Chapter 2:

DC Analysis
E E E 41 1 - C I R C U I T T H E O R Y
 NODAL ANALYSIS

Part 2 – Methods of Circuit Analysis

Introduction
❑Also known as Node-Voltage method
❑Direct methods are not suitable to solve complex and large circuits or as we
demand many unknowns.
❑To aid the analysis of complex circuit structures-need to develop more
powerful techniques from the basic laws by systematic approaches: Nodal
Analysis and Mesh Analysis.
❑These two techniques can be used to solve almost any kind of circuit
analysis problems by means of a set of simultaneous equations.
Introduction (Cntd…)
Four ways of solving simultaneous equations:
❑Cramer’s rule
❑Calculator (real numbers only)
❑Normal substitution and elimination (not more than two equations)
❑Computer program packages: matcad, maple, mathematica etc.
Introduction (Cntd…)
❑Circuit analysis problems in this course will be limited to three linear
simultaneous equations for conventional hand solutions.
❑Circuit theorems merely developed to simplify circuit analysis applicable
to linear circuits such as Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorems, superposition
theorem, source transformation and maximum power transfer.
Introduction (Cntd…)
❑Circuit theorems are not analysis techniques, rather they add up to the
list of simplifying/reduction techniques such as the series-parallel
reductions and -Y transformations.
❑Many computer aids facilitate us as effective mathematics tools to solve
engineering problems
❑Tools cannot replace the compulsory needs to study the circuit theories
govern circuit behavior in performing both circuit analysis and design.
Concept
❑Developed based on the systematic approach of Kirchhoff’s current law
(KCL) to find all circuit variables without having to sacrifice any of the
elements.
❑General procedure which is making use of node voltages in circuit analysis
as key solutions.
Importance terms
Node Voltage: Potential difference between a marked node and the selected
reference node.
Element Voltage: Potential difference across any element or branch in the
circuit.
When Node Voltage = Element Voltage?
Why use Node Voltage?
❑Further reduce the number of equations to be solved simultaneously.
❑No of independent equations = No of the marked nodes exclusive of the
reference node.
❑Element voltages and currents can be obtained in few steps using the
solved node voltages.
Assumptions
❑KCL is performed with current going out from a node as positive (+ve) while
current entering a node as negative (-ve).
in – negative (subtract)
out – positive (add)
❑All unknown currents assumed to be leaving a particular node.
Nodal Analysis Procedures:
1. Mark all essential nodes and assign proper voltage designations
except for the appointed reference node.
2. Apply KCL to each nonreference nodes. Use Ohm’s law to formulate the
equation in terms of node voltages. Assume all unknown currents are
directing out of the nodes.
3. Solve the resulting simultaneous equations to obtain the unknown
node voltages.
Applying Nodal Analysis on Simple
Circuit
Example 1 (3 unknowns)
Is2
R1 R2

Is1 R3 R4
 Solution Example 1

Step 1:
Is2
Mark all essential nodes V2
V1 R1 R2
V3
Assign unknown node voltages
Indicate the reference node. Is1 R3 R4
Solution (continued…)
Step 2: Perform KCL at each marked nonreference nodes using Ohm’s law to
formulate the equations in terms of the node voltages.
Solution (continued…)
KCL V1: V1 − V2
I s1 + I s 2 = (1)
R1
or
I s 1 + I s 2 = G1 (V1 − V2 )
KCL V2:
V2 − V1 V2 − 0 V2 − V3
+ + = 0 (2)
R1 R3 R2
KCL V3:
V3 − V2 V3 − 0
I s2 + + =0
R2 R4 (3)
 Solution (continued…)
Step 3: Solve the resulting 3 mA

simultaneous equations from step

2 above.
10 k V2 5 k
V1 V3

2 mA 4 k 2 k
Solution (continued…)
V1 − V2
KCL V1: 2m + 3m =
10k
Simplify to V1 - V2 = 50 (1)
V2 − V1 V2 − 0 V2 − V3
KCL V2: + + =0
10k 4k 5k
Simplify to -2V1 + 11V2 - 4V3 = 0 (2)

V3 − V2 V3 − 0
KCL V3: 3m + + =0
5k 2k
Simplify to -2V2 + 7V3 = -30 (3)
Solution (continued…)
Col-1 Col-2 Col-3
a1 b1 c1  V1  d1  1 − 1 0  V1   50 
a b c  V  = d 
 2 2 2  2  2
=
− 2 11 − 4 V  =  0 
a3 b3 c3  V3  d 3     2  
0 − 2 7  V3  − 30
Left Matrix:
Col-1: coefficients of V1 i.e. a1, a2 and a3
Col-2: coefficients of V2 i.e. b1, b2 and b3
Col-3: coefficients of V3 i.e. c1, c2 and c3
Middle Matrix: Unknown variables i.e. V1, V2and V3
Right Matrix: Constants i.e. d1, d2 and d3
Solution (continued…)
❑For third-order determinants, we use shorthand methods of
expansion solution.
❑Shorthand method consists of repeating the first two columns of
the determinant to the right of the determinant and then summing
the products along the specific diagonals as shown .
Solution (continued…)
❑Use determinants to solve for each variable:

𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 1 −1 0
1 -1
Δ = 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 = −2 11 − 4 -2 11
𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3 0 −2 7 0 -2

Δ = (1)(11)(7) + (−1)(−4)(0) + (0)(−2)(−2) −

ሼ(0)(11)(0) + (−2)(−4)(1) + (7)(−2)(−1)}
= 77 − (22) = 55
Solution (continued…)
❑Determinant 1 when coefficients for V1 is replaced by the constants.

𝑑1 𝑏1 𝑐1 50 −1 0 50 -1
Δ1 = 𝑑2 𝑏2 𝑐2 = 0 11 −4 0 11
𝑑3 𝑏3 𝑐3 −30 − 2 7 -30 -2

Δ1 = (50)(11)(7) + (−1)(−4)(−30) + (0)(0)(−2) −

ሼ(−30)(11)(0) + (−2)(−4)(50) + (7)(0)(−1)}
= 3730 − (400) = 3330
Solution (continued…)
❑Determinant 2 when coefficients for V2 is replaced by the constants.

a1 d1 c1 1 50 0 1 50
 2 = a2 d 2 c2 = − 2 0 −4 -2 0
0 -30
a 3 d 3 c3 0 − 30 7
Δ2 = (1)(0)(7) + (50)(−4)(0) + (0)(−2)(−30) −
ሼ(0)(0)(0) + (−30)(−4)(1) + (7)(−2)(50)}
= − (−580) = 580
Solution (continued…)
❑Determinant 3 when coefficients for V3 is replaced by the constants.

a1 b1 d1 1 −1 50 1 -1
 3 = a 2 b2 d 2 = − 2 11 0 -2 11
a3 b3 d 3 0 − 2 − 30 0 -2

Δ3 = (1)(11)(−30) + (−1)(0)(0) + (50)(−2)(−2) −

ሼ(0)(11)(50) + (−2)(0)(1) + (−30)(−2)(−1)}
= −130 − (−60) = −70
Solution (continued…)
V1 = 1/ = 3330/55= 60.55 V

V2 = 2/ = 580/55 =10.55 V

V3 = 3/ = -70/55 =-1.27 V

❑You should verify your answers using calculator for three unknowns.
Solution (continued…)
❑Knowing all the node voltages, we can obtain the element voltages, element currents
and even power dissipated by the passive elements such as:

VR1= V1 – V2 IR1 = (V1 – V2)/R1 PR1 = IR12R1 = VR12/R1

VR2= V2 – V3 IR1 = (V2– V3)/R2 PR2 = IR22R2 = VR22/R2

**VR3= V2 IR1 = V2/R3 PR3 = IR32R3 = VR32/R3

**VR4= V3 IR4 = V32/R4 PR4 = IR42R3 = VR42/R4

**In these two cases, the element voltages identical to node

voltages because one of its terminals is at reference node.
Can you find the power dissipated by the 10 k
resistor?

❑Need to find the element voltage of 10-k resistor because power

calculation formula uses element voltage.

P10k = (V1 – V2)2/10k

= (60.55 –10.55)2/10k = 502/10k = 0.25 W
Applying Nodal Analysis on Simple Circuit
Example 2 (2 unknowns)
Q: Find the power dissipated in the 20- resistor?
10 mA

50 

50  9 mA
20 
50 
Solution
Step 1: 10 mA

Mark all essential

nodes Two nonreference nodes
50 
Assign unknown V1
V2
node voltages
Indicate the 50  20 
50  9 mA
reference node.
reference node
Solution (Continued…)
Step 2: Perform KCL at
each marked
V1 V1 − V2
KCL V1: + = 10m
nonreference nodes 100 50
using Ohm’s law to
formulate the Hence 3V1 − 2V2 = 1 (1)
equations in terms of
node voltages.
KCL V2: V2 V2 − V1
+ = 9m − 10m
20 50
Hence − 2V1 + 7V2 = − 0.1 (2)
Solution (Continued…)
Step 3: Solve the resulting
simultaneous equations which have
been simplified in step 2 above
using Cramer’s rule.
Solution (Continued…)
3 −2 1 −2
= 1 =
−2 7 − 0.1 7
= (3)(7) − ( −2)(−2) = (1)(7) − (−2)(−0.1)
= 17 = 6.8
3 1
2 =
Hence, −2 − 0.1
V1 = 1/ = 6.8/17 = 0.4 V = (3)(−0.1) − ( −2)(1)
V2 = 2/ = 1.7 /17 = 0.1 V
= 1.7
P20 = V22/20 = 0.12(20) = 0.2 W #
Applying Nodal Analysis on Circuit with Voltage
Sources

❑Three different effects depending on placement of voltage source in the

circuit.
❑Does the presence of a voltage source complicate or simplify the analysis?
Case 1: Voltage source between two nonreference
essential nodes.

ODE
N Vs
PER
SU
Nonreference Nonreference
essential node V1 V2 essential node

Supernode Equation: 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉1 − 𝑉2
Case 2: Voltage source between a reference essential node
and a nonreference essential node.

ODE
N
WN G E
O T A
KN VOL Vs
Nonreference Reference
essential node V1 0V essential node

Known node voltage: 𝑉1 = 𝑉𝑠

Case 3: Voltage source between an essential node and a
non-essential node.

FIN
NO D N
N- O
ES DE
Vs TE SE VO
RM NT LT
S IA A
Nonreference VO OF L NO GE A
essential node V1 VLaTAG NOD DE INT
E E

Non-essential
node

Node voltage at non-essential node: 𝑉𝑎 = 𝑉1 − 𝑉𝑠

Example 3
(Supernode or Known node voltage)
Q: Find the power of the 10-V voltage source? Is it supplying energy to the
circuit or absorbing energy from the circuit? Show your work according to the
nodal analysis procedure.
10 V

40  5

50  8
3A
25 
Solution 1 (Supernode)
Step 1: Mark essential nodes and assign unknown node
voltages and indicate the reference node.

10 V
i
ODE Checklist:
N
PER 3 essential nodes – 1
SU
40  V2 5 
V1 ref node
– 1 supernode
50  8 = 1 KCL Eqn. + 1
3A
30  Supernode Eqn.
Solution 1 (Continued…)
Step 2: Perform KCL at each marked nonreference nodes using Ohm’s
law to formulate the equations in terms of node voltages.
𝑉1 𝑉2
KCL supernode V1/V2: + = 3
80 8
Hence 𝑉1 + 10𝑉2 = 240 (1)

Supernode Equation: 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 = 10 (2)

Solution 1 (Continued…)
Step 3: Solve the resulting simultaneous equations which have been simplified in step 2
above.

Solving Eqn. (1) and (2) simultaneously yields,

V1 = 30.91 V and V2 = 20.91 V

(You can check this answer by calculator or Cramer’s rule).

Solution 1 (Continued…)
Finding current through the voltage source,
𝑉1 𝑉1 − 𝑉2
KCL at V1: + + 𝑖 = 0
80 40

−30.91 30.91 − 20.91

𝑖 = − = −0.636 𝐴
80 40
Hence,
P10-V = Vi= (10)(-0.636) = -6.36 W. (Delivering energy)
Solution 2 (Known node voltage)
Step 1: Mark essential nodes and assign unknown node voltages
and indicate the reference node.
10 V
i
Checklist:
40  5 3 essential nodes –
VOLTAGE V1

1 ref node
KNOWN NODE

50  8 – 1 known node
30  3A voltage
= 1 KCL Eqn.
V2
Solution 2 (Continued…)
Step 2: Perform KCL at each marked nonreference nodes using Ohm’s
law to formulate the equations in terms of node voltages.
Immediately known node
voltage at V1: 𝑉1 = 10 𝑉

KCL V2: 𝑉2 − 10 𝑉2
+ = −3
80 8

11𝑉2 = −230 (1)

Solution 2 (Continued…)
Step 3: Solve the resulting simultaneous equations which have been simplified
in step 2 above.
−230
Solving Eqn. (1) yields, 𝑉2 = = −20.91 𝑉
11

Finding current through the voltage source, KCL at V1:

𝑉1 𝑉1 − 𝑉2
+ + 𝑖 = 0
40 80
−10 10 + 20.91
𝑖 = − = −0.636 𝐴
40 80
Solution 2 (Continued…)
Hence,
P10-V = Vi= (10)(-0.636) = -6.36 W. (Delivering energy)
Example 4 (One of the terminals not an
essential node)
Q: Find the current through the 10-k resistor. Show your work according
to the nodal analysis procedure.
8 mA

4 k 15 V 4 k

10 k
1 k 5 k
25 V
Solution 4
Step 1: Mark essential nodes and assign unknown node voltages and indicate the
reference node. For voltage sources, indicate the node voltages at both ends with respect
to the assigned unknown node voltages at the essential nodes
8 mA

Checklist:
4 k 15 V V2 4 k 4 essential nodes – 1
V1
V3 ref node
i = 3 KCL Eqns.
Va = V2 + 15
1 k 10 k
5 k
Vb = -25 V
25 V
Solution (Continued…)
Step 2: Perform KCL at each marked nonreference nodes using Ohm’s law
to formulate the equations in terms of node voltages.
𝑉1 𝑉1 − (𝑉2 + 15)
KCL V1: + = −8𝑚
1𝑘 4𝑘

Hence 5𝑉1 − 𝑉2 = −17 (1)

𝑉2 + 25 (𝑉2 + 15) − 𝑉1 𝑉2 − 𝑉3
KCL V2: 10𝑘
+
4𝑘
+
4𝑘
= 0

Hence −10𝑉1 + 18𝑉2 − 10𝑉3 = −250 (2)

Solution (Continued…)

KCL V3: 𝑉3 𝑉3 − 𝑉2
+ = 8𝑚
5𝑘 4𝑘

Hence −5𝑉2 + 9𝑉3 = 160 (3)

Solution (Continued…)
Step 3: Solve the resulting simultaneous equations which have been simplified in step 2
above.
Solving Eqn. (1) till (3) simultaneously yields,
V1 = -5.43 V, V2 = -10.17 V and
V3 = 12.13 V
(You can check this answer by calculator and Cramer’s rule).
Solution (Continued…)
Finding current through the 10-k resistor,

KCL at V2: (𝑉2 + 15) − 𝑉1 𝑉2 − 𝑉3

𝑖 + + = 0
4𝑘 4𝑘

10.17 − 15 − 5.43 10.17 + 12.13

𝑖 = + = 3.01 𝑚𝐴
4𝑘 4𝑘
Applying Nodal Analysis on Circuit with
Dependent Sources

❑Circuits contain dependent sources either VCVS, CCVS, VCCS or CCCS.

❑The presence of the dependent sources require ‘Constraint Equation’ (CE).
❑CE describes the dependent term of the dependent sources in relation to
the assigned unknown node voltages or known values at the essential nodes.
Example 5 (Circuit with dependent sources)
Q: Use the node-voltage method to find both dependent terms iO and Vx
of the dependent sources of the circuit in Figure below.
3 Vx

10 io 8

+ Vx -
12 V
10  2

io
Solution 5
Step 1: Mark essential nodes and assign unknown node voltages and
indicate the reference node.
3 Vx

ODE Checklist:
N
ER
SU
P
8  V3
4 essential nodes – 1

KNOWN
10 io V2
V1 ref node – 1 s/node –
1 known

+ Vx -
12 V = 1 KCL Eqn. + 1
10  2
s/node Eqn. + 2
io contraint Eqns.
Solution (Continued…)
Step 2: Perform KCL at each marked nonreference nodes using Ohm’s law
to formulate the equations in terms of node voltages.
Known node voltage: 𝑉3 = − 12 𝑉
𝑉2 𝑉2 + 12
KCL s/node V2: + = −10𝑖𝑜
2 8
Hence 5𝑉2 + 80𝑖𝑜 = − 12 (1)

S/node equation: 3𝑉𝑥 = 𝑉1 + 12 (2)

Solution (Continued…)

Constraint equations: 𝑉𝑥 = 𝑉2 (3)

V2 + 12 V1
and io = − + 10i o
8 10
Hence 720𝑖𝑜 − 8𝑉1 + 10𝑉2 = −120 (4)

Substituting Eqn. (3) into (2) yields

−𝑉1 + 3𝑉2 = 12 (2’)

Solution (Continued…)
Step 3: Solve the resulting simultaneous equations which have been
simplified in step 2 above.
Solving Eqn. (1), (2’) and (4) simultaneously yields,

V1 = -6.51 V, V2 = 1.83 V and io = -0.264 A

(You can check this answer by calculator and Cramer’s rule).

 Chapter 3, Problem 16.
Determine voltages v1 through v3 in the circuit of Fig. 3.64 using nodal analysis.
(Ans:V1=18.86V, v2=6.29V, V3=13V)
 Chapter 3, Problem 30.
Using nodal analysis, find vo and io in the circuit of Fig. 3.78. (Ans: Vo=-1.344kV, io=-5.6A)
 Chapter 3, Problem 31.
Find the node voltages for the circuit in Fig. 3.79. (Ans: V1=4.97V, V2=4.85V, V3=-
0.1212V)
 Chapter 3, Problem 32.
Obtain the node voltages v1, v2, and v3 in the circuit of Fig. 3.80.
(Ans:V1=2V, V2=12V, V3=-8V) 5 k

10 V 20 V
V2
V1 V3

4 mA 12 V
10 k