Bioenerg. Res.
(2012) 5:86–94
DOI 10.1007/s12155-011-9129-3
Optimizing Sweet Sorghum Production for Biofuel
in the Southeastern USA Through Nitrogen
Fertilization and Top Removal
John E. Erickson & Kenneth R. Woodard &
Lynn E. Sollenberger
Published online: 26 May 2011
# Springer Science+Business Media, LLC. 2011
Abstract Sustainable bioenergy cropping systems require
not only high yields but also efficient use of inputs.
Management practices optimizing production of sweet
sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench] for bioenergy
use are needed. The effects of N rate (45, 90, 135, and
180 kg N ha−1) and top removal (at boot stage, anthesis,
and none) on biomass, brix, estimated sugar yield, and N
and P recovery of sweet sorghum cv. M-81E were
investigated in Florida at two sites differing in soil type.
Across all data, dry biomass yields averaged 17.7 Mg ha−1
and were not affected by N fertilization rate at either site
(P>0.10). Mean brix values ranged from 131 to 151 mg g−1
and were negatively related to N rate. Top removal, either at
boot stage or anthesis, resulted in greater brix values and
13% greater sugar yields at both locations. Whole plant N
recovery was positively and linearly related to N rate and
ranged from 78 to 166 kg N ha−1, approximately two thirds
of which was in leaf and grain tissues. Based on yield and
nutrient recovery responses, optimal nutrient requirements
were 90 to 110 kg N ha−1 and 15 to 20 kg P ha−1. Higher N
fertilization led to greater N recovery, but little to modest
gain in sugar yield. Thus, proper nutrient and harvest
management will be needed to optimize sugar yields of
sweet sorghum for production of biofuels and bio-based
products. Further research is needed to refine management
practices of sweet sorghum for bioenergy production,
especially with regard to the use of leaf and grain tissues.
J. E. Erickson (*) : K. R. Woodard : L. E. Sollenberger
Agronomy Department, University of Florida,
P.O. Box 110500, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
e-mail: jerickson@ufl.edu
Keywords Sweet sorghum N recovery . Sweet sorghum
P recovery . Sweet sorghum biomass partitioning .
Sweet sorghum nutrient partitioning . Bioenergy .
Sweet sorghum ethanol
Introduction
Sweet sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench] is a C4
grass capable of both high biomass and sugar yields [1, 31].
It has received considerable attention in recent years for use
as a biofuel crop [8, 21, 28]. Sweet sorghum offers potential
advantages over other candidate biofuel crops in that it
stores readily fermentable sugars in the stalk that can be
converted to liquid fuels and bio-based products with
current technologies, it is an annual crop that is readily
established from seed and can be incorporated into existing
rotations, it does not compete directly with food or feed,
and it can regrow (ratoon) following harvest where the
climate is favorable. Despite these attractive features of
sweet sorghum, relatively little is known about its produc-
tion for bioenergy use, as it has traditionally been grown on
limited acreage primarily for syrup production. Thus, there
is a need for improved understanding of management
practices on biomass, sugar yields, and nutrient dynamics
for sweet sorghum production.
Sweet sorghum biomass yields have been variable within
and across studies. Wortmann et al. [30] reported dry stalk
yields from 8 to 48 Mg ha−1 across a range of N
fertilization rates, cultivars, and plant populations. Soileau
and Bradford [25] measured dry biomass yields ranging
from 6 to 18 Mg ha−1 across a range of fertilization and
liming treatments. Miller and Ottman [16] reported no
Bioenerg. Res. (2012) 5:86–94 87

effect of irrigation frequencies on sweet sorghum dry matter Materials and Methods
yields, which ranged from 20 to 31 Mg ha−1. In addition,
sweet sorghum biomass yields were found to be similar Experimental Site and Design
across a wide range of seeding densities or plant populations
[15, 30]. However, as plant populations increased, brix, A replicated field experiment was conducted at two sites in
sucrose, and yield of sugar per ton of stalks decreased [4] Florida in 2010. One study was conducted at the University
and lodging increased. of Florida Plant Science Research and Education Unit
Although sweet sorghum uses less water and N than located at Citra (CIT), Florida (29°24′38″ N, 82°8′30″ W),
corn (Zea mays L.) for similar ethanol yields [7, 12], very on a very deep, excessively drained fine Candler sand
few studies have examined the effects of N fertilization on (Hyperthermic, uncoated Lamellic Quartzipsamments). The
sweet sorghum biomass and especially brix and/or sugar previous crop was sorghum followed by winter fallow. A
yields. Sweet sorghum biomass yields increased over soil analysis conducted before the study showed that soil P
twofold compared to unfertilized control plots with the was high for crop production (Table 1). The same study was
application of 100 kg N ha−1 in Louisiana [20]. Tamang et al. repeated at another site located in Live Oak (LO), Florida
[26] evaluated N fertilization rates from 0 to 168 kg N ha−1 (30°18′13″ N, 82°53′47″ W) on deep somewhat poorly
on four sorghums (including two sweet sorghums) and drained Chipley (Thermic, coated Aquic Quartzipsamments),
reported an optimum N rate of 108 kg N ha−1, consistent Albany (Loamy, siliceous, subactive, thermic Aquic Arenic
with N uptake rates between 94 and 105 kg N ha−1 in the Paleudults), and Hurricane sands (Sandy, siliceous, thermic
two sweet sorghums. Wortmann et al. [30] found no effect of Oxyaquic Alorthods). The previous crop was sorghum
N rate (from 0 to 80 kg ha−1) on sweet sorghum biomass or followed by winter rye (Secale cereale L.) cover crop. A
sugar yields in six out of seven site-years under dryland soil analysis was done at the beginning of the study and
production in Nebraska. Interestingly, Wiendenfeld [29] showed that soil P was high for crop production (Table 1).
reported a decrease in juice brix values with increased N Weather data were collected at each of the sites as part of the
fertilization rates. Florida Automated Weather Network.
In addition to fertility, top removal prior to pollination The trials at each site consisted of a balanced split-plot
and grain filling may affect sugar yields of sweet sorghum, design with the whole plots arranged in a randomized
as the photosynthates that would be used for grain complete-block design. The treatments consisted of N
formation can be stored as sugars in the juice of the plant.
Although data are limited to support this hypothesis, brix
values have been reported to be higher in sweet sorghum Table 1 Soil analysis (0 to 15 cm) from the sites at Citra and Live
deheaded before grain formation [5] and, more recently, in Oak, Florida
male-sterile sweet sorghum lines compared to male-fertile Property Location
lines [18]. Thus, male sterility may have the potential to
increase sugar yields of sweet sorghum, but it may also be CIT LO
susceptible to sorghum ergot caused by Claviceps africana
Soil analysis data
Frederikson, Mantle, and De Millianan, which has the
pH 5.9 6.0
potential to quickly cause significant sugar yield loss [2].
SOM (g kg−1) 11.2 11.1
Top removal at or prior to flowering, however, would
P (mg P kg−1) 40.0H 49.5H
minimize the possibility of ergot infection and subsequent
K (mg K kg−1) 16.5VL 56.3M
yield loss.
Ca (mg Ca kg−1) 311 480
The objectives of this research were, therefore, to
Mg (mg Mg kg−1) 56.5H 35.8H
evaluate the effects of N fertilization, top removal and
their interaction on biomass partitioning, yield, and sugar Phenological stage
accumulation of sweet sorghum grown on sandy soils in Planting date 2 April 12 April
a humid sub-tropical environment. Furthermore, we Boot stage 8 July 19 July
measured N and P recovery and partitioning among Anthesis 17 July 29 July
plants that did not experience top removal to help Milk stage 28 July 4 August
develop N and P management guidelines for sweet Soft dough (harvest) 2 August 10 August
sorghum production on marginal soils in the region and
Data represent pH, soil organic matter (SOM), and Mehlich-1 P, K,
to gain a better understanding of N and P distribution Ca, Mg, and phenological stage. Letters represent soil test ratings and
within the plant at harvest. indicate very low (VL), medium (M), and high (H) soil levels [17]
88
fertilization rates, which were 45, 90, 135 and 180 kg N ha-1
(referred to hereafter as 45N, 90N, 135N, and 180N,
respectively), and top removal, which was done at boot
stage, anthesis, or not removed. The N rate treatment was
applied to seven-row main plots, and the inner three rows of
each main plot served as subplots to which the top removal
treatment was randomly assigned. The treatments were
replicated four times at each site.
Cultural Practices and Experimental Treatments
The cultural practices were similar at each site. Following
cultivation, M-81E sweet sorghum seed (MAFES Founda-
tion Seed Stocks, MS State, MS) was planted in rows at
0.76-m row spacing and a within-row spacing of about
8 cm. M-81E is a relatively late maturing cultivar that was
developed in Mississippi for use as a potential bioenergy
crop [3]. Each main plot consisted of seven rows that were
7 m long. The plots were sown on 2 April at CIT and 13
April at LO and monitored weekly for crop phenology
(Table 1). Liquid fertilizer (11-37-0) was applied at planting
in furrow at a rate of about 14 kg N and 47 kg P2O5 ha−1
along with a systemic insecticide–nematicide (Terbufos: S
[[(1,1-dimethylethyl)thio]methyl]0,0-diethyl phosphorodi-
thioate) at a rate of 9.4 kg ha−1. All weeds were removed
mechanically, and no herbicides were used throughout the
study. Irrigation was only applied as needed at sign of
visual stress (leaf rolling).
Approximately 6 weeks after planting (5–6-leaf stage),
the remainder of N needed for the fertilization treatments
was applied. Standard grade sulfate of ammonia (21-0-0)
and muriate of potash (0-0-62) fertilizers (Growers Fertil-
izer Corporation, Lake Alfred, FL) were uniformly applied
(side dressed) by hand to each of the rows. Given the
relatively low soil test results for potassium (Table 1), it
was applied separately but at the same time in a 1:1 ratio
(N/K) for each of the plots. Following fertilizer application,
the plots were irrigated (approx. 10 mm) to minimize
volatilization.
Once the crop reached boot stage (head enclosed in
swollen flag leaf sheath), the top of the plant was cut
with garden shears just above the leaf below the flag leaf
for the subplots randomly designated for top removal at
boot stage. At anthesis, approximately 10 days after boot
stage, the top of the plant was cut with garden shears just
above the leaf below the flag leaf for the subplots
randomly designated for top removal at anthesis stage.
After top removal, the heads were discarded and were
not included in further analyses. No top removal
occurred until harvest (see below) for the subplots
designated for no removal.
Bioenerg. Res. (2012) 5:86–94
Experimental Procedures
When plants in the no removal rows reached soft dough
stage, which is optimal for sugar recovery [27], all plots
were harvested. A 4-m segment of each of the subplot rows
in each plot was cut to a 7.5-cm stubble and weighed fresh
in the field. A subsample of eight plants was then collected
and weighed fresh in the field. The subsample was then
partitioned into leaves, stems, and panicles plus grain (grain
heads) where present. These partitioned samples were
weighed fresh in the field. The stems were pressed at
12.4 MPa of pressure twice in a grooved, two-roller mill
powered by a 1.5-HP electric motor, and the expressed
juice and remaining bagasse were collected. The bagasse
was weighed and oven-dried at 60°C along with the leaves
and grain heads. The volume and weight of juice from each
of the eight-stem subsamples were recorded. Juice extrac-
tion efficiency was about 45% (juice weight/stem fresh
weight), and no differences in extraction efficiency were
found across treatments. The juice was then mixed
thoroughly and three 20-mL subsamples were collected
for brix (grams per kilogram) measurements using a
portable refractometer (ATAGO PAL-1, ATAGO U.S.A.,
Inc., Bellevue, WA).
Leaf, bagasse, and grain head samples were dried to a
constant weight, which was recorded to determine dry
matter percentage and dry matter yields. To look at effects
of N fertilization rate on N and P recovery, we analyzed the
partitioned tissue and juice samples of the plants that did
not experience top removal for N and P concentration. Dry
samples of these plants were run through a commercial
chipper–shredder (DEK, Model CH1) and subsampled, and
the subsamples were further ground with a Thomas-Wiley
mill (Thomas Scientific, Swedesboro, NJ) to pass through a
1-mm screen. The ground tissue samples and the juice were
then digested [6] and analyzed for total N and P using
semiautomated colorimetry [9]. Nitrogen and P recovery
rates were calculated based on the tissue dry matter yields
and the concentration of N and P in the respective tissues.
Estimated sugar yields were calculated based on several
assumptions regarding juice and sugar recovery. First, since
commercial sugar mills are able to recover close to all of
the soluble sugars through countercurrent washing, we
assumed that stem moisture concentration (approx. 75% of
stem fresh weight) was equal to theoretical juice recovery
and that the brix of the theoretical juice was equivalent to
the brix values we measured on actual expressed juice
samples. Second, we assumed that 75% of brix measure-
ments were sugars [26, 30]. While these assumptions may
only approximate actual sugar yields, they allow for
examination of treatment effects on sugar yields that reflect
Bioenerg. Res. (2012) 5:86–94 89

both biomass and brix (i.e., higher sugar yields can be between tissue N recovery and N fertilization rate. All
achieved through higher biomass yields and/or higher brix treatment effects were considered significant if P≤0.10.
values).

Statistical Analysis Results

Statistical analyses were performed using analysis of variance
procedures in the GLIMMIX procedure of SAS [22]. The
Gaussian (normal) conditional distribution and the identity
link function were used. Residuals from each model fit were
checked for normality graphically and numerically with the
Shapiro–Wilk W test. While treatment effects at the two sites
were generally similar, we analyzed the data from the two
sites separately due to the relatively large difference in
overall yield between the sites. For biomass, brix, and sugar
yields, fertilizer N application rate and top removal and their
interaction were considered as fixed effects and block and
block by N rate were treated as random effects. For N and P
related data, fertilizer N application rate was considered as a
fixed effect and block was treated as a random effect.
Degrees of freedom were determined using the Kenward–
Roger method. Pairwise comparisons were made using the
LSMEANS statement with the Tukey method. Polynomial
contrasts were used to evaluate the linear and quadratic
effects of N fertilization rate. Ordinary least squares
regression procedures were used to analyze relations
Climatic and Phenological Data
From sowing date to harvest at soft dough stage was about
122 days for M-81E at each of the sites (Table 1). Average
daily air temperature at 2 m was 25.7°C and 25.3°C at CIT
and LO, respectively, during their growth periods. Rainfall
during the production cycle was greater at CIT (448 mm)
compared to LO (331 mm), but the frequency of precipi-
tation was greater at LO, occurring over 31 days compared
to only 22 days at CIT. Along with greater frequency of
precipitation, average daily radiation intensity was reduced
at LO (227 Wm−2) compared to CIT (243 Wm−2).
Biomass and Sugar Yields
Across all treatments, green biomass yields averaged
63.1 Mg ha−1 at CIT and 86.0 Mg ha−1 at LO. Green
biomass yields were affected by N rate at both sites, and the
linear effect was significant at LO and CIT, but the quadratic
effect was only significant at CIT (Table 2). Green yields

Table 2 Treatment means (n=4) and analysis of variance results for green biomass yield, dry biomass yield, brix, and estimated sugar yield of M-
81E sweet sorghum at two locations (CIT and LO) in Florida

Treatment Citra (CIT) Live Oak (LO)

Green yield Dry yield Brix Sugar yield Green yield Dry yield Brix Sugar yield
(Mg ha−1) (Mg ha−1) (mg g−1) (kg ha−1) (Mg ha−1) (Mg ha−1) (mg g−1) (kg ha−1)

N rate (kg ha−1)

45 57.0b 15.0a 146a 4,240a 73.2c 17.8a 145a 5,820a
90 63.1ab 15.3a 140a 4,710a 89.9ab 21.2a 145a 7,040a
135 67.9a 16.3a 140a 5,020a 81.5bc 19.1a 143ab 6,350a
180 64.4a 15.2a 139a 4,800a 97.9a 21.8a 139b 7,340a
Na <0.01 0.55 0.53 0.16 <0.01 0.24 0.02 0.19
Lb <0.01 0.62 0.21 0.07 <0.01 0.15 <0.01 0.10
Qb 0.02 0.30 0.52 0.16 0.97 0.81 0.16 0.82
Top removal (T)
Boot 62.5a 15.0b 145a 4,870a 85.9a 19.6b 146a 7,000a
Anthesis 62.3a 14.9b 142a 4,880a 84.2a 19.3b 147a 6,835a
None 64.5a 16.5a 136b 4,320b 87.9a 21.0a 136b 6,080b
Ta 0.26 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.35 0.01 <0.01 <0.01
N×Ta 0.36 0.60 0.38 0.24 0.96 0.75 0.52 0.99

Treatments include N fertilization rate (45, 90, 135, and 180 kg ha−1 ) and top removal at boot stage, anthesis, or no removal. Mean values
followed by a different letter within a column and within a factor are significantly different at the P≤0.10 level
a
P values for the effects N fertilization rate (N), top removal (T), and their interaction in the ANOVA analyses
b
P values for the linear (L) and quadratic (Q) polynomial contrasts for the effect of N rate
90
were lowest for the 45N treatment at both CIT and LO,
whereas green yields were greatest for the 135N treatment at
CIT and for the 180N treatment at LO. Although green
biomass yields were affected by N rate, total dry biomass
yields were not affected by N rate (Table 2). Across all
treatments, juice brix values averaged 141 mg g−1 at CIT and
143 mg g−1 at LO. While there was a trend towards
decreasing brix values with increasing N rate at both sites,
a significant negative linear relationship between brix and N
rate was found only at LO (Table 2). Because of the opposite
trends in biomass and brix with N fertilization rate, only a
modest positive linear effect of N fertilization on estimated
sugar yields was seen at either site in the study (Table 2).
Green biomass yields were not affected by top removal
(Table 2). However, not removing the tops resulted in
higher dry biomass yields at both sites (Table 2). Moreover,
top removal at either boot stage or anthesis resulted in
greater stem and leaf dry biomass compared to plants that
did not experience top removal (Fig. 1). Accordingly, juice
brix values were greater in plants that experienced top
removal compared to those whose tops were not removed at
Fig. 1 Biomass partitioning among stem, leaf, and grain head as
influenced by N fertilization rate (45, 90, 135, and 180 kg N ha−1) and
top removal at boot stage, anthesis stage, or no removal. Partitioned
biomass bars within a site and tissue type not containing the same
letter are different (P≤0.10)
Bioenerg. Res. (2012) 5:86–94
both CIT and LO (Table 2). Thus, despite differences in dry
biomass yield across the sites, estimated sugar yields from
juice were about 13% greater at both CIT and LO when the
tops were removed, regardless of whether tops were
removed at boot stage or anthesis (Table 2).
Nitrogen and Phosphorus Recovery
Across all N rates for plants that did not experience top
removal, tissue N concentrations at CIT averaged 14.6,
11.1, and 4.03 mg N g−1 in grain head, leaf, and stem
tissues, respectively, and 13.3, 15.0, and 3.15 mg N g−1 at
LO in grain head, leaf, and stem tissues, respectively
(Table 3). Thus, tissue N concentrations were similar in leaf
and grain heads in our study but were about three- to
fourfold less in stem. Despite no differences in dry matter
yields with N fertilization rates at either CIT or LO
(Table 2), total N recovery increased linearly with N
fertilization rate at both locations (Fig. 2; Table 4).
Consequently, differences in total N recovery among the
N rate treatments were primarily due to differences in leaf
and stem N concentrations, which increased linearly with N
fertilization, while grain head N concentrations remained
similar across treatments (Table 3). As for the components
of stem N, there were greater N concentrations in bagasse
and extracted juice in the plants that received greater N
fertilization (Table 3). Therefore, N recovery by stem and
leaf increased linearly with increasing N fertilization at both
locations, while N recovery by grain heads was unaffected
by N rate (Fig. 2; Table 4).
For plants that did not experience top removal, tissue P
concentrations at CIT averaged 2.41 and 1.53 mg P g−1 in
grain head and leaf, respectively, and 2.19 and 1.56 mg
P g−1 at LO in grain head and leaf, respectively (data not
shown). These concentrations were not affected by N rate
(P≥0.36) at either site (Table 5). Across all N rates, stem P
concentrations averaged 0.55 mg P g−1 at CIT and 0.43 mg
P g−1 at LO. Stem, bagasse, and juice P concentrations were
linearly and negatively related to N fertilization rate
(Table 5). Thus, P concentrations were greatest in grain
heads, intermediate in leaves, and four- to fivefold less in
stem. Total P recovery averaged 15.8 kg P ha−1 at CIT and
17.5 kg P ha−1 at LO (data not shown) and did not differ by
N rate (Table 5).
Discussion
The primary objective of the current study was to evaluate
the effects of N fertilization rate and top removal on sweet
sorghum biomass yield, biomass partitioning, brix, estimated
sugar yields, and N and P recovery and partitioning. We found
that top removal, either at boot stage or anthesis, resulted in
Bioenerg. Res. (2012) 5:86–94 91

Table 3 Nitrogen (N) concentration in grain, leaf, stem, bagasse, and extracted juice as affected by N fertilization rate (45, 90, 135, and
180 kg ha−1) of M-81E sweet sorghum grown at Citra and Live Oak, Florida

Grain head N (mg g−1) Leaf N (mg g−1) Stem N (mg g−1) Bagasse N (mg g−1) Juice N (mg L−1)

CIT (N rate)
45 13.4a 8.43c 2.17c 2.35c 206c
90 14.4a 9.56bc 3.13bc 3.19bc 410bc
135 16.2a 12.0ab 4.44b 4.42b 628b
180 14.5a 14.4a 6.38a 6.19a 970a
Na 0.16 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01
Lb 0.15 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01
Qb 0.11 0.52 0.27 0.24 0.41
LO (N rate)
45 12.5b 14.0ab 2.61b 2.70b 334b
90 12.9ab 13.4b 2.70b 2.81b 338b
135 14.1a 15.2ab 3.62a 3.63a 487a
180 13.8a 17.5a 3.65a 3.61a 465a
Na 0.02 0.06 0.03 0.04 0.01
Lb <0.01 0.02 <0.01 0.01 <0.01
Qb 0.29 0.16 0.92 0.78 0.69

Data represent mean values (n=4). Mean values followed by a different letter within a column and within a site are significantly different at the
P≤0.10 level
a
P values for the N rate effect in the ANOVA analyses
b
P values for the linear (L) and quadratic (Q) contrasts for the effect of N rate

greater brix values and greater estimated sugar yields at
both locations. There was only a modest linear effect of
N fertilization (45–180 kg N ha−1) on estimated sugar
yields at either location. However, patterns of nutrient
recovery indicated that fertilizer N application rates of
90–110 kg N ha −1 would be needed for sustained
production of high sugar yields. Notably, we found no
interaction between top removal and N fertilization on
biomass, brix, or estimated sugar yields. Excess N
fertilization resulted in greater N recovery by the crop,
but not always in greater estimated sugar yields, and in
fact may even result in reduced brix in the juice.
Top Removal Effects on Biomass and Sugar Yields
Top removal did not reduce stem and leaf biomass
harvested, but resulted in increased brix values (about
10 mg g−1 higher), that led to 13% greater estimated sugar
recovery from sweet sorghum stems compared with
those with no top removal. These findings were the
same across all N rates and were found at both sites,
despite site differences in biomass yield. Our findings
were consistent with those of Broadhead [5], who
reported brix values to be about 8 mg g−1 higher in sweet
sorghum deheaded before grain formation. Male-sterile
lines have also been reported to have higher brix
concentrations (about 5 mg g−1) than male-fertile sweet
sorghum lines [18]. Greater sugar accumulation in the
stem associated with sterility and top removal has been
attributed to changes in patterns of assimilate partitioning
with the stem becoming the predominant alternative
sink [14].
Although sterile lines would generally be preferred to
top removal, sorghum ergot disease, which has been
reported in the southeastern USA, only attacks unfertil-
ized ovaries [2]. Thus, male-sterile sorghum plants are
likely to exhibit increased susceptibility to this disease,
whereas top removal would minimize occurrence of ergot
even in susceptible sorghum varieties. While top removal
could lead to increased sugar yields and reduced inci-
dence of some pathogens, the feasibility of top removal
requires further study, as it will depend on cost and/or the
process(es) employed for conversion to liquid fuels/
energy. Currently, machinery exists for detasseling corn
and could presumably be adapted to sorghum. In the
present study, grain heads were not evaluated for their
potential energy contribution, but they could be used for
combustion or conversion of starch to liquid fuels. At
present, it is not clear whether greater sugars in the stem
following top removal or reduced sugars in the stem and
collection and use of the grain head would be more
desirable.
92 Bioenerg. Res. (2012) 5:86–94

was the contribution of residual soil N to the crop. Despite

Fig. 2 Relations between N recovery (kilograms of nitrogen per
hectare) and fertilization rate (45, 90, 135, and 180 kg N ha-1) by
biomass component for the plots that received no top removal at CIT
and LO, Florida. Linear regression lines for stem (solid), leaf (short
dash), grain head (dotted), and total (long dash) biomass shown here,
and corresponding regression equations and statistics can be found in
Table 4
applying only 45 kg N ha−1 to our lowest N treatment, we
observed N recovery values in aboveground tissues of
about 78 and 104 kg N ha−1 at CIT and LO, respectively
(data not shown). This indicated that residual soil N supplied at
least 30 to 60 kg N ha−1 to the 45N treatment. The residual
soil N recovery seen in the study was greater than is typical
for sandy soils in the region and would not be expected to be
this high on a continual basis in a sorghum–fallow rotation.
For example, N recovery in sweet corn at the CIT site in a
sweet corn-fallow system recovered only 17 kg N ha−1 under
no fertilization [32]. The relatively high values in the present
study could be due to long-term sod production before 2 years
of sorghum at CIT and to the rye cover crop used at LO.
Although only a modest linear effect of N rate on
estimated sugar yields was found at either location, the N
recovery data clearly indicated that 45N was inadequate for
sustained production of relatively high sugar yields.
Minimum N recovery was about 80 kg N ha−1, and
maximum N recovery was about 166 kg N ha−1. Han et
al. [10] also reported similar N recovery (172 kg N ha−1) for
M-81E at a single high N fertilization rate of 155 kg N ha−1.
Given the biomass and sugar yield data and the N recovery
data, optimal N fertilization rates with whole plant
removal for sustainable production were between 90
and 110 kg N ha−1. Although N recovery continued to
increase above these rates (Fig. 2), there was no clear
benefit for biomass or estimated sugar yields. These
findings are consistent with optimum N requirements of
101 to 108 kg N ha−1 reported for sweet sorghum in the
southern high plains region of the USA [26].

N Fertilization Effects on Biomass, Brix, Sugar,

Table 4 Regression results for N recovery in stem, leaf, grain, and
and Nutrient Recoveries total plant biomass versus N fertilization rate data presented in Fig. 2
for M-81E sweet sorghum grown at Citra and Live Oak, Florida
Although N fertilization affected biomass yields and brix
values in some cases, these effects went in opposite Regression equation r2 P valuea Qb
directions (i.e., green yields increased and brix decreased CIT
with N fertilization rate), resulting in only a modest linear Stem y ¼ 0:328x þ 7:58c 0.84 <0.01 0.96
effect of N fertilization (45–180 kg N ha−1) on estimated Leaf y ¼ 0:133x þ 15:0 0.66 <0.01 0.95
sugar yields at either location. Wortmann et al. [30] also y ¼ 0:034x þ 32:6
Grain head 0.02 0.61 0.52
reported little effect of N fertilization (from 0 to 80 kg ha−1) y ¼ 0:476x þ 55:3
Total 0.73 <0.01 0.93
on sweet sorghum biomass or sugar yields in six out of
LO
seven site-years. Their study was under rainfed conditions
Stem y ¼ 0:198x þ 24:9 0.53 <0.01 0.84
on better soils, and the site-year where a response to N was
Leaf y ¼ 0:139x þ 31:8 0.42 <0.01 0.46
observed coincided with their highest yields. Thus, we
Grain head y ¼ 0:099x þ 26:7 0.17 0.12 0.96
expected a greater response to N under irrigated production
Total y ¼ 0:442x þ 82:1 0.52 <0.01 0.69
on relatively N-deficient sandy soils. The modest response
of sugar yields to N fertilization rate was likely attributable a
P values indicating linear regression significance
to several factors. First, was the fact that as biomass tended b
P values for the quadratic (Q) contrast for the effect of N rate
to increase with N fertilization, brix values tended to c
Linear regression equations for data in Fig. 2, where y represents N
decline [29]. Second, and most likely the biggest factor, recovery and x represents N fertilization rate
Bioenerg. Res. (2012) 5:86–94 93

Table 5 Phosphorus (P) concentration in grain, leaf, stem, bagasse, and extracted juice, as well as total P recovery as affected by N fertilization
rate (45, 90, 135, and 180 kg ha−1) of M-81E sweet sorghum grown at Citra and Live Oak, Florida

Grain Head P (mg g−1) Leaf P (mg g−1) Stem P (mg g−1) Bagasse P (mg g−1) Juice P (mg L−1) P recovery (kg ha−1)

CIT (N rate)
45 2.37a 1.65a 0.63a 0.65a 78.1a 16.8a
90 2.41a 1.39a 0.51a 0.51a 67.8ab 15.1a
135 2.45a 1.41a 0.56a 0.59a 67.6ab 16.1a
180 2.40a 1.67a 0.48a 0.51a 56.2b 15.3a
Na 0.99 0.49 0.11 0.20 0.12 0.68
Lb 0.87 0.93 0.06 0.14 0.03 0.49
Qb 0.82 0.14 0.55 0.55 0.93 0.73
LO (N rate)
45 2.32a 1.65a 0.59a 0.55a 97.0a 18.0a
90 2.14a 1.38a 0.39b 0.38ab 57.2b 17.2a
135 2.20a 1.63a 0.42b 0.41ab 57.7b 16.6a
180 2.10a 1.59a 0.36b 0.36b 47.8b 18.3a
Na 0.57 0.36 0.01 0.06 <0.01 0.86
Lb 0.26 0.90 <0.01 0.02 <0.01 0.95
Qb 0.72 0.35 0.11 0.23 0.03 0.46

Data represent mean values (n=4). Mean values followed by a different letter within a column and within a site are significantly different at the
P≤0.10 level
a
P values for the overall N rate effect in the ANOVA analyses
b
P values for the linear (L) and quadratic (Q) polynomial contrasts for the effect of N rate within site

At the 90N rate, where biomass and sugar yields were
close to optimum in this study and N recovery was
minimum, N recovered in the stem, leaf, and grain was
35%, 31%, and 34%, respectively, of total N recovery (data
not shown). Thus, despite stems representing 70% of dry
biomass, they represented only about 35% of N recovery at
optimal fertilization, whereas leaves and grain heads, which
only represented about 15% of dry biomass each, repre-
sented over 30% each of N recovery. However, at the 180N
rate, N recovery by the stems as a fraction of total N
recovery (42%) increased substantially, mostly as a result of
less total N going to grain. This has implications for using
total aboveground biomass for energy conversion as
opposed to the grain alone as is currently the case with
corn ethanol [11, 24]. If total aboveground biomass is
harvested and utilized, our results indicated that it will be
critical to achieve optimum N fertility, as excess N
application will result in inefficiencies associated with
greater N uptake and recovery without a concomitant
increase in sugar yields. It has been reported that N
fertilization might represent up to 50% of the energetic
input into a crop [13, 19]; thus, it will be critical for
bioenergy crops to achieve maximal yields with optimal/
minimal N inputs.
In addition to N fertilization, our results indicated the
need for about 17 kg P ha−1 for sustainable sweet sorghum
production, assuming harvest and removal of leaves and
grain heads. Han et al. [10] reported almost twice the P
recovery (33 kg P ha−1) with similar yields seen in our
study for M-81E, which was due to twofold higher
concentrations of P in stem and leaf tissues compared to
the present study. It should be noted that they also applied P
at a twofold higher rate of almost 40 kg P ha−1. For
comparison, long-term studies on corn for grain production
in the Great Plains reported optimal corn yields with about
180 kg N ha−1 and 20 kg P ha−1 [23]
Conclusions
Despite differences in biomass and sugar yields attributable
to site, the results from these studies were consistent and
general conclusions were warranted. First, the study
supported top removal, either at boot stage or anthesis,
for maximum sugar yield in the stalk, irrespective of N
fertilization rate. Second, the trends in biomass and sugar
yield data combined with nutrient recoveries indicated
that the optimal N and P requirements for long-term
whole plant harvesting were 90 to 110 kg N ha−1 and
15 to 20 kg P ha−1. Higher N fertilization resulted in
greater N recovery by the crop but not in greater biomass or
estimated sugar yields. Thus, proper nutrient management
94
will be needed to optimize sugar yields of sweet sorghum for
liquid production of biofuels and bio-based products. Further
research is needed on refining management practices of sweet
sorghum for bioenergy production, especially with regard to
the utilization of leaf and grain tissues.
Acknowledgments Financial support for this study was provided by
a USDA Special Grant, the Florida Agricultural Experiment Station, a
Florida Farm to Fuel Grant, and the Florida Energy Systems
Consortium. We are grateful to Andrew Schreffler, Jim Boyer, Jeffrey
Fedenko, Johnathan Holland, Randi Randell, Maninderpal Singh, and
Arkorn Soikaew for laboratory and field support.
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