed data and produced graphics are described the
experiment that was conducted (Almeter, 1993).
203
Series 50 (Almeter, 1993): This was the first of all planing hull series and was developed in
the late 1940’s, and designed for the semi-planing region. However, Series 50 is no longer
used for modern planing hull forms. The main characteristics of Series 50 are high warp,
high beam taper, concave hull. This series was developed for displacement vessels, and
tests carried out as such.
Series 62 (Almeter, 1993): This series was developed in the early 1960’s, and based on
pure-planing. The main differences being narrow transom, blunt bow, maximum chine
beam forward of midship. This series has been tested on small deadrise angle, and fixed at
13 degrees. Model tests have been made for wide range of speeds, loading and LCG
locations. It is adequate and easy to use for a small deadrise angle but blunt bow may lead
to high friction force.
Series 65 (Almeter, 1993): Series 65 has been developed in the early 1970’s to test hull
forms for possible hydrofoil applications. This series is suitable for pre-planing regime.
Series 65 is actually two series: Series 65A and 65B. Series 65A has exceptionally narrow
stern and for this reason its application range is limited. Series 65A is not normally used.
Series 65B is more useful in that it is applicable to deep vee hull forms. This series was
developed for pre-planing regime and semi-planing regime. Additionally, the models have
no beam taper unlike the other series.
These series has been tested at fixed loading conditions and trim. The resistance was
presented in graphical forms as a function of dynamic trim and weight.
Naval Academy Series (Almeter, 1993): The United States Naval Academy tested three
systematic round bilge models and three systematic hard chine models. These series were
too small to do effective resistance prediction.
Dutch Series 62 (Almeter, 1993): This series was developed in the late 1970’s, but with
low deadrise angle. The Dutch has the same characteristics as Series 62 mentioned above.
Although, series 62 has been designed for fully-planing speed ranges, this series has been
tested on pre-planing and semi-planing stages.
BK Series (Almeter, 1993): BK series is a semi-planing series was developed in the early
1960’s by the Soviets. This series was designed for patrol boats and small warships.
MBK Series (Almeter, 1993): This series is very similar to BK series developed in the early
1970’s. MBK series has been oriented towards small, semi-planing hulls.
Norwegian Series (Almeter, 1993): This series was developed in Norway in1969, and was
oriented towards semi-planing and pure-planing designs. Norwegian series hull shapes are
similar to modern forms. Also, there has been testing to investigate aft beam taper and
forebody hull shape.
204
6. Prismatic Equations
Prismatic bodies have constant cross section and straight buttocks through length. Most of planing
hulls can be examined as a prismatic because during planing stage, the sections of hull underwater
are constant. The primary variables of prismatic hulls are beam, deadrise angle, LCG, and weight
of vessel. Length and hull form cannot be considered in the calculations. Another advantage of
prismatic planing hulls is resistance that can be considered as a tangent of a trim angle and the
vessel’s weight plus frictional drag. Prismatic shapes can be investigated for lift and torque or
longitudinal moment. The equations are based on lift and longitudinal moment to trim, and speed
and wetted planing area (Almeter, 1993).
There are three prismatic resistance prediction methods (Almeter, 1993).
Savitsky Method
Shuford Method
Lyubomirov Method
The resistance difference between these methods is usually less than 10%. Savitsky’s method gives
the highest prediction and the other two give a lower prediction. For more detailed information
about these methods and other prismatic equation is given in reference (Almeter, 1993).
7. Numerical Methods
Numerical methods can be very useful in the preliminary design stage for resistance prediction.
Since numerical methods were developed from model tests, the correct results cannot always be
obtained (Almeter, 1993). For this reason, when a designer decides to use numerical methods, it
should be considered how correctly the method reflects its database.
There were some numerical methods developed but very few of them are being used today.
U.S Naval Academy Series Regression (Almeter, 1993)
Series 62/65 Regression (Hubble) (Almeter, 1993)
Japan Regression (Almeter, 1993)
Series 62/65 Regression (Radojcic Regression) (Almeter, 1993)
Empirical Calculations (Almeter, 1993): Empirical calculations are developed based on
graphics and model test data. These graphics are usually developed by designers,
mechanical engineers, shipbuilders and naval architectures. If the calculations are correct,
it is possible to get proper results. However, in order to get proper results, it is crucial to
use similar type of hull forms which are used for developing graphics.
8. Other Methods
There are some other resistance prediction methods different from methods mentioned above. First,
Blount-Fox method which is a multiplying factor for Savitsky’s method. The second method is
Lahtiharju’s regression method which was developed in the Technical Research Center of Finland
(VTT). Additionally, Soviet BK and MBK methods, along with some other methods have been
205
developed. Finally, there are model tests which have been carried out by Clement based on
systematic series.
9. Conclusion
In this study, several resistance prediction methods have been applied on a given planing hull form.
These methods are Savitsky’s method (Savitsky, 1964), Radojcic’s regression method (Radojcic,
1985), Clement’s systematic series model tests (Clement and Blount, 1963) and Blount-Fox
method (Blount & Fox, 1976).
As shown in Figure 2, one planing hull has been chosen. The deadrise angle is 12.5 degrees,
resistance predictions made, and graph plotted against speed (Figure 3).
206
tests results. For high speed ranges planing stages and semi-planing hulls, Savitsky’s and/or
Blount-Fox methods would be a good choice. If a series 62/65 is chosen, the designer may employ
Radojcic’s method. Result comparisons are shown below.
Seri 62/5.5
10
Savitsky Method
Resistance (kN)
8 Blount-Fox
Radojcic 5.5
6
Seri 62/7.0
4
Seri 62/8.5
2 Radojcic 7.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 Radojcic 8.5
Speed (knot) Clement SM
References
Almeter J. M., 1993 Marine Technology, Resistance Prediction of Planing Hulls: State of the Art, Marine
Technology,Vol. 30, No. 4.
Blount D. L. and Fox D. L., 1976, Small Craft Power Prediction, Marine Technology, Vol. 13, No. 1.
Clement E. P. and Blount D. L., 1963, Resistance Tests of a Systematic Series of Planing Hull Forms,
SNAME Transactions.
Faltinsen, O., 2005. Hydrodynamics of High-Speed Marine Vehicles, Cambridge University Press, New
York.
Kafalı, K., 1981. Yüksek Süratli Tekneler, Teknik Üniversite Matbaası, İstanbul.
Larrson, L. and Eliasson, R., 2000. Principles of Yacht Design, Second Edition, International Marine, Maine.
Radojcic D., 1985. An Approximate Method For Calculation Of Resistance And Trim Of The Planing Hulls,
Ship Science Report, Southampton, UK.
Savitsky, D., 1964. Hydrodynamic Design of Planing Hulls, Marine Technology, Vol. 1, No. 1.
207
Managing Imprecise Information in Concept Ship Design
Giorgio Trincas
Dept. of Naval Architecture and Mechanical Engineering, University of Trieste, Italy, trincas@units.it
Abstract
The complex and multidisciplinary nature of ship design together with the requirement to examine life-
cycle characteristics, compels to incorporate uncertainty since the first phases of ship design process.
Especially, concept ship design is the stage mostly characterised by imprecision, uncertain parameters,
and ill-defined relationships. A short tutorial is presented on the Method of Imprecision (MoI), a formal
theory for representing preferences among design alternatives by incorporating imprecise information
into design process by means of the mathematics of fuzzy sets. The MoI formulates the concept design
of ships as a Multi Attribute Decision-Making (MADM). The underlined strategy is to let the design
team select from a variety of overall preference combinations among attributes. A ro-ro concept ship
design example indicates how the MoI may be applied to assess imprecision of basic data.
1. Introduction
Aspirations for the conquest of new markets are higher than ever as new technologies and global
competition compel to introduce intelligent synthesis since initial stages of ship design. Several factors
will drive the design of new concepts including rapid prototyping and affordability. Hence, dramatic
changes are needed in how ships are designed, produced, operated, and maintained. As a result, it is
mandatory to develop designs that are as less sensitive as possible to prediction inaccuracies without
suffering for reduced performance and economic penalties.
In general, the concept ship design is a critical task in the design process, since the most important
decisions with the greatest impact on ship‟s overall economic efficiency are made there (Grubišić et al.,
1990). Concept design is a very complex activity, even if it has simply to provide preliminary sizing of
a ship that has to provide the payload/deadweight and speed expected by the shipowner at a minimum
RFR. The complexity lies on diverse sources of technical, physical and economic issues to process and
balance simultaneously according to a prescribed set of criteria (functional requirements, operating
constraints, and evaluation attributes). Moreover, this very initial design stage is the most risky since
the ship description is still incomplete and imprecise (fuzzy), while associated with multiple,
interacting, and conflicting constraints that are often of doubtful formulation and formalisation.
Insufficient robustness in the concept design phase is the major cause of failure for most of the
upstream life-cycle engineering products (Salzberg and Watkins, 1990).
209
In modelling the concept ship design, deterministic „black boxes‟ are usually used to assess attributes
that cannot be determined exactly due to vagueness of many parameters. A further critical point is that
the uncertainties of one attribute may be propagated to another one through the linking of design
variables so that there could be an accumulation of uncertainty from different individual disciplines.
Therefore, it is mandatory to develop a methodology to represent and incorporate imprecision since
concept design stage to facilitate the ship designers in the decision-making process.
A disruptive strategy must be introduced to modify the traditional design process. Limitations and
disadvantages of the traditional „design spiral‟ approach that yields a point-based design, result in a
single feasible design, but incapability of producing a global optimum. Also formal optimisation
approaches, such as nonlinear programming, goal programming, or genetic algorithms have generally
not proven to be of significant practical value for concept ship design. Even MADM techniques, in
spite of allowing multidisciplinary control of many variables and criteria, still remain of academic
interest only, if computations and decisions are purely deterministic based. To overcome these
limitations, Trincas et al. (1994) introduced robustness in concept ship design. But further extensions
are required.
This paper shortly reviews the so-called method of imprecision (MoI) for concept ship design in the
framework of MADM. A case test is presented to illustrate how the MoI may be applied to an
imprecisely specified ro-ro concept design problem.
210
2.1 Fuzzy Definition of Design Parameters
Fuzziness in ship design stems from the imprecise nature of prediction methods. As compared to crisp
requirements, fuzzy approach softens the sharp transition from feasible to unfeasible (Zadeh, 1978). It
may identify an optimal solution that is close to the infeasible region and which would otherwise be lost
by crisp constraint criterion. At the same time, the values of design variables, parameters, and attributes
should be normalised in order to make them commensurable in a multidimensional space. Although
other design methodologies do exist that implicitly represent imprecision and uncertainty, fuzzy design
methods were found very useful in ship design (Shinoda and Fukuchi, 1991).
A fuzzy set X is defined as the ordered set of pairs [x, (x) ] in which x denotes an element in the fuzzy
set, while (x) represents the membership grade that x has in the fuzzy set. To assess designers‟
preference on the value of specific attribute, different types of membership grade function may be
used. It will be a map, , from a set X R to the interval [0, 1] such that supp () = [xmin, xmax] and there
exists x (xmin, xmax) such that (x ) = 1; has to be continuous and monotonically increasing on [xmin, x ]
and continuous and monotonically decreasing on [x , xmax]. Membership grade is usually normalised so that:
(x) = 0 non-membership, (x) = 1 full membership, 0 < (x) < 1 membership grade.
The cut-level concept is also important in the MoI theory. By -cut of a mermbership grade function we mean
the set of all points x X such that (x) The higher the value of , the higher the confidence in the
design variable and/or the dependent design response.
Many formulations of membership grade are possible but generalised Nehrling-type function (1985)
was found most suitable for application of fuzzy logics in concept ship design:
1
( x) n
(1)
x* x
1
d
The values to x*, d, and n may be selected so that can measure the aspiration level of the design team
for specific attribute.
Four types of membership grade function are possible: ascending (S-type), descending (Z-type),
attracting (-type) and averting (U-type). Two points on a membership grade curve are important,
namely,
a) x = x , that is, the level of attribute that is 100% satisfactory, i.e. the level that may optimistically be
expected to be reached by the best design as to specific attribute.
b) x = x 0.5 = x – d, that is, the level that is only 50% percent satisfactory, i.e. the level that may
be expected in the average design.
211
2.2 Design Space and Attribute Space
The design space, DS, is the set of all alternative designs identified by the values of a design variable
n-vector d = {d1,…, dn}, which can be randomly generated by an adaptive Monte Carlo method. The
feasible design values within the DS form a subset Xi .
The attribute space, AS, is the set of all calculated performance attributes { a1, …, aq} evaluated for all
designs generated in the DS; this set forms a q-vector, a f (d ) , which specifies the performance of
each design d , where f (d ) { f1 (d ), ..., f n (d )} .
The subset of valid performance attribute values Y is mapped from X and the set of valid values for aj
is Yj . The mapping function a j f j (d ) can be any procedure to evaluate the performance of a
design (e.g., stability, weight, speed, cost, etc.) including metamodels, heuristic methods, testing of
prototypes, or customer evaluations. For a discussion of how to map from DS to AS in formally
modelling the ship design problem, see Žanić et al. (1992).
d (di ) : X i [0,1] R
i
Preferences are also specified on performance attributes by the design team or shipowner directly.
Thus, the satisfaction with the jth attribute, aj, is represented likewise by a membership grade function
on the subset Yj , termed the customer performance:
a (ai ) : Y j [0,1] R
i
These preference functions di and a j are assumed to be monotonically increasing on their support to
a range of values with peak preference equal to one, and to be monotonically decreasing after the
peak. In other terms, one single scalar preference is needed to compare alternative designs in DS, where
(d1 ) (d2 ) means that design d 1 is more preferred than d 2 .
The single preference should embody both the design preference in the DS and the performance
outcomes in the AS. The general problem is thus a MADM problem: the design team has to choose the
highest performing design configuration from an available design space, when each design is to be
judged by several, perhaps competing, performance attributes. The attributes may have different levels
212
of importance, or weights. The MADM problem is one of the aggregations of weighted fuzzy sets. The
goal of the MoI is to choose an aggregation function that properly models the uncertainty in evaluating
a design.
Function P is some scalar aggregation function, which formalises the process of trading-off the
conflicting attributes of a design performance against each other, such that some attributes of a design
may contribute more heavily to the combined result than others. The aggregation functions more
appropriate to MADM in ship design should satisfy a minimum set of restrictions for rational design
(Otto and Antonsson., 1991) which are described by a set of axioms (see Table 1, where N = n + q).
The axioms of commutativity, monotonicity and continuity are common and uncontroversial to many
MADM approaches. However, idempotency and annihilation are fundamental to the MoI.
The idempotency axiom states that if several variables with identical preferences are combined, then the
overall preference must have the identical degree of preference as well. Idempotency reflects the
constraint that the overall preference for a design should never exceed the preference of the highest-
ranked attribute, nor fall below the preference of the lowest-ranked attribute.
The annihilation axiom states that if any attribute of a design sinks to zero, then the overall preference
for the design is zero. If it is not satisfied, then a decision could be made in which an attribute is not
satisfied (such as, for example, service speed), but is mathematically compensated for by large
preference of another goal (such as, for example, required freight rate).
The aggregation functions satisfying all above axioms are known as design-appropriate. Further
restrictions are needed, which reflect the design strategy. Among the others, there are two basic metrics
(trade-off strategies) suitable to use within the MoI: the min and product operators over different
subsets of the attributes, which still satisfy the restrictions of Table 1.
213
In the first type of design strategy, there is no trade-off between individual preferences so that the
increase in preference for one attribute cannot compensate for the decrease in another preference. This
is a conservative and non-compensating trade-off design strategy. In this case, the minimum
aggregation function Pmin is used, which combines membership grade functions for design variables and
attributes producing an overall measure of a design that is limited by the most poorly performing
attribute
o min{d ,..., d ; a ,..., a }
1 n 1 q
(2)
Alternatively, a design or different outcomes of a design might be rated by compensation among the
attributes. Such a fully compensating metric must be constructed in a manner consistent with the axioms
reported in Table 1. The normalized product PΠ is the aggregate function
1
n q
nq
0 di a j (3)
i 1 j 1
4. Computation of Preferences
The design preferences, d i (d i ) ‟s, are specified in the DS and can be aggregated into the combined
design preference d (d ) . In similar way, the performance attributes, a i (ai ) ‟s, are specified in the
attribute space and can be aggregated into the combined functional requirements a (a ) . These
214
combined preferences have to be in the same space in order to aggregate them into the overall
preference for a design, 0 (a ) ; usually the mapping from DS to AS. As a f (d ) is computationally
expensive, f (d ) can be replaced by its metamodel f ' ( d ) to reduce the computational cost.
Limits of acceptability for range of variables are familiar to naval architects. Such acceptance ranges
correspond to intervals over which preference is greater than zero. This suggests that rather than
determine the preference d at each value of di , it may be more natural to determine the intervals in di ,
called -cuts, over d which equals or exceeds certain preference values .
After obtaining the design preference d (d ) on X and the attribute preference a (a ) on Y , a trade-off
aggregation will be used to get 0 , the overall preference. Since d (d ) and a (a ) are expressed in
different spaces, one of them needs to be mapped into the other space before computing the overall
preference for a design, 0 . After formulating the mapping functions from DS to AS, a f (d ) , the
next step in applying the MoI is to determine the values of d (a ) induced by d (d ) , e.g. the design
preferences mapped onto the attributes, by using the extension principle (Dong and Wong, 1987):
d ( a ) supp
d ( d ) | a f ( d ) (4.)
d :a f ( d )
The overall preference arises from splitting the function P into three operations:
0 P
c d , f
Pc Pd d1 ,..., dn , Pf a1 ,..., aq
where Pd combines the designer preferences, Pa combines the functional requirements, and Pc combines
these sub-results. For concept ship design problems, each a will be a function of many x‟s and each
function f will be a hyper-surface as established by the specific metamodel.
Once the imprecision on each design variable d (d ) is induced onto the attribute space, the induced
preferences are combined with the attribute requirements, a (a ) , to obtain the overall preference,
o (a ) . The point with the highest preference corresponds to the performance of the overall most
preferred design. The design problem is to find the corresponding set of design variables d (d * ) that
produce the maximum overall preference o* . The preferences can be aggregated in the design space
and mapped to the attribute space with any aggregation function.
Otto et al. (1993) proved that the maximum overall preference in the design space is the same as that in
the attribute space, max o (d ) = max o (a ) , if f and d (d ) satisfy some continuity conditions. In
the typical design case, f is not invertible, e.g. the inverse mapping f 1 : Y X does not exist, but
o (d ) can still be obtained point by point (Law and Antonsson, 1995).
215
MoI are the α-cuts Do and Po in the design space and in the attribute space, respectively. The
metamodel f l is used to compute o (d ) and map Do onto the attribute space. The performance of
'
Adk
ajmin
k
, ajmax
k
f (d ) | (d )
j d k (7)
8. Map the extreme points in the attribute space onto the design space, and specify the -cut of
d (a) by the minimum performance and the maximum performance.
6. Case Study
The following case study shows how a deterministic design mathematical model can be integrated with
the MoI in a MADM suite. The problem used in the example is the concept design of a fast ro-ro ship.
There are five independent variables to represent the candidate designs (d1 = length, d2 = beam, d3 =
draft, d4 = amidships coefficient, d5 = longitudinal prismatic coefficient, d6 = vertical prismatic
coefficient) and six performance attributes (a1 = service speed, a2 = number of cars, a3 = number of
trailers, a4 = required freight rate, a5 = acquisition cost, a6 = motion sickness incidence). The range
supports with -level cut equal to zero are given in Table 1.
Design variable d1 d2 d3 d4 d5 d6
Minimum value 184.00 23.80 6.40 0.900 0.610 0.590
Maximum value 200.00 32.25 7.40 0.950 0.640 0.710
216
About 3,000 feasible designs were generated by an adaptive Monte Carlo method. The membership
grade function given by equation (1) was used to evaluate the satisfaction-to-target achieved for each
attribute. The type of function associated to each attribute is shown in Table 2.
Table 2. Target values and type of membership function for each attribute
Attribute a1 a2 a3 a4 a5 a6
Target 29.5 530 2300 2.10 92.5 10%
Type S -type -type -type Z-type Z-type Z-type
After performing a Pareto-set filtering, the overall preferences for 97 non-dominated designs were
calculated based on the aggregation function (4). Then, the -cuts of the combined design preference
were determined on the basis of the Cartesian product (6) in order to find the -cuts in the attribute
space given by the minimum and maximum performance. The extreme designs of the Pareto-set which
define the -cuts of design variables, are given in Table 3.
The design with the highest overall performance is des_37 , with 0* = 0.873. To get 0* = 1, it would
be necessary to improve the metamodels‟ accuracy. The point of highest preference is not far from the
point of highest satisfaction achieved with the min operator (1): for the best design it was 0* = 0.756.
0.95 0.95
0.90 0.90
Overall Preference (0)
0.85 0.85
0.80 0.80
0.75 0.75
0.70 0.70
0.65 0.65
192.0 194.0 196.0 198.0 200.0 202.0
LBP
Fig. 1. The -cuts of ship length at given overall preferences
217
0.95 0.95
0.90 0.90
0.80 0.80
0.75 0.75
0.70 0.70
0.65 0.65
25.8 26.0 26.2 26.4 26.6 26.8 27.0 27.2 27.4 27.6 27.8
B [m]
Fig. 2. The -cuts of ship beam at given overall preferences
0.95 0.95
0.90 0.90
Overall Preference (0)
0.85 0.85
0.80 0.80
0.75 0.75
0.70 0.70
0.65 0.65
0.624 0.626 0.628 0.630 0.632 0.634 0.636 0.638 0.640 0.642
CP
Fig. 3. The -cuts of longitudinal prismatic coefficient at given overall preferences
0.95 0.95
0.90 0.90
Overall Preference (0)
0.85 0.85
0.80 0.80
0.75 0.75
0.70 0.70
0.65 0.65
0.600 0.610 0.620 0.630 0.640 0.650 0.660 0.670 0.680
CVP
Fig. 4. The -cuts of vertical prismatic coefficient at given overall preferences
218
The overall -cuts Do of the most influencing variables (as derived from statistical analysis of
metamodels) were then identified from Figures 1 through 4; they are reported in Table 4.
The fuzzy set design based on the fuzzy -cut technique allows to measure uncertainty related to each
design variable. Here, uncertainty is intended as the ratio of the -level support to the value of the
design variable of the design for which the overall induced preference reached the maximum value; in
the case study, the best possible design is the ship designated by des_37 . The derived uncertainties of
the main variables for three -cut levels are given in Table 5. It can be seen that the less uncertain
design variable is CP , whereas the most uncertain is CVP which is a hull geometric characteristic
influencing ship vertical motions dramatically. This conclusion is consistent with the large spread of
motion sickness incidence (a6) outcomes in the Pareto-set.
It is interesting noticing that the successful fast ro-ro designed and built by Fincantieri shipbuilding
company for Minoan shipping company reaches the overall preferences given in Table 6.
7. Conclusions
The goal of modern engineering design is to increase the amount of information available to designers
regarding the performance of design alternatives, over that available with conventional design analyses.
The effects will be greater, the earlier the information is made available. The most important and costly
decisions in the design cycle are made in the concept design stage where ship performance is
219
represented imprecisely. Capability to represent and manipulate imprecise descriptions of ship design
there will enable decisions to be made with greater confidence and reduced risk.
To this end, the technique used here is a MoI approach operating on fuzzy representations of design
parameters. Preference functions are used to represent the designers‟ aspiration to arrive at desired
levels of attributes. The class of product of powers for the aggregation of these preferences was utilized
in this paper. The case study demonstrates that it provides the ability to manage uncertainty in selecting
the „best possible‟ design even if ship‟s attribute outcomes are assessed starting from a variety of
imprecise variables. It has been shown that the imprecise result derived through a MADM approach
including the MoI provides more information than conventional single-valued design analysis.
References
Grubišić, I., Žanić, V., Trincas, G. 1990. Concept Design System for Interactive Optimization of Fishing Vessels. Proceedings
of the ICED-90, Dubrovnik, Hubka and Kostelić Editors, Vol. 1, pp. 463-470.
Salzberg, S., Watkins, M. 1990. Managing Information for Concurrent Engineering: Challenges and Barriers. Research in
Engineering Design, Vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 35-52.
Trincas, G., Žanić, V., Grubišić, I. 1994. Comprehensive Concept Design of Fast Ro-Ro Ships by Multiattribute Decision-
Making, Proceedings of the 5th International Marine Design Conference, IMDC'94, Delft, 1994, pp. 321-333.
Zadeh, L.A. 1978. Fuzzy Sets as a Basis for a Theory of Possibility. Fuzzy Sets and Systems, Vol. 1, pp. 3-28.
Shinoda, T., Fukuchi, N. 1991. Establishing the Evaluation and Decision Making Methods for Uncertainty Problem. Journal of
the Society of Naval Architects of Japan, Vol. 169, pp. 149-161.
Nehrling, B.S. 1985. Fuzzy Set Theory and General Arrangement Design. Computer Applications in the Automation of
Shipyard Operations and Ship Design, Banda and Kuo Editors, Elsevier, pp. 319-328.
Žanić, V. Grubišić, I., Trincas, G. 1992. Multiattribute Decision Making System Based on Random Generation of
Nondominated Solutions - Application to Fishing Vessel Design. Proceedings of Practical Design of Ships and Mobile Units,
PRADS‟92, Caldwell and Ward Editors, Elsevier, Vol. 2, pp. 2.1443-2.1460.
Zadeh, L.A. 1965. Fuzzy sets. Information Control, Vol. 8, pp. 338–353.
Otto, K.N., Antonsson, E.K. 1991. Trade-Off Strategies in Engineering Design. Research in Engineering Design, Vol. 3, no. 2,
pp. 87-104.
Kleijnen, J.P.C. 1987. Statistical Tools for Simulation Practitioners, Marcel Dekker, New York.
Myers, R.H., Montgomery, D.C. 2002. Response Surface Methodology, Wiley & Sons, New York.
Dong, W.M., Wong, F.S. 1987. Fuzzy Weighted Averages and Implementation of the Extension Principle. Fuzzy Sets and
Systems, Vol. 21, no. 2, pp. 183-189.
Otto, K.N., Lewis, A.D., Antonsson, E.K. 1993. Approximating -Cuts with the Vertex Method. Fuzzy Sets and Systems, Vol.
55, no. 1, pp. 43-50.
Law, W.S., Antonsson, E.K. 1995: Hierarchical Imprecise Design with Weights. Proceedings of the Fourth IEEE International
Conference on Fuzzy Systems, IEEE, Vol. 1, pp. 383-388.
220
Influence of dedrise angle and interceptors’ shape and position on resistance
reduction
Abstract
At Dipartimento di Ingegneria Navale (DIN) of the Università degli Studi di Napoli “Federico II”, a
research on interceptors is in advanced status of development. The aims of the study are to achieve a good
understanding of how the interceptors work and quantify the potential effectiveness of the device.
In this work results of tests on a warped and three prismatic hulls 2.8 m long are shown. The study have
analyzed the effect Centre of Gravity position, displacement, dedrise angle and interceptor dimension on
the effectiveness of the device.
The unconventional Double Interceptor System has been tested with three different configurations and the
high potentiality of this device has been confirmed.
Finally first evaluation of the effectiveness of the interceptor, on displacement Fn range, has been
analyzed to evaluate the opportunity to develop a research in this field.
Keywords: Naval Architecture, Interceptor, Resistance, Trim controller, High lift device.
1.Experimental program
This paper shows experimental data obtained on two interceptor's configurations: the conventional
solution and a not conventional one, named Double Interceptor System (DIS).
In the first part of the work the influence of CG position, dedrise angle and interceptor dimension have
been investigated on prismatic models, with = 10, 20 and 30 deg, in Fn range 0.57 ÷ 1.25. The influence
of displacement variation and warped hull form have been investigated on a single model (C 954).
In the second part of the work three configurations of DIS have been tested to set solutions able to reach
higher lift and performances.
According to the last years tendency, at the DIN, an evaluation of the interceptor behaviour, in
displacement Froude number range, is in a first stage of development. With this aim data available the
DIN database have been analyzed. The first data shown highlight the potentiality of these devices.
The next figure and tables show model geometry, main data and interceptor dimension tested.
All experimental test have been performed at Rn > 5.8106.
221
(a) warped hull (b) prismatic hull 20 deg
Fig. 1. Tested models.
2. Results
The next data show the behaviour of the conventional interceptors fixed under the transom. These results
could be considered the basics in the study of interceptor effectiveness. As said above, data are related to
prismatic and warped hulls in terms of RT/
Moreover have been shown data on behaviour of the interceptors tested with a constrained model. These
tests highlight the role of high lift effect on the system.
The second part of the section gives data on the effectiveness of the unconventional configuration in terms
of RTi /RT.
The effectiveness of this configuration has been compared with the conventional one and the bare hull
performances by a stricter analysis fully explained
222
2.1. Conventional Interceptors
Figures from 2 to 5, referred to the 20 deg prismatic hull, highlight the dependence of the interceptors'
behaviour on CG position. Figure 2, 6 and 7 compare performances of the same interceptors varying
dedrise angle.
The evaluations have been shown both by RTi/ and RTi/RT ratios to underline the performances in
absolute and relative terms.
0.18 0.18
0.17 0.17
0.16 0.16
0.15 0.15
0.14 0.14
i=1 i=2
i=1 i=2
0.13 0.13
i=4 i=5 i=3 i=4
0.12 0.12
i=0 i=5 i=0
0.11 0.11
0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 Fn 1.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 Fn 1.3
0.80 0.95
0.70 0.85
i=3 i=5 Fn Fn
0.65 0.80
0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3
0.22 0.20
= 30 deg LCG/LWL = 0.332
LCG/LWL = 0.332 RTi/
0.19 = 10 deg
RT/
0.20
0.18
0.18
0.17 i=4 i=2
223
With the C 954 model the effect of displacement and warped hull form have been investigated.
Performances are exposed in terms of RTi /, in function of Fn, and i.
0.18 0.18
0.17
RTi / i=0 0.17
RTi / i=a
0.16 0.16
0.15 0.15
0.14 0.14
0.13 0.13
0.12 0.12
140.0 kg 140.0 kg
0.11 0.11 133.5 kg
133.5 kg
0.10 0.10 121.0 kg
121.0 kg
0.09 103.5 kg 0.09
Fn Fn
0.08 0.08
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2
0.18 0.18
0.17
RTi / i=b 0.17
RTi / i=c
0.16 0.16
0.15 0.15
0.14 0.14
0.13 0.13
0.12 0.12
140.0 kg 140.0 kg
0.11 0.11
133.5 kg 133.5 kg
0.10 121.0 kg 0.10 121.0 kg
0.09 103.5 kg 0.09 103.5 kg
Fn Fn
0.08 0.08
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2
Fig. 10. C 954 warped hull Fig. 11. C 954 warped hull
0.18 0.18
0.17
RTi / i=d 0.17
RTi / i=e
0.16 0.16
0.15 0.15
0.14 0.14
0.13 0.13
0.12 0.12
133.5 kg 133.5 kg
0.11 0.11
121.0 kg 121.0 kg
0.10 0.10
0.09
103.5 kg 0.09
103.5 kg
Fn Fn
0.08 0.08
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2
Fig. 12. C 954 warped hull Fig. 13. C 954 warped hull
224
i=a i=b i=c i=d i=e i=0
7.0 = 20 deg
(deg) LCG/LWL = 0.368
6
(deg) 6.0
= 121.0 kg
5
5.0
4
4.0
3
3.0
2
i=0 i=1
Fig. 14. C 954 warped hull Fig. 15. 20 deg prismatic hull
225
40 1.00
RTi /RT
35 G 0.98
30 0.96
25 0.94
20 0.92
15 0.90
10 0.88
5 0.86
i/LWL
0 0.84
0.0E+00 5.0E-04 1.0E-03 1.5E-03 2.0E-03 2.5E-03
H elevation 20 DEG H elevation 10 DEG H elevation 30 DEG
Resistance ratio20 DEG Resistance ratio 10 DEG Resistance ratio 30 DEG
Fig. 16. Rising of H and resistance ratio at Fn = 0.87 in fixed trim condition
From the figure 16 is possible to observe the strong rising of the hull and the resistance reduction,
proportional to the device dimension. These are strictly dependent on the high lift effect. It is important to
observe that at a constant trim angle the increase of lift implies an increase of induced resistant (lift × tg).
In the same time, the strong reduction of total resistance and the observed similar wetted area, imply a
significant reduction of wave pattern resistance RW. So, it is inferable that the component of pressure
resistance distinct from the induced resistance is strongly lower.
A second procedure of constrained tests has been performed, varying the interceptors’ dimension, at
constant value of trim (like above) and with the same position of centre of gravity. In other words, the
model has been tested in a constrained dynamic position.
The tests have been carried out on 30 deg model at Fn = 0.87. Next table and figure show, respectively,
the device dimensions with the related performances and the vector related to the data shown in the table.
In the figure 17, the blue and red colours are referred to i = 5 and i = 0 interceptors respectively. The
green vector represents the force to be applied to simulate the interceptor’s action.
226
2.2. Double Inceptor System
According to the interceptor as high lift device, to magnify the lift, two interceptors have been placed
under the bottom of the same 20 deg model with LCG/LWL= 0.332.
0.95 8.0
(deg)
7.0
0.90
6.0
0.85 5.0
4.0
0.80
3.0
0.75 2.0
Fn
Fn 1.0
0.70 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3
In the same figures are reported the curves related to the conventional devices (before presented in figure
4) to underline the different behaviour.
The effectiveness of double configuration results extremely good at highest speeds. It reaches more than
25% of resistance reduction at Fn = 1.10 and 20% at Fn = 1.25.
The curves of the three solutions tested highlight the good potentiality due to the degrees of freedom
disposable. In particular, managing dimensions and position of the two devices it is possible to optimize
the equilibrium between high lift and trim correction with respect to hull form and speed.
227
At the moment only transversal plane devices have been tested but is noticeable that another available
degree of freedom is the incidence angle of the flow on the forward interceptor surface. In particular, it is
supposable that maximising the incidence angle of the flow it is possible to increase the high lift effects.
1.00
1.10
0.95
1.00 0.90
Fn 0.85
0.90
0.80
1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 Fn 1.3
It is important to clarify that in the figure RTi data are related to RT best-trim that is not resistance of a real
hull but is the performance of the ideal hull that adapts the CG to the speed. Obviously, this way to
evaluate the effectiveness is strongly precautionary.
3. Displacement Hulls
On displacement hulls, due to hull geometry, lower speed and length displacement ratio, the actions of the
high lift devices are usually not significant. Nevertheless the interceptors are, nowadays, often installed on
these ships. To evaluate the effectiveness of these devices in this field, at the DIN a towing tank tests
program is in the first early stage.
228
In particular, three typical luxury yacht models, whose geometrical coefficients and ratios are shown in the
next table, have been tested in a realistic speed range.
The next figures show the good effectiveness of the interceptors also if strictly evaluated as trim
controller. Obviously these data have to be compared with the performances of other trim controllers
without high lift effects. A consistent and reliable benchmark is available in (Karafiath et al., 1999).
Fig. 22. Effectiveness of different (from interceptors) trim controllers (Karafiath et Alii 1999)
Comparing the data, at the same Fn range, it is possible to see that the interceptors work significantly
better than wedges or flaps at Fn > 0.4 .
229
Conclusions
The paper summarizes the results of an extensive research that has highlighted the good effectiveness of
interceptors as trim controller and high lift device. Moreover it has been evaluated the potentialities of the
Double Interceptor System observing that the solution tested determines the best overall performance
among the data obtained.
Finally, first evaluations on interceptor's effectiveness in displacement hull field have been shown and has
been highlighted the good performance of the device.
The research will be developed to clarify the physical model of unconventional configurations and to
study in depth the performances of interceptors fixed on displacement hull
References.
De Luca, F., Pensa, C., (2011) Experimental Data on Interceptors’ Effectiveness, 9 th High Speed Marine Vehicles,
May 2011 Naples, Italy
Karafiath, G., Cusanelli, D., Wen Lin, C., (1999) Stern Wedges and Stern Flaps for Improved Powering - U.S. Navy
Experie nce, The Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers 1999 Annual Meeting
Nomenclature.
Dedrise angle
Dynamic trim
y Dimension of the forward interceptor
i Dimension of the stern interceptor
CG Centre of gravity
LCG Distance of Centre of Gravity from the transom
RT Total resistance of the bare model
RTi Total resistance of the model with interceptor
230
Influence of Ship’s Hull Damage on Stability Parameters and Compartments
Flooding Time
Abstract
Research on damage stability and survivability is a valuable source of knowledge of behaving a ship while
flooding its compartments. In the paper, a short description of accidents and damages of Polish warships
taking place in 1985-2004 is presented. The time when compartments are flooded (tf) and stability
parameters are one of the key elements which have influence on a rescue action. The knowledge of the
time mentioned and a metacentric height (GM) are very important for a commanding officer making
decisions while damage of the ship. To provide the information about the time tf a new method was
designed. The method was tested experimentally and results of the tests are presented in the paper. In the
experiments, the flooding process of compartments in a ship of the type 888 was simulated. The next part
of research was carried out on the laboratory, where the flooding time of damaged compartment of
warship model was measured. The results of the experiments can be a base to define general rules to make
proper decisions during the process of damage control.
1. Introduction
Even highly organized fleets struggle with accidents and technical breakdowns which cannot be
completely eliminated. The breakdowns can be classified based on their causes. The basic causes of the
breakdowns are: warfare, defects of materials and defects within the production process, constructional
defects, technological defects in the process of renovation, material’s wear and tear, not meeting the
requirements in operating and servicing an equipment, not taking security measures while storing
dangerous cargoes, e.g. explosive materials, petroleum products and other chemical components of serious
fire hazard, environmental hazards.
A partial or total loss in functionality of mechanisms and installations can occur both during warfare and
during daily operating a ship.
Failures caused by navigational errors or wrong maneuvering represent a group of ship accidents and
breakdowns which can lead to dangerous loss of buoyancy of a ship due to flooding its compartments.
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The statistical data prepared by the Polish Navy Commission of Warship Accidents and Breakdowns
reveal 156 warship accidents and breakdowns between 1985 and 2004. The data mentioned are presented
in Figure 1. (Korczewski & Wróbel, 2005).
14
12
13
10
6
6
4
5
0
years
1985 - 1990 1991 - 1998 1999 - 2004
Figure 1. The overall graph of accidents and breakdowns between 1985- 2004
In a situation of a breakdown crew activities deciding about ability of a warship to fight should be
directed to take a proper actions during the process of damage control and to protect stability and
maneuverability of the ship.
Exercises within the boundaries of the process of damage control, apart from construction solutions,
increase the safety of both the ship and the crew. Training is carried out in well prepared training centers
which are situated in the United Kingdom, Germany, Netherlands and Pakistan. The centers are equipped
with ship models designed for simulating failure states which most frequently occur while operating a
ship. The same models were also used in the experiments reported in the paper. One of the goals of the
experiments mentioned was to determine the following parameters: tf and GM for the ship type 888. This
warship is used for training of Polish seafarers taking part in numerous international cruises. Main
dimensions of the ship are: length L-72 m, breadth B-12 m, draught T-4,2 m and displacement 1750 t.
Photo of the ship is shown in Figure 2.
Presently, only simplified methods to calculate the parameters above mentioned exist. The method
presented in the paper has a distinctive difference compared to the existing, similar methods discussed in
232
some publications. The worked out method considers the permeability value dependent on the water level
inside the damaged compartment. Due to this, we can estimate more accurately the quantity of water in the
compartment and finally more accurately the flooding time of the damaged compartment. The aim of
presented method is to provide experimental validation.
The information about tf and stability parameters is very important for a commanding officer. It enables
him to make a proper decision during the process of damage control. The officer, based on the information
should determine the point in time, when further fighting for survivability is senseless and when all effort
should be directed to save the crew and documents (Miller, 1994).
Where: Ao =cross section of a hole; A = horizontal cross section of a tank; g = acceleration due to gravity,
and hz = height of a liquid inside the tank.
Because the surface of a hole is much smaller than the sea surface, the water velocity can be obtained
according to Torricelli’s formula:
vw 2 g h (2)
vw 2 g h (3)
where 0,97 0,98 - the velocity coefficient dependent on the kind of liquid.
The equation (3) is applied when the water surface inside a hull is below a lower edge of a hole, i.e. for a
constant pressure of the water. When the water pressure is variable (the water surface inside a hull is
above an edge of a hole and still grows up) the velocity of the water flowing into the compartment can be
obtained according to the formula:
(4)
233
Where: h0= height of liquid inside a tank above an edge of a hole.
The hole in the body can have a different shape and dimension dependent on the reason of damage. The
shape of the hole influences on the volumetric flow rate Q of the water flowing to the compartment. The
parameter Q depends on , which in turn is a product of coefficient and narrowing coefficient
0,61 0,64 . Therefore, the volumetric flow rate of water Q flooded to the interior compartment can
be obtained from the formula:
Q A0 2 g h (5)
When the pressure of the water is variable the volumetric flow rate of water Q inside the compartment is
calculated from the formula:
(6)
a) b)
Figure 3. Compartment being flooded: a) with constant water pressure, b) with variable water pressure.
V
tf (7)
Q
where: V= the volume of the water inside a compartment (in the final hydrostatic equilibrium phase).
234
3.1. The permeability calculation
The volume of the empty compartment was calculated with the aid of the computer program. The real
quantity of the water, flooding the compartment, is less than the theoretical volume of the compartment
due to the volume of all mechanisms and devices inside the compartment. Usually, to calculate a real
quantity of the water, the permeability of flooding compartment μ is used. Permeability is used in ship
survivability and damaged stability calculations. In this case, the permeability of a space is a coefficient
from 0 to 1. The permeability of a space is the percentage of volume of the space which may be occupied
by seawater if the space is flooded. The remaining volume (not filled with seawater) being occupied by
machinery, cargo, accommodation spaces, etc. The value of permeability for compartment is calculated by
the formula:
v
μ (9)
vt
where: v t = theoretical compartment volume; v - real quantity of the water inside the compartment.
The numerical value of the permeability depends on both, the type and the destination of damaged
compartment. The permeability of the compartment μ, which is indicated in the SOLAS Convention, is
usually used to calculate the real volume of the compartment. Typical values from the SOLAS Convention
are:
• 0.95 for voids (empty spaces), tanks, and living spaces;
• 0.85 for machinery spaces;
• 0.60 for spaces allocated to stores.
This implies that for damaged stability calculation purposes, machinery spaces are only 15% full with
machinery by volume (100% - 85% = 15%).
In preliminary research presented in the paper, permeability of the engine room was estimated. Its value
depends on the height of the water inside the compartment. The graph of the permeability is shown in
Figure 4 (Kowalke 2006).
235
7
z [m]
4
0
0,7 0,75 0,8 0,85 0,9 0,95 1
The permeability μv
The average value of the permeability for chosen compartments, obtained as a result of experiments, is
comparable with the value of the SOLAS Convention and equals 0,84.
236
4. The analysis of the influence of damage parameters
The experimental research on tf for engine room ship type 888 was carried out for different parameters of
damages. In the research, the place and the dimensions of damage were taken into consideration.
During the numerical simulation tf of damaged compartment, the variability of Q during the flooding
process was taken into account. This parameter depends on both the depth of the hole and water level
inside the compartment, as shown in Fig.3. Assuming, that the flooding process is a hydrostatic, the
movement of the vessel was not taken into consideration and the ship is without a heel and trim. Only the
draft of the ship caused by the adoption of water to the damaged compartment was taken into account.
In the first stage of the research, tf for the engine room was estimated. The calculations of tf were made for
the following example conditions: ship’s draught T=4m, the dimension of damages R=0,03 m, R=0,05 m,
R=0,1 m and R=0,2 m (R denotes radius). The holes were placed from 0,1m to 3,0 m below the surface of
the sea. The results of the research are shown in Figure 6.
2000
1800
1600
1400
1200
Flooding time t [min]
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
Depth of the hole h [m]]
Figure 6 presents that tf for the compartment with dimension of damage R=0,2m, placed 3 m below the
surface of the sea, equals 3,4 minutes. This time is too short to seal the damage. Consequently, further
activities of crew should be directed to protect spreading the water covering interior of the ship and to
strengthen the construction of the watertight bulkhead.
237
5. The preliminary research on the flooding time on the laboratory
The flooding time calculation of damaged compartment, according to the method described in the paper, is
verified on the laboratory. Thanks to a suitable construction and new concepts applied for the station,
research on the ship reaction and position in the failure situations is possible. The main object of the
laboratory is ship’s model type 888. The hull of model was made in accordance with the body plan. The
elements of the superstructure and the ship equipment were simplified in the model but the appropriate
scale 1:50 was kept. Main dimensions of the model are: length L-1,5 m breadth B-0,25 m and
draught T-0,08 m. This model is set up with specialized devices used for measurement of the position and
for the analysis of the ship reaction during simulated damages. The shape of the model is shown in Fig.7
(Mironiuk 2006). A research on the survivability of the ship model after damage one or more
compartments will enable us to assess the flooding time of the model compartments and even whole
model as well.
The engine room compartment was chosen to simulate. The damage compartment simulation can be done
by opening the suitable valve situated inside the model. The scheme of the ship’s model with a damaged
compartment is shown in the computer window and presented in the Figure 8 (Mironiuk 2006).
238
Within the framework of model research, the time of flooding the engine room of 888 type of vessel was
determined. The research consisted in determination of time that will have passed from opening of the
valve, making it possible to flood the compartment, until the outboard water level leveled with the liquid
level in the compartment. The research was carried out using a sensor of water level in the compartment
(pressure sensor) and a stopwatch. During the measurement two parameters were registered, i.e.:
- level of liquid in the compartment,
- flooding time.
Analysis of the performed measurement showed that level of the liquid in the compartment was
approaching to 0,08 (m) of the liquid column and fixed itself after approximately 33 (min). Knowing the
scale of the model the real object’s compartment flooding time assumed 2h45’. The flooding time
obtained from the calculations was 1h59’. The compartment flooding time calculations were carried out
for the leakage radius r=0,08 (m). What was observed as a result of the research was a difference in the
compartment flooding time at the level of 30%. The difference can be affected by, for example: 1:50
scaled hole which is extremely small so scale effects could be expected in flooding process and imprecise
physical model of the engine room. The computer model of engine room, which is used for flooding time
calculation, is more accurate than physical model. Due to this, the permeability of damaged compartment
of physical model has a value different from the permeability used by the computer program. Finally, the
result of flooding time obtained from calculation is different from research on the physical model.
Presented results are obtained on the basis of experimental preliminary research. The determined effect of
scale on the quality of the obtained results will be carried out in subsequent studies.
The next part of the research was devoted to estimate a metacentric height while flooding a damaged
compartment. To calculate this parameter the added mass method was used. The result of calculations is
shown in Figure 9.
To calculate the metacentric height the free surface effect was taken into consideration. Figure 9 implies
that in the early stage of flooding the compartment, the metacentric height GupMu, is less than GM. In the
later stages, GupMu increases and improves stability of a ship. This situation takes place due to adding a
mass in the lower part of the ship.
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2,5
GuMu GupMu GM
1,5
0,5
[m]
0
0 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4
7. Conclusions
The knowledge of the time tf and metacentric height allows a commanding officer to make decisions while
fighting for survivability of the ship.
The method of determining the permeability presented in the paper enables us to make calculating the
time tf more accurate.
The modified method can be used to calculate the time tf for ship type 888 with different types of hull
damages. The method can be adopted for some other type of warships.
References
Derett. D. R. 2003. Ship stability for Masters and Mates. BH. Oxford.
Jakus, B., Korczewski, Z., Mironiuk, W., Szyszka, J., and Wróbel, R. 2001. Obrona przeciwawaryjna okrętu. Naval
Academ:, Gdynia.
Korczewski, Z., Pawlędzio, A.and Wróbel, R. 2005. Analiza ilościowa wypadków i awarii na okrętach Marynarki
Wojennej RP w latach 1985-2004. Przegląd Morski nr. Gdynia.
Kowalke, O. 2006. Komputerowa symulacja zatapiania przedziału siłowni okrętu typu 888. AMW: Gdynia.
Miller, D. 1994. Damage control - an insurance policy. International Defence Review nr 5.
Mironiuk, W., Pawlędzio, A., and Wróbel, R. 2004. Trenażer do walki z wodą. Gdynia, pp 14-30.
Mironiuk, W. 2006. Preliminary research on stability of warship models. STAB’2006: Rio de Janeiro, pp 345-352.
Pawłowski, M. 2004. Subdivision and damage stability of ships. Gdańsk.
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260
SDV – Swimmer Delivery Vehicle
Abstract
Today, divers have to carry out a wide variety of tasks and operations, running from civilian control
duties via police/security tasks up to military/naval engagements. In many cases, the area of operations
is located several miles away from their starting point, they have to take a certain amount of
equipment with them and they need to manoeuvre in shallow waters and confined areas.
This newly developed SDV enables divers to cover long distances at notably short transit times. The
vessel provides enough space for two divers together with equipment inside an encapsulated hull,
preventing them from cooling out and conserving their physical strengths for their proper mission. The
SDV can be deployed from any platform, such as trucks, helicopters, naval surface vessels and even
submarines, as it is feasible to stow these SDVs in a very compact manner due to a highly
sophisticated telescopic / folding mechanism.
This contribution describes in detail the cooperation between the German Navy’s Technical Centre
(WTD 71) and GABLER Maschinenbau GmbH to realize this promising concept.
1. Introduction
In order to cover the distance to their area of operations, traditionally divers had to rely on their own
strength and endurance. Standard procedure was for the diver to make his transit under his own power,
swimming under water with the aid of fins.
There have been repeated attempts to develop suitable propulsion equipment to assist divers, so that
the distance they can reasonably cover could be considerably increased. For example, at the end of the
last millennium the German Navy had a so-called “Schwimmhilfe für Kampfschwimmer”, a
propulsion aid for naval divers, which was able to transport two divers over a distance of up to 15 km
at a constant speed of 3 knots. The equipment featured excellent handling characteristics, weighed
about 470 kg and was built of modular units. This modular set-up enabled the individual components
to be transported to the area of operations. (Fig.1)
The battery system at the time used silver-zinc technology and placed high demands on preparatory
work to make the system operable (charging procedure).
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The total overall weight, large dimensions and logistic back-up required to power up the energy
storage system meant that the equipment no longer met the operational and tactical demands of
modern Special Forces.
New battery technologies and the use of innovative materials offered the basis for developing a
revolutionary new diver propulsion system with much improved performance parameters.
The German Ministry of Defence therefore instructed the Bundeswehr Technical Centre for Ships and
Naval Weapons, Naval Technology and Research (WTD 71), Section 450 “Diving Engineering” to
establish the requirements for a new diver propulsion vehicle, in cooperation with the future users,
German Naval Special Operations Forces, and to begin a research and technology project.
The research and technology project “diver propulsion vehicle” began in 2007.
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requirements. An additional advantage with this proposal is that the divers are not exposed to water
flow, which reduces their body cooling and conserves their energy.
The safety of the divers is of primary importance.
The vehicle is destined for use by two divers together (a squad).
The divers need to have visual contact with each other and to be able to abandon the vehicle at any
time.
The system engineering is to be basically simple. For this reason, there is no integrated breathing air
supply system. The divers use their standard diving equipment. In this particular case the re-breather
system LAR V or its follower, LAR V advanced is used.
As four divers can be released simultaneously from one torpedo tube, the propulsion vehicle should be
designed in such a way that two such vehicles can be stowed and transported in one tube.
The acoustic signature of the new diver propulsion vehicle should not exceed that of a submarine.
The equipment should be low on maintenance requirements and two people should be able to carry it.
For special operations, cargo transport volume of up to 300 litres should be available for additional
equipment.
The minimum requirements with regard to the navigation system are the standard diving board with
compass, depth sounder and diver’s watch, as used by navy divers. Market research is necessary to
establish suitable optional navigation and communication systems.
The equipment has to be fully operational within a short time (max. 10 minutes).
The widely varying salinity and temperature characteristics found in waters all over the world mean
that the vehicle must have trim adjustment capabilities.
3. Project stages
On the basis of the requirements established by the future users, the WTD 71 project team drew up a
set of technical specifications.
These specifications served as the point of departure for world-wide market research which showed
that none of the vehicles available on the market fulfilled the abovementioned requirements. Thus a
feasibility study was necessary and started in due time.
In the first phase of the project, interested manufacturers were asked to provide a basic concept for a
diver propulsion vehicle based on the specifications. Three of these concepts were selected in an
evaluation conference and awarded option contracts. The first milestone in the option contracts
consisted of the presentation of a detailed concept for a diver propulsion vehicle with hydrodynamic
model tests to verify the calculated energy balance (to establish water flow resistance). These results
led to the next selection procedure. Two of the manufacturers were awarded the contractual option of
building a 1:1 scale demonstrator.
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By the beginning of 2008, the first demonstrators incorporating the basic functions of propulsion and
steering control, electrical power supply and proposed solutions for the necessary folding mechanisms
had been presented. Both demonstrators were tested and evaluated by independent teams of navy test
divers from WTD 71. After these test and evaluation series both manufacturers had the chance to carry
out improvements to the demonstrators. On the basis of the results of two further series of tests, the
demonstrator produced by GABLER was selected as the concept for subsequent work packages.
This demonstrator will now be presented in more detail.
4. Realisation
The company selected to manufacture the diver propulsion vehicle, GABLER Maschinenbau GmbH,
is a medium sized industrial company located in Lübeck, Germany, which has an excellent reputation
as the builder of underwater components and systems, and is market leader in hoistable masts for
conventional submarines. The development of the diver propulsion vehicle began for GABLER at the
end of 2007 when the company participated in the competition launched by WTD 71 to design an
overall concept for the vehicle. After the concept presented by GABLER had been selected in
preference to a number of other competitors, as indicated previously the following year the company
was awarded the next phase to develop a demonstrator. This phase consisted primarily of finding
workable solutions to the aspects considered to constitute the highest development risk, and to show
that they had been successfully solved by the corresponding tests. Further development of the vehicle
into a fully functional demonstrator is now continuing, as ordered by WTD 71. The development and
testing of this demonstrator incorporating important basic functions will be concluded by the end of
this year. Parallel to this, GABLER is already investigating further equipment variations, which open
out a whole new range of underwater transport vehicles with additional or alternative functionalities.
In realising the diver propulsion vehicle, the mentioned specifications had to be complied with. The
most prominent challenge was to reconcile the apparently contradictory requirements of stowing and
transporting two vehicles in one torpedo tube while also providing comfortable space for two divers
per vehicle. The vehicle had to effectively protect the divers from water flow during transit, which is
why the solution adopted envisaged a completely closed casing. Whereas a fully equipped diver can
barely squeeze through the 533 mm inner diameter of a torpedo tube – there can certainly be no
mention of comfort – this was to be the maximum limit of the outer dimensions of the vehicle in
transport condition. The torpedo tube is 6.8 m long, which allows each of the two vehicles to be
transported just 3.4 m in length.
A solution therefore had to be found that enabled the diver propulsion vehicle to be increased both in
length and diameter from transport condition to operational condition. This solution was found by way
of the combination of telescoping and folding the casing. To ensure full integration in a submarine
torpedo tube, the fully compacted diver propulsion vehicle has a clearance diameter of 533 mm. In
transport condition it is max. 3.4 m long, so that two vehicles can be stowed inside one torpedo tube.
264
Once extended and unfolded ready for operation, the vehicle is 5 m long and has an interior diameter
of approx. 700 mm, allowing two divers to be accommodated in relative comfort even over lengthy
periods of time (Fig. 2).
The vehicle can easily be transformed into its fully operational state by two divers in the water, in
considerably less time than the limit set in the specifications. The telescoped vehicle is manually
extended in length and the side walls, folded inside during transport, are unfolded. When the divers
have entered the vehicle, the side walls are closed and locked from inside, and once the electronic
steering and control systems have been activated the vehicle can set off immediately. To comply with
safety requirements, the locked walls can be rapidly opened while in operation, so that the divers can
leave the vehicle without delay at any time.
265
action, for example by sharing his breathing apparatus, steering the vehicle to the surface or leaving
the vehicle together with his partner to regain the water surface.
By lying head-to-head, both divers have access to the control console in the centre of the vehicle, so
that each of them is capable of driving the vehicle. This may be an advantage on longer journeys as the
divers can relieve each other, reducing the length of time each one has to concentrate and increasing
recuperation time (Fig. 3).
Fig. 3. Different location possibilities for the divers in the diver propulsion vehicle
However, the concept of the diver propulsion vehicle designed by GABLER is flexible enough to
allow for a different positioning of the divers inside the vehicle. As an alternative to the already
described head-to-head location, both divers can lie in the direction of forward motion. This
orientation may be more agreeable than driving backwards. This is made possible by moving the
control console into the bows of the vehicle. However, only the person lying forward can then drive
the vehicle, and constant mutual observation of the two divers through direct visual contact is no
longer provided. Depending on the users’ preference, the vehicle can be pre-configured with regard to
diver location, or the console can be moved relatively easily. The different diver locations within the
vehicle are being evaluated in the course of further practical tests together with WTD 71.
6. Lightweight construction
The basic concept of the diver propulsion vehicle allows for operation by two divers. So that they can
handle it alone in every aspect, it has to be light enough for just two people to carry it. This has a
decisive impact on the permitted maximum weight of the system. For this reason, the entire vehicle is
built using lightweight construction methods. The frame and telescope mechanism consist of a
lightweight but robust aluminium construction. The shaped sections of the casing are made of
composite material in sandwich construction. When submerged and flooded, the vehicle has absolutely
neutral buoyancy, while in the air it is light enough for two people to be able to carry it. To adapt it to
different water densities as a result of variations in salinity and temperature, a patented
266
counterbalancing system has been developed which allows the positive or negative buoyancy of the
vehicle to be adjusted.
8. Current work
To keep up with new developments, additional functions for the diver propulsion vehicle are currently
being developed. One of them is the evaluation of navigation modules with improved performance
characteristics to extend the navigation possibilities within the scope of the prescribed diving board. In
addition, existing equipment for underwater communications is being investigated and the possibilities
of integrating it into the diver propulsion vehicle are being studied. This is motivated by the likely
scenario that a squad of four divers is on a mission with two vehicles and the ability of the divers of
267
the two vehicles to communicate with each other could improve operational options. In this context
the possibility of coupling the vehicles is also being investigated.
Another work package already realized concerns the development of a cargo module for carrying
additional equipment up to a volume of 300 litres.
The final trials to establish performance parameters of the demonstrator and a stowage test in a test
torpedo tube for a Class 212A submarine have been done in autumn 2010.
268
10. Conclusions
Basic functions such as the telescoping system, propulsion and control of a diver propulsion vehicle
have been successfully proved in a number of tests and trials with the existing demonstrator. Whereas
the cheap alternative offered by commercially available underwater scooters should be taken into
consideration for missions over short distances that require only minimum additional equipment, the
use of diver propulsion vehicles is recommended when divers are to be transported over greater
distances and/or with additional equipment. Thanks to the strength-conserving method of transport
over longer distances, divers can achieve a considerable increase in their radius of action. The
possibility of also carrying additional cargo or equipment up to a volume of 300 litres extends existing
mission scope and opens new opportunities. In this way, such a system can considerably increase the
range of abilities and mission scope of combat divers.
269
Data Analysis for Conceptual Design Stage of Fishing Vessels
Abstract
System analysis and design plays a serious role in many application domains of engineers before
construction or implementation of a new system because of its costs and operation effectiveness. In order
to do this, in recent years considerable attention has been given in data analysis. The main idea of our
multi-disciplined research between Naval Architecture and Mathematical Engineering is to identify
functional relations between seakeeping characteristics and hull form parameters of Mediterranean fishing
vessels. The seakeeping attributes under investigation are the transfer functions of heave and pitch
motions and of absolute vertical acceleration at stern, while the ship parameters influencing motion
dynamics have been classified into two groups: displacement ( ) and main dimensions ( L , B , T ),
coefficients that define the details of the hull form (CWP, CVP, LCB, LCF, etc.). In this paper, we explain
our data analysis of conceptual design stage for fishing vessels using linear and non-linear multi-
parameters regression analysis and their models for heave, pitch and vertical motions, and then we
introduce a new study of selecting some parameters based on colinearity. From the implemented software
based on SQL-Server Database Management System, computational results are estimated and interpreted.
1. Introduction
System analysis and design should be done in different application domains of engineers in order to
minimize the implementation risks and construction costs. These domains can be summarized in Figure 1.
The development of each system mainly contains five steps which are “Planning”, “Analysis”, “Design”,
“Implementation” and “Maintenance”. “Analysis” and “Design” have been described as the heart of the
system development researchers that has given in Figure 2 below. The researches put forward that a
comprehensive systems engineering process is required that provide an anticipated equipment phase-out
period and consider service disposal periods in the design and life cycle cost impact (Blanchard and
Fabrycky 2011; Hoffer et al. 2011).
271
Fig.1. Application Domains of Systems Engineering
Planning
Maintenance Analysis
Implementation Design
In this paper, our data analysis research for the seakeeping performance of a group of fishing vessels
refers the conceptual design stage. Taking into account real seaway conditions seakeeping quality is a
fundamental design requirement that severe motions and accelerations degrade task force and ship safety.
We introduce our research for selecting some parameters based on co-linearity using our implemented
272
software system based on SQL-Server Database Management System; especially multiple regression
analysis, the stepwise regression analysis and standardized regression coefficients. In Section 2, the data
analysis is given. In Section 3, our data analysis software system for conceptual design stage of fishing
vessels is introduced. The final section contains our conclusions.
2. Data Analysis
A product life cycle of the system analysis and design in the domains including Marine Systems can be
seen in two phases such as “Acquisition Phase” and “Utilization Phase”. It can be seen from Figure 3 that
“Conceptual Design Stage (CDS)” is the first part of the acquisition phase, and then the following part
starts that is called as “Preliminary Design Stage”. CDS has been defined in several sub-parts which are
shown in Figure 4.
UTILIZATION
ACQUISITION PHASE
PHASE
HESE
N
Conceptual / Detail Production Product Use,
E
Preliminary Design and and/or Support, Phase-
E
Design Development Construction out, and Disposal
D
ary Design
Definition of Need
Conceptual Design
Feasibility study
Needs identification
System Planning
Functional Analysis
System operational
requirements
Maintenance and
support concept
Performance measures
System trade studies
Research/Technologies
273
Concept design stage constitutes the most delicate design stage among the other stages since the critical
assumptions and decisions are accomplished there. The greatest impact on ship’s overall economic
efficiency are made during the conceptual design stage. Ship concept design accounts more than 80
percent of the ship value, hence an optimal design has a great impact in ship whole life cycle (Jiang and
Yu, 2011; Trincas, 2006).
Considering the seakeeping assessment problem for the concept design level of fishing vessels one can
find several methods proposed. It is ascertained that rational consideration of potential seakeeping
behaviour from the real beginning of the design process is economically sound. They are based either on
direct computations over pre-designed hull forms, or they rely on results from systematic series analysis.
Since the seakeeping ability of a fishing vessel drives the effectiveness of the fishermen and the
operability of the fishing systems in rough weather, the present analysis has been carried out with the main
scope of investigating the effect of different hull forms and loading conditions on ship motions and
vertical accelerations on board. In this respect, the papers in (Sayli et al., 2007; Sayli et al. 2010) represent
a natural extension and completion of previous contributions (Trincas et al., 2001; Nabergoj et al., 2003).
Our design database in this paper contains the same hull form database and the seakeeping database in
(Sayli et al., 2007; Sayli et al., 2010) in which our announced models were shown in Table 1.
Non-dimensional
Model Description Hull Form Parameters Speed
Ratios
I Simple L/ 1/ 3
, L / B , B /T Fn
II Intermediate L/ 1/ 3
, L / B , B /T CWP, CVP Fn
III Enhanced 1 L/ 1/ 3
, L / B , B /T CWP, CVP, LCF / L , LCB / L Fn
IV Enhanced 2 L/ 1/ 3
, L / B , B /T CWPA, CWPF, CVPA, CVPF Fn
Twelve functions for linear (Sayli et al., 2007) and twelve functions for non-linear (Sayli et al., 2010)
regression analysis and their models for heave, pitch and vertical motions were calculated with their
coefficients and compared with each other.
In this research, we have implemented a system to do linear and non-linear multi-parameters regression
analysis in order to construct their ship motion models for heave, pitch and vertical acceleration, and then
we introduce a new study for selecting some parameters based on co-linearity using the implemented
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software system based on SQL-Server Database Management System. Our main interface of the system
can be seen from Figure 5.
Our system for data analysis uses and is based on mainly multiple regression analysis, the stepwise
regression analysis and standardized regression coefficients from statistics. Computational results of the
system are estimated with/without the elimination of the less related parameters and these result would be
given in detail in the near future research paper after completing the additional experiments.
4. Conclusions
Ships are positioned among the most complex products as shown in Table 2. Current trends require to use
technological engineering methods rather than those of traditional ways. The role of system analysis on
ship concept design is highlighted providing with an application dealing with ship motions. At the
moment, estimated results show that the elimination of the some parametres can be done and possible.
Doing the elimination, the system is more effective and intelligent that in a way to choose which
parameters effects the motions the most. According to the estimated results for now, it can be said that in
the conceptual design stage if the decision has to be made in a short term the simple model can be used;
otherwise the intermediate model can be taken into account.
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Table 2. Complexity of tecnical systems
5. Nomenclature
ITTC Standard Symbols and Terminology is used.
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