Objective:

1. To obtain and compare the velocity of free vortex with theoretical velocity.
2. To compare the theoretical force vortex surface profile with the experimental
result.

Theory:
Refer to lab manual.

Apparatus:
Refer to lab manual.

Procedure:
Refer to lab manual.

Results and Calculations:

Angle of Initial Final Difference Change Drag Drag
Attack(°) Load Load of Load of Force,F Coefficient
Readin Reading Reading(g) pressure (N) ,CD
g(g) (g) ,ΔP(pa)

-5 0 6.8 6.8 211.5 0.0334 0.0374

0 0 7.3 7.3 210.5 0.0358 0.04
5 0 8.5 8.5 209 0.0417 0.0466
10 0 11.6 11.6 207.5 0.0569 0.0637
15 0 14.8 14.8 205.3 0.0726 0.0812
20 0 41.3 41.3 201.4 0.2026 0.2266
25 0 55.5 55.5 198.7 0.2723 0.3046
Balance Reading(g)
Drag Force, D (N)   0.5  9.81
1000
6.8
  0.5  9.81
1000
 0.033354

 25 C  1.184kg / m 3 ,


 20 C  1.204kg / m 3 ,


Using Interpolation Method,

22 C  20 C  22 C   20 C

25 C  22 C  25 C   22 C
2  22 C  1.204

3 1.184   22 C
 22 C  1.196kg / m 3

 2 P
U 

2  211.5

1.196
 18.81m / s
Area  0 . 065  0 . 065
 4 . 225  10  3 m 2
D
CD 
1
 U 2 cl
2
0 .0334

1
(1 .196 )(18 .81) 2 4 .225  10  3
2
 0 .0374
 Table of Final Pressure at each Point at each Angle of Attack
Angel of
Attack(°) Final Pressure,Pfinal(mm)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
-5 126 130 132 133 134 136 138 165 155 147 144 143 140 133
0 136 138 137 137 136 137 138 157 148 143 140 140 139 134
5 149 147 144 142 140 140 135 136 137 135 135 136 136 136
10 162 155 149 145 142 141 135 128 131 131 132 134 134 137
15 169 161 153 149 144 142 136 121 126 127 130 131 133 139
20 165 159 156 155 151 151 140 120 125 127 130 132 134 148
25 162 158 156 155 154 155 143 119 124 126 129 132 135 154

Initial Pressure, Patm=110mm,

Change of Pressure, ΔP=Pinitial-Pfinal

Table of Gauge Pressure at each Point and each Angle of Attack

Angel of
Attack(°) Change of Pressure,ΔP(mm)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
-5 -16 -20 -22 -23 -24 -26 -28 -55 -45 -37 -34 -33 -30 -23
0 -26 -28 -27 -27 -26 -27 -28 -47 -38 -33 -30 -30 -29 -24
5 -39 -37 -34 -32 -30 -30 -25 -26 -27 -25 -25 -26 -26 -26
10 -52 -45 -39 -35 -32 -31 -25 -18 -21 -21 -22 -24 -24 -27
15 -59 -51 -43 -39 -34 -32 -26 -11 -16 -17 -20 -21 -23 -29
20 -55 -49 -46 -45 -41 -41 -30 -10 -15 -17 -20 -22 -24 -38
25 -52 -48 -46 -45 -44 -45 -33 -9 -14 -16 -19 -22 -25 -44

Change Pressure from mm to Pa,

P   water gh
 1000  9.81  (110  126 )  10  3
 156 .96 Pa
Calculate the Pressure Coefficient,

P
Cp 
1
U 2
2
 156 .96

1
 1.196  (18 .81) 2
2
 0.7418

Point 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Angel of
Attack(°) Pressure coefficient,Cp
-5 -0.7418 -0.9273 -1.0200 -1.0664 -1.1128 -1.2055 -1.2982 -2.5501 -2.0864 -1.7155 -1.5764 -1.5300 -1.3909 -1.0664
0 -1.2119 -1.3051 -1.2585 -1.2585 -1.2119 -1.2585 -1.3051 -2.1908 -1.7713 -1.5382 -1.3984 -1.3984 -1.3518 -1.1187
5 -1.8315 -1.7376 -1.5967 -1.5028 -1.4089 -1.4089 -1.1741 -1.2210 -1.2680 -1.1741 -1.1741 -1.2210 -1.2210 -1.2210
10 -2.4578 -2.1269 -1.8433 -1.6543 -1.5125 -1.4652 -1.1816 -0.8508 -0.9926 -0.9926 -1.0398 -1.1344 -1.1344 -1.2762
15 -2.8188 -2.4366 -2.0544 -1.8633 -1.6244 -1.5289 -1.2422 -0.5255 -0.7644 -0.8122 -0.9555 -1.0033 -1.0989 -1.3855
20 -2.6795 -2.3872 -2.2411 -2.1923 -1.9975 -1.9975 -1.4616 -0.4872 -0.7308 -0.8282 -0.9744 -1.0718 -1.1692 -1.8513
25 -2.5668 -2.3694 -2.2707 -2.2213 -2.1719 -2.2213 -1.6290 -0.4443 -0.6911 -0.7898 -0.9379 -1.0860 -1.2341 -2.1719
x/c 0.1178 0.2174 0.3046 0.394 0.484 0.5931 0.7412 0.1125 0.2169 0.2931 0.3858 0.4748 0.6449 0.824
Table of Pressure Coeficcient and x/c ratio for each Point and each Angle of Attack
Discussion:

1) From the graph of drag coefficient against angle of attack, the drag coefficient
increase steadily from -5° angle of attack until 15° angle of attack.The drag
coefficient can be said that are nearly constant. When the angle of attack after 15°, the
drag coefficient suddenly increase. This happen may because when the angle of attack
is above 15°, the frontal area and boundary layer thickness increased obviously
compare to the angle of attack below 15°(Hall,Nancy 2019). Besides, when the angle
of attack is above 15° the separation point moves right up to the leading edge of the
aerofoil and laminar flow above the aerofoil is destroyed. The increased turbulence
causes the rapid deterioration of the lift force while at the same time it dramatically
increases the drag, resulting in a stall(Electropedia 2019).

When the angle of attack is zero, there is still drag generated, this is because of the
skin friction and the shape of the aerofoil.

(Sky brary 2017) states that Skin Friction Drag is a drag caused by the friction of a
fluid against the surface of an object that is moving through it. It is directly
proportional to the area of the surface in contact with the fluid and increases with the
square of the velocity.
2) From the graph of pressure coefficient against x/c ratio with different attack of
angle, the pressure of upper surface start to decrease when the attack of angle increase
while the pressure of lower surface start to increase.Meanwhile, the line of the upper
surface slowly swap with the line of lower surface when the angle of attack increased.
(Electropedia 2019) states that according to the Bernoulli's Equation which is a
statement of the Conservation of Energy, it states that:

A) For a non-viscous, incompressible fluid in steady flow, the sum of pressure,

potential and kinetic energies per unit volume is constant at any point.
B) Assume the potential energy due to altitude is ignored.
When the velocity of a fluid increases, its pressure decreases by an equivalent amount
to maintain the overall energy.
According to Bernoulli's Principle, the air passing over the top of an aerofoil or wing
must travel further and hence faster that air the travelling the shorter distance under
the wing in the same period but the energy associated with the air must remain the
constant at all times.

Besides, when the vortices occur at the upper surface of aerofoil, it produced heat
energy by converting the mechanical energy due to the friction of air molecules.
The consequence of this is that the air above the wing has a lower pressure than the
air below below the wing and this pressure difference creates the lift.

Next, the difference of pressure

between the upper and lower
surface become bigger when the
angle of attack is greater. This
is because separated flow
region is expands and the
separation points jump forward
to the head of the aerofoil. As a
result, the region with low
pressure at the upper surface
move forward.
3) The possible errors occur is taking the reading of balance reading at the wrong
timing, therefore, repeat the experiment twice to get more accurate result. Besides, do
not stand near to the opening of the wind tunnel as it will affect the wind flow and
velocity. When doing the 1st experiment, make sure the aerofoil is able to move
smoothly after changing the angle by pushing the center of the controlling apparatus.
To avoid parallel error, make sure keep your eye on the same level when taking the
reading of the manometer. The change of pressure for the 1st experiment is hard to
determine as the reading keep changing, so take the middle of the reading in a certain
range.

Conclusion:

The drag force and drag coefficient for aerofoil body at different attack angle is
obtained and the graph is drawn.The pressure distribution as a function of the angle to
the direction of flow is obtain and the graph of pressure coefficient against x/c ratio is
drawn.

Reference:

1) Hall, Nancy 2019, Inclination Effect on Drag, viewed on 2 August 2019,

<https://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/airplane/inclind.html>.
2) Electropedia 2019,Aerodynamic Lift and Drag and the Theory of Flight, viewed
on 2 August 2019, <https://www.mpoweruk.com/flight_theory.htm>.
3) Sky brary 2017, Friction Drag, viewed on 2 August 2019,
<https://www.skybrary.aero/index.php/Friction_Drag>.