CHE 510

Lecture 7

Energy and Process

Efficiency

Fall 2020
+
The Energy Variable of the Neutron
Flux
n The fission neutrons are born with energies
in the ~1-MeV range, and that (in thermal
reactors) they are then slowed to thermal
energies (a small fraction of 1 eV). The
range of neutron energies in the reactor is
thus very wide: 6-8 orders of magnitude.

Fall 2020
Three Energy Ranges
n We can subdivide the range of neutron energies
into three broad regions:
n The fission-neutron energies (>~0.5 MeV)
n The thermal range (< ~0.625 eV)
n The slowing-down range (0.5 MeV - 0.625 eV)

[Note that the region boundaries cannot be

considered “sharp”.]

n Let’s look at these 3 regions in turn.

Fall 2020
 The Fission-Neutron-Energy Range
n The“spectrum” (energy
distribution) of fission
neutrons: the energies range
up to several MeV, with a
maximum around 0.7 MeV.
n The fission-neutron spectrum
has the form
c (E ) = 0.453e -1.036 E sinh 2.29 E (1)
Energy Distribution of Fission
where E is in MeV
Neutrons
(Note: this is a distribution in
number of neutrons, not flux)

Fall 2020
The Thermal Energy Range
n In the thermal energy range, the neutrons are in thermal balance with
the medium at temperature T.
n The neutron population then has a Maxwellian (or approximately
Maxwellian) distribution:
n In terms of number of neutrons: E
2 E - kT
n (E ) = e ( 2)
p (kT )
3/ 2

n And in terms of flux: E

E - kT
f (E ) = e (3)
(kT )2

n Room temperature is by convention taken as T = 293.6 K = 20.4 oC,

which gives kT = 0.0253 eV (4)
n kT is the most probable neutron energy in the Maxwellian flux
distribution [Eq. (3)], and the corresponding “thermal neutron” speed
is

v (kT = 0.0253 eV ) = 2200 m / s (5)

Fall 2020
+
Slowing-Down Energy Range
n The slowing-down energy range is the most complicated, in view of its
large size and in view of the very complex scheme of resonances
presented to neutrons by heavy elements (mostly).

n Thus, neutron thermalization, especially when considering neutron

absorption in the resonance range in fuel, can be very difficult to
calculate.

Fall 2020
 Resonances
n However, neutron absorption is not smooth in the fuel, on
account of the myriad of resonances in the energy range
between ~1 eV and ~100 keV.
n In resonances, the absorption cross section increases by
orders of magnitude over a very narrow energy range (or
width). Resonances can be “resolved” (i.e., well
separated) or “non-resolved” (i.e., they are so close that
they seem superimposed).
n At the resonance energy, the neutron flux goes through a
significant dip on account of the very high absorption
cross section.

Fall 2020
Between thorium (Z=90) and bismuth (Z=83), the isotope with the longest
half-life is 226Ra (T½=1600 years), and therefore there are no fuel candidates,
quite apart from the issue of fissionability. Uranium and Thorium are the
only natural elements available for use as reactor fuels. In addition, 233U and
239Pu can be produced from capture on 232Th and 238U in reactors. Of fissile

materials, only U is both fissile and found in nature in useful amounts.

Fall 2020
 232Th
+
104
T 1/2 => 14.05 Gy +/- 60.00 My [4.434E+17s
232
Th +/- 1.893E+15s]
103 SPIN => 0 +
MEAN DECAY ENERGIES (MeV)
102
Baryon => 4.07742 +/- 0.169064
s (barns)

Lepton => 0.0130345 +/- 0.00112065

Photon => 0.00124304 +/- 0.000114618
101 * DECAY MODES:
capture Alpha decay, possibly followed by Gamma
emission
100
Q_value => 4.081 MeV +/- 0.004 MeV
fission Branching => 1 +/- 0
10-1 Fission decay, followed by Gamma emission
Q_value => 169.4 MeV 4.1 MeV Branching
=> 1.4e-11 5e-12
10-2 -3
10 10-2 10-1 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 * NUCLIDE MAT. NUMBER: 9061
The following number of lines are present:
Energy (eV) Gamma: 2 Alpha: 3 Electron: 8 X-rays: 7

T1 2 = 14.05 ´109 yr

232
90 Th + 01n ® 233
90 Th ¾¾¾®
23.3min 233
91 Pa ¾¾¾
27.4day
® 233
92 U

Fall 2020
 233U
+

104
233
U T 1/2 => 159.25 ky +/- 200.00 y [5.026E+12s
103 +/- 6.312E+09s]
SPIN => 5/2 +
102 * MEAN DECAY ENERGIES (MeV)
s (barns)

Baryon => 4.90413 +/- 0.0181258

Lepton => 0.00759652 +/- 0.000610716
101 Photon => 0.00122537 +/- 0.000110582
fission * DECAY MODES:
100 Alpha decay, possibly followed by Gamma
emission
Q_value => 4.9089 MeV +/- 0.0012 MeV
10-1 capture Branching => 1 0
* NUCLIDE MAT. NUMBER: 9234
10-2 -3
The following number of lines are present:
10 10-2 10-1 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 Gamma: 116 Alpha: 37 Electron: 235 X-
rays: 7
Energy (eV)

T1 2 = 159.25 ´103 yr

Fall 2020
 235U
+

104
235 T 1/2 => 703.81 My +/- 500.01 ky [2.221E+16s +/-
U 1.578E+13s]
103 SPIN => 7/2 -
* MEAN DECAY ENERGIES (MeV)
102 Baryon => 4.46298 +/- 0.287321
s (barns)

Lepton => 0.0475365 +/- 0.00378036

fission Photon => 0.167808 +/- 0.00347714
1
10 * DECAY MODES:
Alpha decay, possibly followed by Gamma emission
100
Q_value => 4.679 MeV +/- 0.0025 MeV Branching => 1 0
Fission decay, followed by Gamma emission
capture Q_value => 176.4 MeV +/- 4.6 MeV Branching => 2e-10
-1
10 +/- 1e-10
* NUCLIDE MAT. NUMBER: 9240
The following number of lines are present:
10-2 -3
10 10-2 10-1 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 10 Gamma: 49 Alpha: 17 Electron: 127 X-rays: 7
7

Energy (eV)

T1 2 = 703.81´106 yr

Fall 2020
 238U
+

104
238 T 1/2 => 4.47 Gy +/- 5.00 My [1.410E+17s +/-
U 1.578E+14s]
103
SPIN => 0 +
* MEAN DECAY ENERGIES (MeV)
102 Baryon => 4.25996 +/- 0.236186
s (barns)

capture Lepton => 0.0105454 +/- 0.000870616

Photon => 0.00125402 +/- 0.000119247
101 * DECAY MODES:
Alpha decay, possibly followed by Gamma emission
100 Q_value => 4.2703 MeV +/- 0.0039 MeV Branching =>
0.999999
Fission decay, followed by Gamma emission
10-1 Q_value => 173.6 MeV +/- 3.4 MeV Branching => 5.4e-
fission 07 +/- 2e-08
10 -2 * NUCLIDE MAT. NUMBER: 9249
10-3 10-2 10-1 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 7
10 The following number of lines are present:

Energy (eV) Gamma: 2 Alpha: 3 Electron: 6 X-rays: 2

mg of U
T1 2 = 4.47 ´10 yr 9
3 = 3ppb
tonne Seawater

Fall 2020
 239Pu
+
104 T 1/2 => 24.11 ky +/- 40.00 y [7.609E+11s +/- 1.262E+09s]
fission 239 SPIN => 1/2 +
3
Pu * MEAN DECAY ENERGIES (MeV)
10
Baryon => 5.23678 +/- 0.0389047
Lepton => 0.00738587 +/- 0.000585825
102 capture
s (barns)

Photon => 0.000707559 +/- 6.46626e-05

* DECAY MODES:
Alpha decay, possibly followed by Gamma emission
101
Q_value => 5.2435 MeV +/- 0.0007 MeV
Branching => 0.000115 +/- 2e-06
100 Alpha decay, possibly followed by Gamma emission
Q_value => 5.2434 MeV +/- 0.0007 MeV
Branching => 0.999885 +/- 2e-06
10-1
Fission decay, followed by Gamma emission
Q_value => 184.3 MeV +/- 3.6 MeV
10-2 -3 Branching => 4.4e-12 +/- 4e-13
10 10-2 10-1 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 * NUCLIDE MAT. NUMBER: 9440
Energy (eV) The following number of lines are present:
Gamma: 188 Alpha: 69 Electron: 468 X-rays: 7

T1 2 = 24.11´103 yr

Fall 2020
Enrichment in 235U, a concentration of 3% - 4% is typical in reactors used for
electricity generation, but there is a trend towards higher enrichments and
greater burnup of the fuel. The fuel is solid. For the most part it is in an oxide
form, UO2, but metallic fuel is a possibility and has been used in some
reactors. The fuel usually is in cylindrical pellets with typical dimensions on a
centimeter scale, but some designs for future reactors are based on fuel in
submillimeter microspheres embedded in graphite. The goal here is
enhanced raggedness at high temperatures.

σa and vs U enrichment

Fall 2020
+ σa and h vs U enrichment

Fall 2020
 + initial
Probability of fission2 generation
1 generation st nd 3rd generation
neutrons neutrons neutrons neutrons
A concept that is helpful in the understanding of the likelihood of chain
Fig. 4.7reaction
A chainrealization
reaction iswith
the kprobability of fission,
= 1: Nuclei in greywhich combines
undergo fissionthe
andcon-
produce neutrons.
Neutronscentration of the
that do not various
cause nuclei
fissions are in the fuelby
absorbed with thenuclei
other cross sections. For a fuel
or leak outside the reactor
composed of the isotopes 92U235 and 92U238, such as natural or enriched uranium,
the probability of fission, Pf, is defined by the expression:

c238 r238
f þ c 235 r235
Pf ¼ ! " !f "; ð4:28Þ
c238 r238
f þ r238
c þ ri
238
þ c235 r235f þ r235 235
c þ ri

wherewhere
c denotes the the
c denotes concentration
concentrationofofthe
the corresponding
corresponding nuclei nuclei in bulk
in the the ofbulkthe of the
reactorreactor
fuel and the the
fuel and superscripts
superscriptsininthe
theseveral crosssections
several cross sections denote
denote the pertinent
the pertinent
isotopes of uranium.
isotopes Several
of uranium. values ofofthese
The probability fissioncross
yieldssections are in that
the probability Table 4.3 as well
a given
neutron,
as in Figs. 4.5awhich
and isb.produced in generation
The probability j, will cause
of fission yields a fission reaction and,
the probability thus,
that a given
contribute
neutron, which to is the production
produced of neutrons in
in generation the generation
j, will j + 1. Since
cause a fission there are
reaction and,n thus,
av

such neutrons produced by the nuclei in the fuel, and one neutron is needed to
contribute to the production of neutrons in the generation j + 1. Since there are nav
cause a fission, a chain reaction will be maintained only if the product n * P is av f
such neutrons
greater thanproduced byopposite
one. In the the nuclei
case, in
if nthe* P fuel,
av \ 1, the
f
and one of
number neutron
neutrons is inneeded
the to
cause reactor
a fission,
will adiminish
chain after
reaction
each will be maintained
generation onlywould
and the reactor if thecease
product nav* Pf is
to operate.
greater than one. In the opposite case, if nav* Pf \ 1, the number of neutrons inFallthe 2020
+
Types of Nuclear Reactors

• Generations of Reactors
• Principles of Classification
• Survey of Reactor Types
• Light Water Reactors
• Burners, Converters, and Breeders

Fall 2020
 Reactor Generations

1942-Dec-2 Chicago Pile-1

Fall 2020
The pathways for utilisation of nuclear fuel
+
resources
Nature

Uranium Thorium

Fissile Fertile
238U 232Th

(99.3%)
Conversion in
Reactor
Reprocessing
of Spent Fuel
235U
233U
(0.7%) 239Pu
PHWRs Thorium Fuelled Reactors-
LWRs
FBRs AHWRs, FBRs, HTRs, MSRs
• Thorium cannot straightway be used as nuclear fuel as it has no fissile isotopes.
• Fast Breeder Reactors operating with Plutonium as fuel, produce more Plutonium
Fall 2020
than they consume.
+ Principles of Classification

n Energy spectrum utilized for fission

n Prime purpose

n Fuel

n Coolant

n Coolant system

n Moderator

n Heterogeneity (?)

Fall 2020
+ Heterogeneity
n All reactors used today for power generation are HETEROGENEOUS, i.e. fuel,
coolant and/or moderator are physically different entities with non-uniform and
anisotropic composition.

n The homogeneous reactor, is defined as ”a reactor whose small-scale

composition is uniform and isotropic”.

n ORNL, Homogeneous Reactor Experiment: HRE-1, HRE-2 (1950’s); thermal

breeder, fuel: uranyl sulfate (UO2SO4) in heavy water (D2O). HRE were dropped
→ liquid fuel.

n Molten salt reactor, 235UF4+ThF4, 233UF4. In 1960’s → fast breeder.

n A further homogenous reactor approach, a liquid- metal thermal breeder using

uranium compounds in molten bismuth.

n At present there is no prospect in sight of a major program to develop

homogenous reactors

n molten salt accelerator-driven concept (?) Fall 2020

+Homogeneous Reactor
Experiment

Fall 2020
+ Energy Spectrum Classification

Energy

Thermal (0.5 eV) Intermediate (103 eV) Fast (105 eV)

Power reactors: Spaceship BN350, BN600,

BWR, PWR, VVER, reactors Super Fenix,
RBMK; thermal Naval reactors
breeder,…

Fall 2020
 Purpose

Power Ship Productio Researc Specialize

propulsion n h d

LWR Submarine Plutonium WPR Isolated

PHWR (CANDU) s Navy Tritium TRIGA areas Space
HTGR Aircarrier Studsvik propul. Heat
AGR Icebreaker for chem
LMR s PWR-
LGR (RBMK) cargo
LMFBR
HWLWR
OLR

Fall 2020
 Fuel

UO2 (3-4%) Nat. U UO2 U-Pu-Zr alloy U-Al alloy

sintered pellets spherical part. pellets plates
pellets tubes carbon, silicon steel cladding Al cladding + Al-
zirconium Si
alloy

LWR CANDU HTGR LMR TRIGA

Fall 2020
 Coolant

Light Water Heavy Water Gas Liquid Metal

H2O D2O air, CO2, He Na, Na-K, Pb-Bi

LWR CANDU HTGR LMR

Pebble
bed

Fall 2020
 Moderator

Light Water Heavy Water Graphite

H2O D2O C

LWR CANDU LGR (RBMK)

GCR
HTGR

Fall 2020
1-
loop
BWR

2-
loop
PWR

3-
loop
LMR
Fall 2020
Commonly Accepted Classification
Unat Unat
BWR PWR C+H2O C+Gas

Germa
n HTGR LWR Production
USA Reactors
Specialized
Reactors
Power Nuclear WPR
LMR
Reactors Reactors
Research
Reactors
TRIGA
Ship Propulsion
CANDU AGR Other Reactors
Na

PWR Fast
Pb-Bi

Fall 2020
+ Components of
Conventional Reactors

• Fuel
• Coolant
• Moderator
• Control system (rods)
A main distinction between different types of reactors lies in the
differences in the choices of fuel, coolant, and moderator.

Fall 2020
 Fuels

Natural Elements Artificial Nuclides

90Th (6 ppm) 90U (2 ppm) 233U 239Pu

14.05·109 yr 4.5·109 yr 7·108 yr 24·103 yr

235
238
92 U® 239
94 Pu 92 U
99.5% 0.7%
b 235 = 0.0064
238
92 U + 01n ® 239
92 U ¾¾¾®
23.5min 239
93 Np ¾¾¾
2.3day
® 239
94 Pu
b 233 = 0.0026
232
90 Th + 01n ® 233
90 Th ¾¾¾®
23.3min 233
91 Pa ¾¾¾
27.4day
® 233
92 U b 239 = 0.0020
Fall 2020
 Moderators

1H 2He 3Li 4Be 5B 6C

Widely Not used Not used Was Impossibl Widely

used used e used Must
Gas → 6Li
be pure
H2O or Press. absorbs 9Be toxic, 10B

D2O 3He expensiv absorbs

e
absorbs No use to consider Z > 6
Only D2O and C can be used with Unat

Fall 2020
+ Coolants
n Function – transfer heat
n Objective: power density, temperature
n Limitations: in PWR: below saturation T, Tin=293, Tout = 315; in LMFBR,
ΔT=140; in HTGR, ΔT=500.

n After shutdown

n Coolant is either gas or liquid: H2O, D2O, He, CO2, Na, Na-K, Pb,
Pb-Bi.

n Coolant is moderator

n Classification: LWR, HWR, GR, LMR

Fall 2020
+ Control Materials

Control materials are materials with large thermal neutron-

absorption cross sections, used as controllable poisons to
adjust the level of reactivity. They serve a variety of
purposes:
• To achieve intentional changes in reactor operating
conditions, including turning the reactor on and off
• To compensate for changes in reactor operating conditions,
including changes in the fissile and poison content of the fuel
• To provide a means for turning the reactor off rapidly, in case
of emergency

Fall 2020
Total cross section of 10B, Cd and In.

Fall 2020
Energy variation of
absorption cross-sections
for elements of
extremely high cross-
sections.

Fall 2020
+ Control Materials

n Commonly used 113Cd (12.2%, 20000 b) and 10B (19.9%, 3800

b)

n Control rods – Cd, B (boron steel)

n PWR: c. rods B4C or Cd (5%)+AgIn
n BWR: c. rods B4C

n Water solution – B

n Burnable poison (B or Gd)

Fall 2020
+ World Inventory of
Reactor Types (Dec. 1994)
Type Number Capacity (GWe) Usual Moderat Coolant First
Fuel or devel
Oper. Cons Oper. Cons

PWR 245 39 215.7 36.8 UO2 enr H2O H2O USA

BWR 92 6 75.9 6.0 UO2 enr H2O H2O USA

PHWR 34 16 18.6 7.9 UO2 nat. D2O D2O Canada

LGR 15 1 14.8 0.9 UO2 enr C H2O USA/

(RBMK) USRR
GCR 35 0 11.7 0 U, UO2 C CO2 UK

LMFBR 3 4 0.9 2.4 UO2+ None Liq. Na Various

PuO2
Total 424 66 338 54

Fall 2020
+ Typical Data

PWR BWR HTGR LMFBR GCFR PHW

3400 3600
MWt 3000 2400 2500 1600
(2700) (2900)
MWe 1150 1200 1170 1000 1000 500
Eff 33.7 33.5 39.0 39.0 39.5 31.0
Fuel UO2 UO2 UC,ThO2 PuO2, UO2 PuO2, UO2 UO2
Cool H 2O H 2O He Na He D 2O
Moder. H2O H2O Graphite – – D 2O
Height 366 376 634 91 148 410
Diam. 377 366 844 222 270 680
Burnup 33,000 27,500 98,000 100,000 100,000 10,000
Fall 2020
Fall 2020
+ Thermal Breeders
n η233 = 2.296; η235 = 1.65

n Eugene Wigner’s group in 1945

235U+232Th→233U; then one uses a self sustaining cycle
233U+232Th;

σc(232Th) > σc(238U)

n Conclusion: 233U breeders are possible

n Thermal Breeders were abandoned in favor of Fast Breeders

n It is conceivable: interest may revive; only few breeder

programs nowadays (all fast)

Fall 2020
+ High Conversion Ration

n Motivation: Pu production; extension of fuel

resources
n Highcapture in 238U must be compensated by
smaller losses in moderator
n Moderator: C instead of H2O:
n Possibility to use Unat
n C is less efficient as moderator → more captures in 238U
when slowing down
n Less absorption in 12C than in H2O

n Weapon-grade Pu (Graphite): Windscale, RBMK

n D2 O moderator has the same advantages

Fall 2020
+ Fast Breeder Reactors
n Fission in Pu by fast (1 Mev) neutrons
n No loss while slowing down
n High ν and η
n Ratio σc/σf < 0.03 almost all absorptions result in fission ν = η = 3
(235U η = 2.3)

n Detailed analysis: η = 3 = 1(F)+1(B)+1(L)

n Thermalization undesireable → coolant with large A (23Na,

Pb+Bi)

n Fuel: UO2(80%)+PuO2(20%); DU is used

Fall 2020
Status of Fast Breeder Programs
The main incentive for the development of fast breeder reactors is the extension
of uranium supplies. A fast breeder economy would extract much more energy
per tonne of uranium than is obtained from other reactors, e.g., the LWRs.
Further, with more energy per unit mass, it becomes economically practical to
use more expensive uranium ores, increasing the ultimate uranium resource.
the argument, it has been pointed out that a liquid-metal fast reactor (LMR) can
be used to destroy unwanted plutonium and other heavy elements in weapons
stockpiles or nuclear wastes. In this reversal of motivation, the LMR would be
used to consume unwanted plutonium, rather than to produce plutonium as a
fuel. There is flexibility in this, because as LMR technology and facilities are
developed, they could be turned to either purpose.

Fall 2020
France has led in the development and deployment of breeder reactors, with
two completed reactors, the 233-MWe Phenix, put into operation in 1973, and
the 1200-MWe Superphenix at Creys-Malville, which first generated electricity
in 1986. The Superphenix was shut down for almost two years beginning in May
1987 because of leaks in the sodium- filled spent-fuel storage tank. Although it
resumed some operation in 1989, troubles recurred, and from 1989 through the
summer of 1995 operation of Superphenix has been intermittent and trouble-
plagued, with long periods of shutdown. The emphasis has been shifted from
operation of Superphenix as a breeder reactor to its use for study of the safety
of sodium-cooled fast reactors and the destruction of heavy elements in fast
reactors. In early summer 1997 French government took a decision to shutdown
SuperPhenix and this decision was realized in 1998.

Fall 2020
Russia has one LMFBR in operation (BN-60) and Kazakhstan has recently
shutdown its BN-600 LMFBR. Japan has completed a 280-MWe prototype LMFBR
- Monju, but its operation was set back in December 1995 by a leak of the
sodium coolant and a fire-like chemical reaction of sodium with the air.
The United States breeder reactor program has been marked by indecision
and opposition, with successive projects started and abandoned. The latest
apparent casualty was the main U.S. breeder-related project of the past decade
– the investigation at Argonne National Laboratory of fast LMRs as part of the
integral fast reactor program. Advocates of this program stressed its potential
to offer a high degree of safety against reactor accidents and to destroy
nuclear wastes in an on-line process. The breeding potential was often
secondary in these arguments, and the planned LMR need not have operated
as a breeder, namely, with a conversion ratio greater than unity. Nonetheless,
the basic configuration of the system was similar to that of a breeder reactor.

Fall 2020
+ Generation IV - Initiative
Neutron Fuel
Spectrum Cycle Size Applications R&D
Sodium Fast Fast Closed Med to Electricity, Advanced Recycle
Reactor (SFR) Large Actinide Mgmt.
Lead-alloy Fast Fast Closed Small Electricity, Fuels, Materials
Reactor (LFR) to Hydrogen compatibility
Large Production
Gas-Cooled Fast Fast Closed Med Electricity, Fuels, Materials,
Reactor (GFR) Hydrogen, AM Safety
Very High Temp. Thermal Open Med Electricity, Fuels, Materials,
Gas Reactor Hydrogen, H2 production
(VHTR) Process Heat
Supercritical Water Thermal, Open, Large Electricity Materials, Safety
Reactor (SCWR) Fast Closed
Molten Salt Reactor Thermal Closed Large Electricity, Fuel, Fuel
(MSR) Hydrogen, AM treatment,
Materials, Safety
and Reliability

Fall 2020
Fusion

n Iftwo light nuclei fuse together, they also form a nucleus

with a larger binding energy per nucleon and energy is
released. This reaction is called nuclear fusion.

n The most energy is released if two isotopes of hydrogen

fuse together in the reaction.

n Fusion gives out more energy per kilogram of fuel than

fission.
n Can you see why from the graph?

Fall 2020
+ Fusion vs. Fission

Fission

Fusion
•Iron is “ash” of fusion: nuclear
reactions involving iron do not release
energy
•Iron-56 has lowest mass per nuclear
particle
•Highest “binding energy” of all the
elements

Fall 2020
+Fusion cs. Fission
n The increases in binding energy per nucleon are much larger for
fusion than for fission reactions, because the graph increases more
steeply for light nuclei.

n So fusion gives out more energy per nucleon involved in the

reaction than fission.

Fall 2020
Energy Comparison
http://fusedweb.pppl.gov/CPEP/Chart.html
Chemical Fission Fusion
Reaction C+O2à U-235 2 H+2 Hà
1 1
CO2 3 He + 1 n
2 0

Starting coal UO2 ore H-2, H-3

Material isotopes
Temp 700 K 1000 K 1E+8 K
needed
Energy 3.3E+7 or 2.1E+12 or 3.4E+14 or
J/kg fuel 33 MegaJ 2100 GigaJ 340000 GigaJ

Fall 2020
Hydrostatic Equilibrium
n A hydrostatic equilibrium exists in the star between the
gravitational attraction tending to contract a star and a gas
pressure pushing out due to all the particles.

n As the lighter nuclides are “burned up” to produce the heavier

nuclides, the gravitational attraction succeeds in contracting the
star’s mass into a smaller volume and the temperature increases.
A higher temperature allows the nuclides with higher Z to fuse.

n This process continues in a star until a large part of the star’s

mass is converted to iron. The star then collapses under its own
gravitational attraction to become, depending on its mass, a white
dwarf star, neutron star, or black hole. It may even undergo a
supernova explosion.

Fall 2020
Formation of Elements
n The proton-proton chain includes a series of reactions that eventually
converts four protons into an alpha particle. Energy liberated is
primarily in the form of gamma rays, positrons and neutrinos

n As stars form due to gravitational attraction of interstellar matter, the heat

produced by the attraction is enough to cause protons to overcome their
Coulomb repulsion and fuse by the following reaction:

n The deuterons are then able to combine with 1H to produce 3He:

n The 3He atoms can then combine to produce 4He

Fall 2020
+
Formation of Elements
n As the reaction proceeds, however, the temperature increases,
and eventually 12C nuclei are formed by a process that converts
three 4He into 12C.
n Another cycle due to carbon is also able to produce 4He. The
series of reactions responsible for the carbon or CNO cycle are

n Proton-proton and CNO cycles are the only nuclear reactions that
can supply the energy in stars.

Fall 2020
Hydrogen Burning in Stars and
Nuclear Weapons
1H + 1H 2H + b+ + 1.4 Mev

1H + 2H 3He + 5.5 Mev

2H + 2H 3He + 1n + 3.3 Mev

2H + 2H 3H + 1H + 4.0 mev

2H + 3H 4He + 1n + 17.6 Mev Easiest!

Highest
2H + 3He 4He + 1H + 18.3 Mev cross
section!
1H + 7Li 4He + 4He + 17.3 Mev
Fall 2020
 Helium Burning Reactions in Stars

12C + 4He 16O

16O + 4He 20Ne

20Ne + 4He 24Mg

24Mg + 4He 28Si

28Si + 4He 32S

32S + 4He 36Ar

Image of a portion of the

36Ar Cyngus Loop supernova
+4He 40Ca
remnant taken by the Hubble
space telescope.
Fall 2020
Advanced Nuclear Burning

n Core
temperatures in stars > 8 MSun allow fusion of
elements as heavy as iron.
Fall 2020
 How does a high-mass star die?
+

Iron builds up in core until

degeneracy pressure can
no longer resist gravity

Core then suddenly

collapses, creating
supernova explosion.

Fall 2020
Supernova Explosion

n Core degeneracy
pressure cannot
support degenerate
core of > 1.4 Msun
n electrons forced into
nucleus, combine
with protons
n making neutrons,
neutrinos and LOTS of
energy!

Fall 2020
+
Supernova Simulation

Fall 2020
Supernova Remnant
n Energy released by the
collapse of the core
drives outer layers into
space.

n TheCrab Nebula is the

remnant of the
supernova seen in A.D.
1054.

Fall 2020
+
Fusion in the Sun
n These reactions occur in the core of a star and are responsible for
the energy released by the stars

n High temperatures are required to drive these reactions

n Therefore, they are known as thermonuclear fusion reactions

n All of the reactions in the proton-proton cycle are exothermic

n An overview of the cycle is that four protons combine to form an

alpha particle and two positrons

n Each second, in our Sun, more than 560 million tonnes of hydrogen
fuse together to make helium.

n One series of reactions for this is shown here:

Fall 2020
Fusion in the Sun

Energy

Fall 2020
Fusion in the Sun
n The energy released is radiated by the Sun at a rate of 3.90 x
1020 MW.

n This is the power output of a million million million large power

stations!

n Not surprisingly scientists are keen to develop fusion as a

source of power.
n One possible reaction is the fusion of deuterium and tritium.

n These are isotopes of hydrogen

Fall 2020
Nuclear Fusion on Earth
n Among the several possible fusion reactions, three of the simplest
involve the three isotopes of hydrogen.

n Three main conditions are necessary for controlled nuclear fusion:

1) The temperature must be hot enough to allow the ions, for example,
deuterium and tritium, to overcome the Coulomb barrier and fuse their
nuclei together. This requires a temperature of 100–200 million K.
2) The ions have to be confined together in close proximity to allow the
ions to fuse. A suitable ion density is 2–3 × 1020 ions/m3.
3) The ions must be held together in close proximity at high temperature
long enough to avoid plasma cooling. A suitable time is 1–2 s.

Fall 2020
Fusion Product
n The product of the plasma density n and the containment time τ
must have a minimum value at a sufficiently high temperature in
order to initiate fusion and produce as much energy as it consumes.
The minimum value is

n This relation is called the Lawson criterion after the British physicist
J. D. Lawson who first derived it in 1957. A triple product of nτT
called the fusion product is sometimes used (where T is the ion
temperature).

n The factor Q is used to represent the ratio of the power produced in

the fusion reaction to the power required to produce the fusion
(heat). This Q factor is not to be confused with the Q value.

n The breakeven point is Q = 1, and ignition occurs for Q >> 1. For

controlled fusion produced in the laboratory, temperatures on the
order of 20 keV are satisfactory.

Fall 2020
 Fusion
+Fusion
n has a number of advantages over fission:
n greater power output per kilogram,
n the raw materials are cheap and readily available,
n no radioactive elements are produced directly,
n irradiation by the neutrons leads to radioactivity in the reactor materials but
these have relatively short half lives and only need to be stored safely for a
short time.

n Inexpensive fuel source

n Water is the ultimate fuel source
n If deuterium is used as fuel, 0.12 g of it can be extracted from 1 gal of water
for about 4 cents

n Comparatively few radioactive by-products are formed

n The proton-proton cycle is not feasible for a fusion reactor

n The high temperature and density required are not suitable for a fusion
reactor

n The most promising reactions involve deuterium and tritium Fall 2020
 + Relevant fusion reactions

6.2 Man-Made Fusion 179

Fig. 6.3 Nuclear fusion

reactions that lead to DT +
Deuterium – from water
+ + + +
fusion. Nucleons with the
symbol ? denote protons and
+ (0.02% of all hydrogen is
shaded nucleons denote
neutrons heavy hydrogen or
+ deuterium)
+
+
+
Tritium – from lithium
+
(a light metal common in
the Earth’s crust)
deuterium may always be produced from common hydrogen, which is one of the

Deuterium + Lithium → Helium + Energy

most common isotopes on earth. Thirdly, even if deuterium is not used for the
production of tritium, there is sufficient metal lithium on the surface of the earth to
supply with enough Li-6 or Li-7 for the production of tritium. Natural lithium is
Fall 2020
This fusion cycle (which has the fastest reaction rate) is of interest for Energy Production
abundant on the crust of the earth and contains 92.6% of Li-7 and 6.4% of Li-6.
+
D-D: Deuterium-Deuterium
n More difficult to achieve than D-T
n Initiation energy is only slightly higher, but confinement times are
usually 30 times longer

n Reaction has two branches:

1. D + D → T (1.01 MeV) + 1H (3.02 MeV)
2. D + D → 3He (0.82 MeV) + n (2.45 MeV)
n Occur with nearly equal probability
n Some D-T fusion will occur but no input tritium is required
n Neutrons released from (2) will have 5.76 times less kinetic energy
than from D-T reactions

n Advantages
n 18% decrease in energy lost to neutrons
n Lower average neutron flux to internal components
n Decrease material stresses/damage
n Reduces the range of isotopes that may be produced within
internal components
n No input lithium or tritium required

n Disadvantages
n Power produced can be as much as 68 times lower than D-T Fall 2020
[
+ Aneutronic Fusion
n Many potential candidate reactions
n Most can be ruled out due to very high input energies

n Two Main Types:

n D - 3He
n H -11B

n Fusion power where neutrons are ≤ 1% of the total energy released

n D-T & D-D reactions can release up to 80% of their energy as high velocity neutrons

n Would significantly reduce the damage to reactor wall components

n Decreases the need for measures taken to protect against ionization damage
n Specifically the need for protective shielding and remote handling safety
procedures

n Pros:
n Tremendously more efficient
n Dramatic cost reductions (inputs & safety measures)
n Conversion directly to electricity (no steam turbines necessary)

n Cons:
n Incredibly difficult to initiate the reactions
Fall 2020
[3],
+D-3He: Deuterium-Helium3
n D + 3He → p (14.7MeV) + 4He
(3.7MeV) + 18.4 MeV
n Reaction products comprised
mostly of charged particles thus
minimal damage to reactor
components
n More efficient than Neutronic
Fusion
n Higher Energy Output
n In reality though some D-D
reactions occur in the plasma
n Releases neutrons decreasing
efficiency and overall energy gain
n Still produces “wear” on
internal components
H-11B: Hydrogen-Boron
n 1H+ + 11B → 3 4He + + 8.7 MeV
n More efficient in practice than
D-3He
n Side reactions result in ≤0.1%
loss in energy through neutron
release
n Almost no damage to internal
components
n Required temperature is 10
times higher than pure
hydrogen fusion (star fusion)
n Confinement time is roughly
500 times that of D-T
Fall 2020
[3],
+

Fall 2020
+
Calculation of energy released
Released energy follows from the mass deficit. Consider the
reaction

Masses of products are

The mass deficit (Total mass before minus total mass after) for
reaction is

Fall 2020
+
Calculation of released energy

Energy then follows from Einstein’s formula

Physicist’s unit of energy is electron volt (eV)

(kilo-electron volt, keV; mega-electron volt MeV)

Fall 2020
+
Energy released by 1kg of D-T mixture

1 kg of a Deuterium/Tritium mixture would allow for a number of

fusion reactions N

This would generate

If released over 24h, this is around 4 GW

Fall 2020
+
Availability of the fuel
Natural abundance of D is 0.015% of all H (1 in 6700)

However, at current rate of energy use there is enough H in the ocean for 1011
years

Deuterium is also very easy to separate (i.e., cheap)

Tritium is unstable with a half age of 12.3 years

There is virtually no naturally occurring Tritium Fall 2020

+
Availability of the fuel: T

Tritium can be bred from Lithium

Note that the neutron released in the D-T fusion reaction

can be used for this purpose

Enough Lithium on land for 10k to 30k years at low cost

If the oceans included, enough Li for 107 years

Fall 2020
+
Why fusion ….

A large amount of fuel is available, at a very low cost

The fuel is available in all locations of the earth.

Like fission, fusion is CO2 neutral

Fusion would yield only a small quantity of high

level radioactive waste.
There is only a small threat to non-proliferation of
weapon material

Fall 2020
+
But...

An energy producing working concept is yet to be

demonstrated.
The operation of a fusion reactor is hindered by
several difficult (and rather interesting) physics
phenomena

Also bear in mind that the cost argument thus far

focuses on the fuel only
However, the cost of the energy is largely
determined by the cost of the reactor...

Fall 2020
+ Distribution of energy over the
products
Energy released as kinetic energy of products

Kinetic energy is not equally distributed:

Since both energy and momentum are conserved

1 2 1
E fusion = mHeυ He+ mnυ n2 and mHeυ He + mnυ n = 0
2 2

You can solve for the energy in He and n

1 mn mHe
EHe = mHeu He 2 = E fusion and En = E fusion
2 mHe + mn mHe + mn

Therefore n has 80% of energy and He has 20% Fall 2020

+
Considerations for a Fusion
Reactor
n Tritium is radioactive and must be produced artificially

n The Coulomb repulsion between two charged nuclei must be

overcome before they can fuse
n A major problem in obtaining energy from fusion reactions

Fall 2020
Potential Energy Function

n The potential energy is

positive in the region r > R,
where the Coulomb
repulsive force dominates
n It is negative where the
nuclear force dominates
n The problem is to give the
nuclei enough kinetic
energy to overcome this
repulsive force

Fall 2020
 Reaction Cross Section
+ 6 Fusion Energy

1000

100
Cross-section, barns

10 D-T

1 D-D
Reaction cross section of
0.1 D-He-3 relevant fusion reactions
0.01
as function of energy.

0.001

0.0001
1 10 100 1000
Energy of reactants, keV

1 barn = 10-28 m2
Cross section is the effective area connected with the occurrence of the
ctions,reaction
the probability that a fusion reaction will occur is
section of are
If you the playing
reacting billiards,
isotopes. Figure 6.2 section
the cross depicts is
thepr2
or the three reactions as a function of the energy of the
figure(with
wererreproduced
the radius from
of theMcCracken
ball) and Stott [2].
re that for the reactions to occur, the reactant isotopes Fall 2020
+ Averaged reaction rate
Imagine particle B bombarded by many particles A

Cross section s

Number of collisions in Dt is

Bear in mind that s and v both depend on the energy (which is not the same for
all particles)
Fall 2020
+
Averaged reaction rate …..
The cross section must be averaged over energies of the particles.

Assuming a Maxwell distribution

Fall 2020
 + Number of fusion reactions as function of
average T The product of distribution and
cross section
(proportional to reaction rate)

Particle energy for average

The reaction cross section
T (from Maxwell
distribution) Fall 2020
+
Compare the two

Cross section as a function of Averaged reaction rate as a

energy function of Temperature

Averaged reaction rate has lesser

dependence on energy
Fall 2020
+
Current fusion reactor concepts
Based on a mixture of Deuterium and Tritium

Designed to operate at around 10 keV

(10 keV is equivalent to 100,000,000 K)

Matter is in the plasma state (fully ionized)

Both decisions are related to reaction cross section

Fall 2020
+ Implications from high
temperature
Temperature expresses an averaged energy.

You can convert between K and eV

1eV = 11605 K 1K=8.616x10-5 eV

(so 10 keV is 100 million Kelvin)

The average thermal velocity at 10keV can be estimated as

This is 106 m/s for Deuterium nuclei in plasma

In a reactor of 10 m size the particles would be lost in 10 µs...

Fall 2020
Lawson’s Criterion

n Lawson’s criterion
states that a net power
output in a fusion
reactor is possible
under the following
conditions
n nt ≥ 1014 s/cm3 for
deuterium-tritium
n nt ≥ 1016 s/cm3 for
deuterium-deuterium
n These are the minima
on the curves

Fall 2020
+
Lawson criterion
Derives conditions where production of fusion energy is possible

The reaction rate of particle B due to particles A as

In the case of more than one particle B we could get

Remember we derived <su> for a given temperature Fall 2020

+
Fusion power
The total fusion power then is the reaction rate times energy

Using quasi-neutrality (Deuteriums and Tritiums are indistiguishable)

For a 50-50% mixture of Deuterium and Tritium (nD=nT=1/2n)

Fall 2020
+
Fusion power

At the relevant temperature range 6-20 keV the

average cross section is

Plugging in, the fusion power can then be expressed

as

Fall 2020
+ The power loss
To examine power economy if devices, power produced must
be compared with power loss from the plasma

For this we introduce the energy confinement time tE

Ratio of energy content and power loss (e.g. Thermal

conduction)

W
tE =
Pheat

Where W is the stored energy density

1
W = 3nTV = Pheatt E Û nT = Pheatt E
3V Fall 2020
+
Fusion Power to Heating Power
ratio
Combine this with the fusion power derived earlier

2 2 Pfusion
Pfusion = 7.7n T V Þ = 0.16nTt E
Pheat
This is called the “n-T-tau product”

We can get two strategies for fusion energy from here:

High n, low tE

Low n, high tE

(remember, temperature is fixed by cross section at 10 keV)

Fall 2020
+
Break-even and Ignition
The break-even condition is defined as the state in which the
total fusion power is equal to the heating power
Note that some power could be externally supplied...

Pfusion
= 1 = 0.16nTt E Þ Break even when nTt E ³ 6
Pheat

Ignition is defined as the state in which the energy produced

by the fusion reactions is sufficient to heat the plasma
Remember that neutrons (80% of the energy) escape reactor;
energy in He remains for plasma heating (20%)
Pfusion
= 5 = 0.16nTt E Þ Ignition when nTt E ³ 30
Pheat Fall 2020
 finement where n is the densityInertial of allconfinement
the particles in the plasm
1.E+11
m
+ per cubic meter; T is the temperature of the plasma

Plasma Pressure, bar

Ignition keV condition
1.E+09
(1 keV & 107 6K); and s is the confinement t
Fusion Energyc
reaction
1.E+07 to proceed. When one treats the plasma as a
n 1.E+13
nement
1.E+11
electrons,
1.E+05 the product nT is proportional to the press
m Inertial confinement
Eq.1.E+03
(6.7) may beIgnition re-written in terms of the plasma
Plasma Pressure, bar

1.E+09
condition
1.E+07

1.E+05
1.E+01 Psc [ 5 bar ! s:
Magnetic confinement
1.E+03
1.E-01 Ignition condition

1.E+01
The last
1.E-11 equation
1.E-09 is
1.E-07 valid 1.E-05under the
1.E-03 condition
1.E-01 t
1.E+0
8 Magnetic confinement 8
1.E-01
range 1.0*10 K \ TConfinement time,K.
\ 2.0*10 s Figure 6.4 sh
1.E-11 1.E-09 1.E-07 1.E-05 1.E-03 1.E-01 1.E+01
pressure and confinement time for the ignition condi
Confinement time, s

by the two confinement methods, magnetic and inert

nTs [21 3 ! 10321 keV ! s=m3 ;
nTsc [ 3 opposite
! 10
c keV ! s=m ends ; of the line that ð6:7Þ defines the ignition ð6:7co
magnetic
sity of all the particles in the plasma, and and inertia
is measuredconfinement
in particles ignition are show
nsity
T is the of all the
temperature ofparticles
the plasma,
apparent fromin the
measured
this plasma,
infigure andofisunder
energy units
that, measured
the in particlep
conditions
7
is and
T K); thesctemperature
is the confinementof time the
thatplasma,
is necessarymeasured
for the in energy units o
d. When one treatsconfinement,
the plasma as a gasthe plasma must and be kept at the confine
Fall 2020
composed of nuclei
Critical Ignition Temperature

n The temperature at
which the power
generation rate in any
fusion reaction exceeds
the lost rate is called
the critical ignition
temperature, Tignit

n The intersections of the

Ãgen lines with the Ãlost
line give the Tignit

Fall 2020
+
Requirements for Successful
Thermonuclear Reactor
n High temperature ~ 108 K
n Needed to give nuclei enough energy to overcome
Coulomb forces
n At these temperatures, the atoms are ionized, forming
a plasma

n Plasma ion density, n

n The number of ions present

n Plasma confinement time, t

n The time interval during which energy injected into
the plasma remains in the plasma

Fall 2020
+
Requirements, Summary

n The plasma temperature must be very high

n To meet Lawson’s criterion, the product nt must be large

n For a given value of n, the probability of fusion between two
particles increases as t increases
n For a given value of t, the collision rate increases as n increases

n Confinement is still a problem

Fall 2020
+Fusion on Earth
n The JET (Joint European Torus) project was set up to carry
out research into fusion power.
n It has yet to generate a self-sustaining fusion reaction.
n The main problem is getting two nuclei close enough for
long enough for them to fuse.
n The enormous temperatures and pressures in the Sun's
core provide the right conditions.
n On Earth temperatures of over 100 million kelvin are
needed.
n At this temperature all matter exists as an ionised gas or
plasma.

Fall 2020
+Fusion on Earth
n Another problem is containment.
n What can you use to hold something this hot?
n JET uses magnetic fields in a doughnut shaped chamber
called a torus to keep the plasma away from the
container walls.
n Unfortunately generating high temperatures and strong
magnetic fields uses up more energy than the fusion
reaction produces!
n We are still some years off a fusion power station.

Fall 2020
+ How Large a Device?
n For fusion power to ignite a plasma:
n There has to be sufficient density of deuterium and tritium ions (ni);
n The reacting ions have to be hot enough (Ti);
n The energy from the fusion a’s must be confined for long enough
(tE).

tE increases with the square of the device size

– a large machine is needed.

n The fusion triple product (niTitE) and the ion temperature

(Ti) must both be large enough (below a certain temperature
the fusion reaction probability is too small)
pressure (niTi) ≥ 2 atmospheres
confinement time > 5 seconds
plasma ion temperature ≈ 100-200 Million °C Fall 2020
+
Confinement Techniques

n Magnetic confinement
n Uses magnetic fields to confine the plasma

n Inertial confinement
n Particles’ inertia keeps them confined very close to their initial
positions

Fall 2020
Controlled Thermonuclear Reactions

n Magnetic confinement of plasma is done in a tokamak, which has many

confinement boundaries.

n Heating of the plasma to sufficiently high temperatures begins with the

resistive heating from the electric current flowing in the plasma. There are
two other schemes to add additional heat: (1) injection of high-energy (40–
120 keV) neutral (so they pass through the magnetic field) fuel atoms that
interact with the plasma, and (2) radio-frequency (RF) induction heating of
the plasma (similar to a microwave oven).

10/6/20