LIST OF REFERENCES

Skrotzki and Vopat. Power Station Engineering and Economy, McGRAW-HILL Book
Company, Toronto, 1960

Potter, P. Power Plant Theory and Design, The Ronald Press Company, New York

Morse, F.T. Power Plant Engineering, Litton Educational Publishing, Inc., 1953

Salisbury, J. Kenneth. Kent’s Mechanical Engineers Handbook, Power Volume, 12th Edition.
Tokyo: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. and Toppan Company, Ltd, 1950

Mendoza, Domingo S. Pumps and Hydraulic Turbines, Manila, 1972

Baumeister, Theodore and et al. Mark’s Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers. 8th
Edition. 1978

Connoly, Thomas J. Foundations of Nuclear Engineering. John Wiley & Sons, Toronto, 1978

ENGR. ANACLETO M. CORTEZ, JR. 51

28. ME Board ( Oct. 1997). Steam expands adiabatically in aturbine from 2000 KPa, 400 C
to 400 KPa, 250 C. What is the effectiveness of the process in percent assuming an
atmospheric pressure of 15 C. Neglect changes in KE and PE. Ans: 79.6 %
Hint: Effectiveness = ∆h / [∆h + T(∆S)]
29. ME Board ( Oct. 1997) Steam enters the turbine of a cogeneration plant at 7 MPa and
500 C. Steam at a flow rate of 7.6 kg/sec is extracted from the turbine at 600 KPa pressure fo
process heating. The remaining steam continues to expand to 10 KPa. The recovered
condensates are pumped back to the boiler. The mass flow rate of the steam that enters the
turbine is 30 kg/sec. Calculate the cogeneration efficiency in percent.
Ans: 54.5 %

30. ME Board (apr. 1998). In an open feedwater heater for a steam power plant, saturated
steam at 7 bar is mixed with subcooled liquid at 7 bar and 25 C. Just enough steam is
supplied to ensure that the mixed steam leaving the heater will be saturated liquid at 7 bar
when heater efficiency is 90 %. Calculate the mass flow rate of subcooled liquid if steam
flowrate is 0.865 kg/second. Ans: 2.725 kg/sec.

31. ME Board (Apr. 1998). A steam boiler plant consumes 9,000 kg of coal per hour and
produces 20 kg of dry fue gases per kg of coal fired. Outside air temperature is 32 C, average
temperature of flue gas entering the chimney is 343 C, and average temperature of dry flue
gas in the chimney is 260 C. The gage fluid density is 994.78 kg per cu. meter and the
theoretical draft of 2.286 cm of water at the chimney base is needed when the barometric
pressure is 760 mm Hg. Determine the height of the chimney in meters.
Ans: H = 46 m Note: hw = H(da – dg)

32. ME Board (Apr. 2003) How many percent of the turbine work output is required to
operate the pump of a steam power plant, operating at an ideal Rankine cycle, if steam enters
the turbine at 2.5 MPa and is condensed at the condenser at 50 KPa (Vf=0.00103 cubic meter
per kilogram). The turbine work is 653.8 KJ/kg
Ans: 0.38 %

33. ME Board (Apr. 2003) A steam power plant has a turbine work of 654 KJ/kg and the
pump work is 3 KJ/kg. If the mass flow rate is 18 kg /sec, compute the power produced by
this plant. Ans: 11,718 KW

34. ME Board (Octt. 2003) A turbine has an efficiency of 75 % and a kilowatt output of
5500 at full load. If the available energy is 1200 KJ/kg, determine the steam flow at the
turbine per hour. Ans: 22,000 kg/hr

ENGR. ANACLETO M. CORTEZ, JR. 50

25. A steam power plant has a turbine work of 654 KJ/kg and the pump work is 3 KJ/kg. If
the mass flow rate of steam is 18 kg/sec., compute the power produced by this plant.
Ans: 11,718 KW

26. The result of a 90-minutes test run at steady load on a 7500 KW condensing turbine are
here summarized:
Initial steam conditions, 2.86 MPa and 316 C
Steam flow, 32,517 kg/hr
Watt –hour meter readings:
Initial, 265,217 kw-hr
Final, 275,942 kw-hr
Condensing water flow, 25 m3/hr ; in at 20 C out at 30 C.
Overall mechanical-electrical efficiency, 92 %.
Determine:
a. Exhaust pressure and temperature. Ans: P3=P2=0.01994MPa;
T2a=T3=tsat =60 C
b. Actual exhaust enthalpy. Ans: h2a = 2178.6 KJ/kg
c. Rankine cycle ratio. Ans: RCR=91%
d. Overall engine efficiency. Ans: 83.72 %
e. Station heat rate, KJ/kw-hr. Ans: 12,678 KJ/kw-hr

Fig:

27. Calculate the turbine heat rate, over-all thermal efficiency, and over-all engine efficiency
for an extraction turbine in a regenerative cycle based on the following data:
Turbogenerator load, 100,000 KW
Throttle pressure & temp. 8.62 MPa; 482 C
Exhaust pressure, 25.4 mm Hg abs.
Throttle flow, 415,000 kg/hr
Extraction conditions as follows:
Pressure, MPa Extraction, kg /hr
4.45 14,966
3.60 29,524
1.75 23,333
0.71 31,633
0.156 19,093
0.0476 24,082
Feedwater temperature leaving last heater, 252 C.

Ans: THR = 9338 KJ/kw-hr; OTE = 38.5 %; OEE = 79%

ENGR. ANACLETO M. CORTEZ, JR. 49

16. The following coal has the following ultimate analysis by weight:
C = 70.5 % H = 4.5 % O=6% Moisture = 4 %
S=3% Ash = 11 5 N=1%
A stoker fired boiler of 175,000 kg/hr steaming capacity uses this coal as fuel. Calculate the
volume of air in m3 /hr with air at 15.6 C and 101.325 M Pa pressure if boiler efficiency is 70
%, excess air = 30 % and FE = 1.10.
Ans: 212,830 m3/ hr

17.For a generation of dry and saturated steam at 1 MPa absolute, what is the percentage gain
in heat when the boiler feedwater is heated from 30 C to 90 C? Ans: 9.47%

18. What is the net boiler efficiency if the heat generated by fuel is 40,000,000 KJ/hr and the
boiler auxiliaries consumes 20 KW. The ASME evaporation unit of the boiler is 25,900,000
KJ/hr. Ans: 64.57 %

19. Estimate the required furnace volume for pulverized coal-fired steam generator where
1375 x 104 kCal per hour of heat transfer at 80 % thermal efficiency is the expected thermal
performance. Boiler has water walls. Ash fusion temperature is 1204 C and the design value
of furnace heat release rate is 195,800 kCal per m2 per hour.
Ans: 87.8 m3

20. The cylinders of a triple expansion engine are 600, 950 and 1500 mm diameter and the
stroke is 1050 mm. When running at 1.8 rps, the mean effective pressures in the cylinders are
517, 207 and 83 KPa respectively. Calculate the total indicated power of the engine.
Ans: 1662 KWm

21. A steam turbine with an internal efficiency of 90 % receives steam at 7 MPa and 550 C
and exhaust at 20 KPa. Determine the ideal turbine work, actual exhaust enthalpy and exit
quality of steam. Ans: 1241.2 KJ/kg ; 2413.8 KJ/kg ; 91.69 %

22. Steam enters the turbine at the rate of 11,000 kg/hr with enthalpies of 3000 KJ/kg and
1000 KJ/kg at entrance and exhaust respectively, steam is extracted from the turbine at 3,500
kg/hr for heating process with enthalpy of 2700 KJ/kg. Calculate the turbine work.
Ans: W = 4,458 KW

23. The vacuum in the surface condenser of a small condensing steam power plant is 650 mm
Hg barometer. If the temperature in the condenser is 35 C ( Pc = 5.628 KPa), what is the
vacuum efficiency? Ans: 90.56 %

24. A boiler feed pump receives 40 liter per second at 180 C. It operates against a total head
of 900 meters with an efficiency of 60 %. Determine:
a. The enthalpy of feedwater leaving the pump. Ans: 773.57 KJ/kg
b. Pwer output of the driving motor in KW. Ans: 523.3 KW
c. Discharge pressure in KPa at suction pressure of 4 MPa. Ans: 11,850.3 KPa

ENGR. ANACLETO M. CORTEZ, JR. 48

9. A boiler generates superheated steam at the rate of 20,000 kg/hr. Feedwater enters the
boiler at 5 MPa and 200 C and the steam leaves the boiler at 5 MPa and 350 C. The coal used
has a heating value of 32,000 KJ/kg and boiler efficiency is 78 %. Determine:
a. Developed boiler horsepower Ans: a) 1254 bo.hp
b. Factor of evaporation Ans: b) 0.981
c. ASME evaporation units in KJ/hr Ans: c) 44,290,000 KJ/hr
d. Fuel consumption in kg/hr Ans: d) 1774 kg/hr

10. A Horizontal Return Tubular boiler has a steaming capacity of 4,546 kg/hr of steam at
11.4 kg /cm2 abs. saturated. Feedwater temperature is 80 C. It has an overall effective heating
surface of 186 m2. Determine:
a. rated boiler horsepower Ans: a) 169.09
b. developed boiler horsepower Ans: b) 315.06
c. percent rating Ans: c)186.3 %
d. factor of evaporation Ans: d) 1.08

11. An open feedwater heater utilizes saturated steam at 150 C which is extracted from a
turbine. The feedwater to be heated enters the heater at 60 C. If the mixture leaves the heater
as saturated liquid at the rate of 30,000 kg/hr, find the quantity (kg/hr) of steam extracted
from the turbine. Ans: 4,577 kg/hr

12. A bunker-fired steam generating unit consumes 6 metric tons per hour of bunker having a
heating value of 41,000 KJ/kg with a boiler efficiency of 80 %. It is desired to convert this
boiler to coal-fired using local coal having an average heating value of 29,000 KJ/kg. Using
coal, however, the boiler efficiency is only 75 %. What will be the coal consumption so that
the boiler will maintain its steaming capacity? Ans: 281.9 hrs.

13. For a 15,000 KW non-condensing geothermal steam turbine-generator operating at 4 MPa

steam pressure dry and saturated and 600 mm Hg exhaust pressure, guaranteed full load
steam rate is 12 kg/kw-hr. Steam rate at one-half load is 13.5 kg/kw-hr.
a. Write the equation of the Willan’s line
b. Calculate the throttle steam flow at three-fourth load.
Ans: a) Ms = 10.5 L + 22,500 kg/hr, b) 140,625 kg/hr

14. A 23.5 kg of steam per second at 5 MPa and 400 C is produced by a steam generator. The
feedwater enters the economizer at 145 C and leaves at 205 C. The steam leaves the boiler
drum with with a quality of 98 %. The unit consumes 2.75 kg of coal per second as received
having a heating value of 25,102 KJ/kg. What would be the over-all efficiency of the unit in
percent? Ans: 88 %

15. Exhaust steam from an engine passes into a condenser at a pressure of 0.12 bar and
dryness 0.88. The temperature of the condensate from the condenser is 40 C. The circulating
water enters the condenser at 12 C and leaves at 29 C. Calculate the mass of circulating water
per kg steam condensed. Ans: 30.04 kg

ENGR. ANACLETO M. CORTEZ, JR. 47

EVALUATION PROBLEMS

1. An ideal Rankine cycle has throttle conditions of 6 MPa and 450 C. Exhaust pressure is at
0.005 MPa. Determine the Rankine cycle efficiency. Ans. 39.5 %

2. ME Board ( OCT. 1195). A superheat steam Rankine cycle has turbine inlet conditions of
17.5 MPa and 530 C expands in a Turbine to 0.007 MPa. The turbine and pump polytropic
efficiencies are 0.9 and 0.7 respectively. Pressure losses between pump and turbine inlet are
1.5 MPa. What should be the pump work in KJ/kg? Ans: 27.1 KJ/kg

3. ME Board (Oct. 1994). A coal-fired power plant has a turbine –generator rated at 1000
MW gross. The plant required about 9 % of this power for its inernal operations. It uses 9800
tons of coal per day. The coal has a heating value of 6,388.9 Kcal/kg, and the steam generator
efficiency is 86 %. What is the net station efficiency of the plant in percent?
Ans: 33.07 %

4. ME Board (Oct. 1992) A Batangas base industrial company operates a steam-power plant
with reheat and regeneration. The steam enters the turbine at 300 bar and 900 K and expands
to 1 bar. Steam leaves the first stage at 30 bar and part of it entering a closed heater while th
rest reheated to 800 K. Both section of the turbine have adiabatic efficiency of 93 %. A
condensate pump exist between the main condenser and the heater. Another pump lies
between the heater and condensate outlet line from the heater (condensed extracted steam).
Compute for the extracted fraction of the total mass flow to the heater. Ans: 0.234 kg Ext. /
kg Throttled steam

5. A simple steam engine plant has boiler feedwater at 95.6 C. Steam is supplied to the engine
at 7.03 kg/cm2, 97 % dry. Atmospheric exhaust. Steam rate 9.3 kg per ihp-hr, mechanical
efficiency = 87 %. Generator of 91.5 % efficiency is directly connected to the engine.
Determine the Rankine cycle efficiency. Ans: 11.63 %

6. A 75 KW steam turbogenerator has a steam rate of 12.7 kg/KW-hr. Steam at 12.3 Kg/cm2
gauge 55.6 C superheat. Exhaust is 50.8 mm Hg abs. Find the combined thermal efficiency of
this unit. Ans: 10.25 %

7. A steam turbine receives 5,000 kg/hr of steam at 5 MPa and 400 C and velocity of 25
m/sec. It leaves the turbine at 0.006 MPa and 15 % wetness and velocity of 20 m/sec.
Radiation loss is 10,000 KJ/hr. Find the KW power developed. Ans: 1,373.4 KW

8. A boiler generates superheated steam at the rate of 50,000 kg /hr. Feedwater enters the
boiler at 5 MPa and 120 C and leaves at 4.5 MPa and 320 C. If the coal used has a heating
value of 30,000 KJ/kg, and the coal is consumed at the rate of 5,000 kg /hr, calculate:
a. boiler efficiency Ans. a) 83.117 %
b. factor of evaporation Ans. b) 1.1048
c. ASME evaporation units in KJ/hr Ans. c) 124,675,500 KJ/hr
d. actual specific evaporation Ans. d) 10
e. equivalent specific evaporation. Ans. e) 11.048

ENGR. ANACLETO M. CORTEZ, JR. 46

C) Ueco. = overall coef. of heat transfer of economizer

q max . = 410 - 227 = 183 C ;q min . = 349.3 - 210 = 139.3 C

q max . - q min 183 - 139.3
LMTD = = = 160.17 C
q max 183
ln ln
q min 139.3

Qfw = Mf ( 976.1 – 897.76) = 95,361(976.1 – 897.76)

Qfw 95,361(976.1 - 897.76 ) KJ / hr

Ueco. = = = 147.6 KJ / hr.m 2 .K
Aeco. LMTD 316 m 2 x 160.17 C

= 41 Watts/m2.K

U AH = overall heat transfer coefficient of air heater

q max . = 150 - 43 = 107 C ;q min . = 349.3 - 302 = 47.3 C

107 - 47.3
LMTD = = 73.1 C
107
ln
47.3

Qfg = Mfg Cpfg (Tg 2 - Tg 3) = 120,000(1.026 )(199.3)KJ / hr

Qfg 120,000(1.026 )(199.3) KJ / hr
U AH = =
AAH LMTD 4276 m 2 x 73.1 C
U AH = 78.5 KJ / hr.m 2 .K = 21.8 watt / m 2 .K

ENGR. ANACLETO M. CORTEZ, JR. 45

Rational assumptions:
Cpfg = 1.026 KJ / kg.K (Flue gas)
Cpa = 1.0062 KJ/kg.K (air)

Steam flow 92,500

Feedwater flow: Mf = = = 95,361 kg / hr
1 - blowdown 1 - 0.03
Feedwater data:
h1e = enthalpy of water entering the economizer at 210 C
= 897.76 KJ/kg
h2e = enthalpy of feedwater leaving the economizer at 227 C
= 976.10 KJ/kg
A) Tg2 = temperature of flue gas leaving economizer
Tg1 = 410 C

Heat balance in Economizer:

Mfg Cpfg (Tg1 – Tg2) = Mf (h2e – h1e)
Mf (h 2e - h1e ) 95,361(976.1 - 897.76 )
Tg1 - Tg 2 = = = 60.7 C
Mgf Cpfg 120,000(1.026 )
Tg 2 = Tg1 - 60.7 = 410 - 60.7 = 349.3 C

B) Ta2 = temperature of air leaving the air heater

Ta1 = 43 C
Tg3 = 150 C

Heat balance in the Air Heater:

Ma Cpa (Ta2 – Ta1) = Mfg Cpfg (Tg2 – Tg3)
Mfg Cpfg (Tg 2 - Tg1) 120,000(1.026 )(349.3 - 150 )
Ta2 – Ta1 = = = 259.4 C
Ma Cpa 94,000 (1.0062 )

Ta2 = Ta1 + 259.4 = 43 + 259.4 = 302.4 C

ENGR. ANACLETO M. CORTEZ, JR. 44

SUPERHEATERS, REHEATERS, AIR PREHEATERS, ECONOMIZERS

Attemperator is a desuperheater . Control by attemperation means that the temperature of

the steam is reduced by removing energy from the steam
Types of Attemperators: (a) tubular type (b) water injection type

Ex. 4.26: Tempering water at 49 C enters a spray-type desuperheater. The desuperheater is

connected to a steam line carrying 158,730 kg steam per hour at 3.30 MPa. Determine the
mass of water per hour that must be sprayed in to maintain steam at 405 C when the steam
generator load requires steam to leave the superheater at 420 C.

Heat balance of desuperheater:

158,730(3271.6) + 205.15 M3 = (158,730 + M3 ) 3237.2

M3 = 1,800 kg/hr
M3 = mass flow rate of spray water.

Ex. 4.27: A steam generating unit with economizer and air heater has the following data:
Generated steam, 92,500 kg/hr
Blowdown, 3%
Gas flow, 120,000 kg/hr
Gas temperature to economizer, 410 C
Gas temp. leaving air heater, 150 C
Combustion air flow, 94,000 kg/hr
Feedwater temperature to economizer, 210 C
Feedwater temperature from economizer, 227 C
Combustion air temp. to air heater, 43 C
Heat Transfer area of economizer, 316 m2
Heat transfer area of air heater, 4276 m2
Determine, making needed rational assumptions:
A) Gas temp. when leaving economizer.
B) Combustion air temperature when leaving air heater.
C) Overall coefficient of heat transfer for both economizer and air heater.

ENGR. ANACLETO M. CORTEZ, JR. 43

Ex. 4.25: A deaerating feedwater heater operates so that 272,110 kg of saturated liquid leave
per hour at 0.275 MPa. The heater also receives 22,675 kg/hr of drains having an enthalpy of
700 KJ/kg and the main feedwater enters the heater at 70 C. Estimate the mass of bled steam
from the turbine at 0.29 MPa and 150 C necessary to operate the hater under the foregoing
conditions.

M1 = mass of feedwater entering the deaerator

At 70 C; h1 = 292.98 KJ/kg
Md = mass of drains = 22,675 kg/hr ; hd = 700 KJ/kg
Bled steam: P= 0.29 MPa & T = 150 C ; hs = 2761.8 KJ/kg
Ms = mass of bled steam
At 0.275 MPa; hf = 548.89 KJ/kg

Mass balance in the heater: Ms + M1 +22,675 = 272,110

Ms + M1 = 272,110 – 22,675 = 249,435 kg /hr
M1 = 249,435 – Ms -------- Eq. # 1

Heat balance in the heater : Md.hd + Ms.hs + M1.h1 = 272,110( hf)

Ms hs + M1 h1 = 272,110 hf – Md hd
Ms hs + ( 249,435 – Ms) h1 = 272,110 hf – Md hd
Ms (hs – h1) = 272,110 hf – Md hd – 249,435 h1
Ms (2761.8 – 292.98) = 272,110(548.89) – 22,675 (700) - 249,435 (292.48)

Ms = 24,518 kg bled steam /hr

ENGR. ANACLETO M. CORTEZ, JR. 42

 Where: M = mass flow of feedwater
V1 = specific volume
P1 = entrance pressure
P2 = exit pressure

2.0. power Input to the Pump:

Pump Work
Wpin =
Pump Efficiency

FEEDWATER HEATERS
Feedwater Heaters are device used to heat the feedwater before it enters the boiler
for the purpose of increasing the thermal efficiency.
Types of feedwater heater:
1. Contact type 2. Surface type

Ex. 4.24: What trap capacity is required to drain a closed feedwater heater if 18,140 kg of
feedwater per hour enter at 138 C and leave at 163 C. Bled steam from the turbine is at 166 C
and contains 3 % moisture. The condensate is saturated and the loss due to radiation is 5 % of
the energy given to heat the feedwater.

Qn = net heat given by steam to heat the feedwater

Qn =Ms (hs – hc)(1- losses) = Ms (hs – hc)(0.95)
Qn = Ms (2702.72 – 701.71)(0.95) ------- Eq.# 1

Heat gained by feedwater: Qf = Mf (hfo – hfi)

Qf = 18,140(688.61 – 580.54) ---------- Eq.# 2
Equate Eq.# 1 and Eq.# 2:

Ms (2702.72 – 701.71)(0.95) = 18,140(688.61 – 580.54)

Ms = 1031 kg hr

Trap capacity = 1,031 kg/hr (Ans)

ENGR. ANACLETO M. CORTEZ, JR. 41

Ex. 4.23: A 10,000 KW steam turbine uses 5.44 kg steam per kw.hr at rated load. Steam
conditions are 4.15 MPa and 400 C with exhaust at 25 mm Hg abs. Condensate is subcooled
3 C and friction-radiation losses amount to 2 percent of turbine output. Calculate: A)
enthalpy of exhaust steam. B) Volume flow of condensing water based on 6 C rise.
Steam properties: At 4.15 MPa & 400 C ; h1=3210.9 KJ/kg
3600 KJ / kw.hr
The actual work of turbine, W = = 661.76 KJ / kg
5.44 kg / kw.hr
Thus; 661.76 = (h1-h2)(1-losses)
661.76 = (h1-h2)(1 – 0.02) = (h1-h2)(0.98)
æ 661.76 ö æ 661.76 ö
h 2 = h1 - ç ÷ = 3210.9 - ç ÷ = 2535.63 KJ / kg
è 0.98 ø è 0.98 ø
A) h2 = 2535.63 KJ/kg is the enthalpy of exhaust steam

B) Vcw = volume flow rate of cooling water

At 25 mm Hg abs.; Tsat = 26.13 C

Temperature of condensate; Tc = 26.13 – 3 = 23.13 C
h3 = hf = enthalpy of condensate = 97.06 KJ/kg

Ms = Turbine steam rate

5.44 kg / kw - hr (10,000 kw)
Ms = = 15.11 kg steam / sec .
3600 sec/ hr

By heat balance: Heat removed from condensing steam = Heat absorbed by water
Ms(h 2 - h3) = Mw.Cpw.DT
Ms(h 2 - h3) 15.11(2535.63 - 97.06 )
Mw = = = 1467 kg water / sec .
Cpw.DT 4.187(6 )
1467 kg / sec .
Vcw = 3
= 1.467 m 3 / sec .
1000 kg / m

FEEDWATER PUMP

Feedwater pump is a device used to pump boiler feedwater.

1.0. Pump Work, Wp = M (h1 -= h2)

Wp = M V1(P2 – P1 )

ENGR. ANACLETO M. CORTEZ, JR. 40

 q max . - q min . 16.13 - 8
LMTD = = = 11.60 C
q max . 16.13
ln ln
q min 8
1203345000 KJ / hr
A= = 9494 m 2
KJ
10926 (1.0)(11.60)K
hr.m 2 .K
Q 1203345000
Mw = = = 9819 kg / sec
C. Cpw(To - Ti ) 4.187(18.13 - 10 )(3600 )

9819 kg / sec
Vw = 3
= 9.82 m 3 / sec .
1000 kg / m
Vw 9.82 m 3 / sec
D. Nt = = = 18596 tubes
p 2 p æ 16.6 ö
2
xID xVel ç
2
÷ m / tube x 2.44 m / sec
4 4 è 1000 ø
A 9494 m 2
E. Length of tubes = = = 8.55 m
p OD Nt æ 19 ö
pç ÷m x 18596 tubes
è 1000 ø
F. Lt = total length of tubes = 8.55 + 2(tube sheet thickness)
Lt = 8.55 + 2(0.032) =8.614 m

OD - ID 19 - 16.6
True Mean Diameter = = = 17.8 mm = 0.0178 m
OD 19
ln ln
ID 16.6
Density of Admiralty metal = 8465 kg / m3
Thickness of tube = t = 0.0012 m

Mt = total mass of tubes = r x pD t x Lt x Nt = 8465 xp (0.0178)(0.0012 )(8.614 )18596

Mt = 90,992 kg = 90.992 Tons

G. Hc = frictional drop through condenser

= total length of each tube times tube friction loss(Fig.8-11, Potter) + pressure loss
in single pass condenser water box (Fig. 8-11, Potter)

Hc = 8.614(0.52) + 0.53 = 5 m

H. Ht = total losses in tunnels and inlet-outlet pipes

Ht = 0.60 + 0.30 + 0.90 + 0.45 = 2.25 m

TDH = 5 + 2.25 + 5.5 = 12.75 m

Q g TDH 9.82 x9.81x12.75

I. Shaft Power of Motor = = = 1535 KW (2058 hp)
Effy. 0.80

ENGR. ANACLETO M. CORTEZ, JR. 39

Solution:
If exhaust steam conditions is not well defined, the heat exchange Institute
recommends 2210 KJ/kg of exhaust steam are to be removed by the cooling water in the
condenser. Hence
Q = heat rejected by exhaust steam or heat gained by cooling water
Q = 150,000 kw x 3.63 kg/kw-hr x 2210 KJ/kg
Q = 1,203,345,000 KJ/hr

Te = temperature of exhaust steam

Te = 26.13 C (Tsat) at 25 mm Hg abs. exhaust pressure
Tubes: OD = 19 mm; ID = 16.6 mm

For Condensers:
U = U x Ft x Fm x Fc x Fp
Where: U = overall coefficient of heat transfer
U = 4327.23 W/m2 .K= Coeff. Of heat transfer. (Potter, Fig 8-9, P. 351)
Ft = 0.825 = temp. correction factor (Potter, Fig. 8-9)
Fm = 1.00 = tube material and thickness correction factor (Potter, Fig.8-9)
Fc = 0.85 = cleanliness factor (given)
Fp = prime mover factor = 1.0 for turbines
= 0.75 for steam engines

U = 4327.23 x 0.825 x 1.0 x 0.85 x 1.0 = 3035 W /m2 . K

U = 10926 KJ /hr.m2.K
F = cross flow factor = 1 for single pass

A. TTD = Temp steam – Cooling water exit temperature

TTD = Te – To
To = Te – TTD = outlet temperature of circulating water
To = 26.13 – 8 = 18.13 C
Q
B. A =
UF (LMTD )

q max . = 16.13 C ; q min . = TTD = 8 C

ENGR. ANACLETO M. CORTEZ, JR. 38

 Pa 2.041
Ma = = = 0.023341 kg air / m 3 mix
Ra T (8.3143 / 29 )(32 + 273)
Ps 4.759
Ms = = = 0.033780 kg steam / m 3 mix
RS T (8.3143 / 18)(32 + 273)
Ma 0.023341 kg dry air
= = 0.691
Ms 0.033780 kg steam

Ex. 4.21: A jet condenser discharges water at 37 C with inlet water at 8 C. Condenser
pressure is 76 mm Hg abs. Calculate the mass of condensing water per kg of exhaust steam
with a dryness factor of 88 percent.
Solution:

Let: Ms = mass flow rate of steam

Mw = mass flow rate of cooling water
By Heat Balance:
2298.13(Ms) + 33.6(Mw) = (Ms+Mw)(155.03)
Divide both sides by Ms;
2298.13 + 33.6(Mw/Ms) = (1 + Mw/Ms)(155.03)

Mw / Ms = 17.65 kg cooling water / kg exhaust steam

Ex. 4.22: A surface condenser is to operate under the following conditions:

150 MW turbine, exhaust steam rate 3.63 kg/kw-hr, 25 mm Hg abs.;single-pass, 19 mm OD,
ID = 16.6 mm Admiralty tubes; 10 C inlet water temperature; 2.44 m/s velocity, 0.60 m
friction drop in the inlet tunnel, 0.30 m for the outlet tunnel, 0.90 m drop in the inlet pipe,
0.45 m in the outlet pipe; top of outlet pipe is 5.5 m above river level; 85 % cleanliness; 8 C
terminal difference; 80 % circulating pump efficiency. Find:
A. outlet temperature of circulating water;
B. heat transfer surface area;
C. volume flow of circulating water;
D. number of tubes in condenser;
E. effective tube length;
F. total mass of tubes in condenser allowing 32 mm tube sheet thickness;
G. friction drop through condenser
H. TDH for circulating pump
I. power of circulating-pump motor.

ENGR. ANACLETO M. CORTEZ, JR. 37

Fig. 1.

Patm. - Pcond .
Vacuum Efficiency; VE =
Patm. - Psat.
Patm.= atmospheric pressure
Pcond.=absolute condenser pressure
Psat.= saturation pressure

2.0. Contact (Jet) Condenser is a heat transfer device in which the steam is brought into
contact with a cooling liquid such as water and is condenses by giving up its latent heat to the
fluid.

Heat Balance:
Ms hS + Mw h fw = (Ms + Mw)hC

Ex. 4.20: Under the following conditions in a condenser, determine the air-to-steam ratio:
a.) condenser pressure, 51 mm Hg abs.
b.) Steam temperature, 32 C.
Solution: At 32 C, the saturation pressure Psat.= 0.004759 MPa = 4.759 KPa. It is also the
partial pressure of steam, Ps.
Condenser pressure, Pc = 51 mm Hg abs. = 0.0068 MPa = 6.8 KPa. It is also the total
pressure in the condenser.
PC = SP = Pa + PS
Pa = Pc - PS = 0.0068 - 0004759 = 0.002041MPa = 2.041 KPa
Pa = partial pressure of the air
P kg
Using the Gas Law: M = ; 3
RT m of mixture

ENGR. ANACLETO M. CORTEZ, JR. 36

STEAM CONDENSER

Steam Condenser is a device used to maintain vacuum conditions on the exhaust of a

steam prime mover by transfer of heat to circulating water or air at the lowest ambient
temperature.
Functions:
a. To create vacuum at turbine exhaust and to increase the turbine power.
b. To convert the steam to liquid so that it can be pumped back to the boiler.

1.0. Surface Condenser is a heat transfer device in which steam and cooling water do not
mix; commonly used design is the shell-and-tube.

Heat Balance in the Condenser: (From Fig.1)

Heat absorbed by water = Heat rejected by steam

Mw Cpw(t 2 - t1 ) = Ms (hs - h f )(E h )

Where: Eh = heat extraction factor
Eh =1 (if it is not taken into consideration)
t1 & t 2 = inlet and exit temperature of cooling water
Ms = exhaust-steam flow rate
Mw = cooling water flow rate
hs & h f = enthalpy of exhaust steam and condensate
The exhaust enthalpy may be found from the turbine condition line:
h - W - Q - Smh
hs = i
1 - Sm

hi = prime - mover inlet - steam enthalpy

W = Work output
Q = radiation or other heat losses
Smh = enthalp of turbine extraction steam
Sm = total extracted steam, kg Ext. / kg throttled steam
hs = exhaust steam enthalpy

In Surface Condenser:
Terminal Temp. Difference = Steam Temp. – Cooling water exit Temperature
Terminal Temp. Difference (TTD) is usually 2.80C (5 F) or more.

ENGR. ANACLETO M. CORTEZ, JR. 35

At Full Load: 23,175 = a + b(2500) - - - - - Eq. 1
At Half Load: 12,608 = a + b(2500) - - - - - Eq. 2
Substitute (2) in (1):
23,175 = 12,608 – b(2500) + b(5000)
23,175 = 12,608 + b(2500)
10,567 = 2500 b
b= 4.2268
Solving for a: a = 12,608 – 4.2268(2500)
a= 2,041
Subs: y1 = a + bx = 2,041 + 4.2268(4750) = 22,118.3 kg/hr

Steam Consumption of 7500 KW turbine

y 34013 - 18820
= ; y = 4051.4 kg/hr
4750 - 3750 7500 - 3750

y2= 18820 + y = 18820 + 4051.4 = 22,871.4 kg/hr

a) Combined Steam Rate or Actual Steam Rate:
Steam Consumed y1 + y 2 22118.3 + 22871.4
CSR or ASR = = =
Load Load 9500
= 4.735 kg/kw-hr
b) Average Turbine Heat Rate = CSR(h1-hf) = 4.735(3228.86-161.1)
= 14,525.8 KJ/kw-hr
3600 3600
c) Plant Thermal Efficiency (PTE) = = x100% = 24.78%
HeatRate 14,525.8

ENGR. ANACLETO M. CORTEZ, JR. 34

 Mw = 113.5 x 60 Li / hr x 1 kg/Li = 6810 kg water /hr

m3(h3 - hc ) = Mw Cpw DT
6810 x 4.187 x67 kg steam
m3 = = 862
(2630.1 - 414) hr

Ex. 4.19: A 7500 KW and a 5000 KW turbogenerator are installed in a plant operating with
steam at 2.85 MPa, 398 C steam, and a back pressure of 50.8 mm Hg. Steam flow are as
follows:
½ load (kg/hr) Full load (kg/hr)
5000 KW 12,608 23,175
7500 KW 18,820 34,013

A system load of 9,500 KW is divided equally between the units.

Calculate: a) Combined steam rate ; b) Average Turbine heat rate; and c) Plant thermal
efficiency.
Solution: Load per turbogenerator = 9500/2 = 4750 KW
Steam properties: P1 = 2.85 MPa, T1= 398 C ; h1 = 3228.86 KJ/kg
P2 = 50.8 mm Hg = 0.0068 MPa ; hf = 161.1
Willan’s Line: Steam consumption for 5000 KW turbine

ENGR. ANACLETO M. CORTEZ, JR. 33

 6.9831 - 1.3608
X 3' = = 0.9469
5.9373
h3' = hf + X 3' hfg = 2564.5
h 2 - h3
0.743 =
h 2 - h3'
h3 = h 2 - 0.743(h 2 - h3') = 2630.1
h3 - hf 2630.1 - 439.32
X3 = = = 0.976
hfg 2244.2
S 3 = Sf + X 3Sfg = 7.1569 = S 4'

Stage 4: eS 4 = 0.715 P4 = 0.024 MPa, S4’=7.1569 < Sg

S 4'- Sf
X 4' = = 0.901
Sfg
h 4' = hf + X 4' hfg = 2384.4
h3 - h 4
0.715 =
h3 - h 4'
h 4 = h3 - 0.715(h3 - h 4')
h 4 = 2454.4
h 4 - hf
X4 = = 0.931
hfg
S 4 = Sf + X 4 Sfg = 7.3645 = S 5'

Stage 5: eS 5 = 0.688 P5 = 0.0034 , S5’=7.3645

X 5' = 0.8566
h5' = 2199.6
h5 = h 4 - 0.688(h 4 - h5') = 2279.1
X 5 = 0.8892

Condition of bled steam: P3 = 0.12 MPa ; T3 = Tsat = 104.8 C

h3 = 2630.1 ; X3 = 0.976 Ans.

Note: h1, h2, h3, h4,h5 are enthalpies corresponding to actual expansion at the condition
curve; while h1’, h2’, h3’, h4’, h5’ are enthalpies due to isentropic expansion in each stage.
b. Let: m3 = the quantity of process steam

ENGR. ANACLETO M. CORTEZ, JR. 32

Analysis:
Stage 1: Pt =4.5 MPa, 416 C ; ht = 3242.98 and St = 6.76086
At S1’=St = 6.76086 then h1’= 2934

ht - h1
eS1 = h1 = ht - eS 1 (ht - h1') = 3242.98 - 0.813(3242.98 - 2934 )
ht - h1'
h1= 2991.78 & 1.4 MPa

S1 =S2’= 6.8669
h2’ =2768.3, P2 = 0.5 MPa

h1 - h 2
Stage 2: eS 2 = 0.769 =
h1 - h 2'
h2 = h1 - 0.769(h1 - h2') = 2991.78 - 0.769(2991.78 - 2768.3) = 2820
At h2 = 2820 & P2=0.5 MPa
S2= 6.9831 = S3’

Stage 3: eS 3 = 0.743 P3=0.12 MPa, S3’=6.9831 < Sg

ENGR. ANACLETO M. CORTEZ, JR. 31

b) emg = 100 – 8 = 92% = 0.92
h -h
CEE = RCR x emg = 1 2 a x emg
h1 - h2
CEE h1 - h2 a
=
emg h1 - h2

0.6744 3038.98 - h2 a
=
0.92 3038.98 - 2491.5

h2 a = 2637.6 KJ / kg and X 2 a = 97.22%

Ex. 4.18: Steam at 4.5 MPa and 416 C is used in an extraction turbine having 5 pressure
stages. Exhaust pressure is 25.4 mm Hg abs. Stage data are:
Stage Pressure(MPa) Stage Effy. (%)
1 1.4 81.3
2 0.5 76.9
3 0.12 74.3
4 0.024 71.5
5 0.0034 68.8
Steam is bled at the 3rd stage for process steam.
a. Plot the condition curve and determine the condition of bled sream.
b. Calculate the process steam required (kg/hr) if 113.5 Lpm of water is heated
through 67 C range in a non-mixing heater. Assume that the condensate leaves the heater
subcooled 6 C.

ENGR. ANACLETO M. CORTEZ, JR. 30

 a. Condensing – exhaust is below atmosphere.
b. Non-condensing – exhaust is atmospheric and above.
4. Initial Temperature and pressure of steam:
a. Supercritical > 22.1 MPa
b. High pressure – 12.4 MPa to 16.50 MPa
c. Low pressure - 1.4 MPa to 2.8 MPa
d. High temperature ≥ 500 C
5.Staging:
a. Single stage
b.Multi-stage

Advantages of steam turbine over that of reciprocating steam are:

Engine a. Much higher speeds may be developed and far greater speed range is possible than
in the case of reciprocating engine.
b. Perfect balance is theoretically possible.
c. A turbine is able to convert into useful work the energy the enrgy in the steam up to the
lowest limit imposed by nature.
d. Turbine allow an enormous concentration of power and the materials of construction are
used to their best advantage. In fact when properly designed and constructed, the steam
turbine is the most durable prime-mover on earth.
e. Unlike the reciprocating engine, the steam consumption of turbine does not increase with
years of service.

Ex. 4.17: A 6,000 KW straight noncondensing turbogenerator takes steam at athrottle at 2.8
MPa and 316 C. Exhaust at 0.0689 MPag, and the steam rate is 9.75 kg/kw-hr. The generator
and turbine mechanical losses are 8 %. Calculate: a) Over-all engine efficiency, and b)
Exhaust steam condition.

ASR= 9.75 kg/kw-hr h1= 3038.98 h2= 2491.5 P2=0.170225MPa

TSR 3600 3600

a) CEE or OEE = = = = 0.6744
ASR ASR(h1 - h2 ) 9.75(3038.98 - 2491.5)
= 67.44 %

ENGR. ANACLETO M. CORTEZ, JR. 29

 3600
10.0. Theoritical Steam Rate: TSR = kg / kw - hr
h1 - h2

TSR TSR
11.0. Actual Steam Rate: ASR = =
emg RCR CEE

3600
ASR =
(h1 - h2 )emg RCR
f NL - f FL
12. Speed Regulation =
f NL
f NL = frequency at No Load
f FL = frequency at Full Load

13.0. Willan’s Line – is a straight line which shows the relation between the steam
consumption (Ms, kg/hr) and the load (L, kW) of a steam turbine generator unit.

y= steam consumption at any point x

x= load
a= no load steam consumption
b= slope of Willan’s line

CLASSIFICATIONS OF STEAM TURBINES:

1. Types of blades: a) Impulse b) Reaction
2. Cylinder Arrangement:
►a. Single Cylinder – rotating rows of blades are mounted in one shaft. All
steam flow in one direction.
For double flow units – steam enters at the center-divided equally- flowing
in opposite direction along the shaft.
►b. Tandem-Compound Turbine – has one high pressure end and one low
pressure end. Steam flow from HP to LP via a large cross-over pipe. HP and
LP are mounted on the same shaft.
►c. Cross- Compound Turbine – has HP and LP ends on different shaft
►d. Vertical-Compound Turbine – similar to Tandem compound without
cross-over. Steam flow from HP to LP end.
\ 3. Exhaust Pressure:

ENGR. ANACLETO M. CORTEZ, JR. 28

Performance of Steam Turbines:

1.0. Ideal Turbine Work: Wti = Ms[h1 - h2 ]

2.0. Actual Turbine Work: Wta = Ms(h1 - h2 a )

If stage efficiency (es) is given:
Wta = Ms(h1 - h2 )es

h2a = enthalpy of steam after actual expansion

es = stage efficiency
Rankine Cycle Ratio – RCR- stage efficiency if turbine is single stage
- internal engine efficiency if turbine is multi-stage
- isentropic efficiency
h - h2 a
RCR = 1
h1 - h2

3.0. Turbine Power Output: Pt = Ms[h1 - h2 ] et

et = turbine efficiency
et = es em em = mechanical energy

Generator Output
4.0. Electrical or Generator Efficiency: h gen =
Turbine Output

Turbine Output (h - h2 ) et
5.0. Brake Thermal Efficiency: BTE = = 1
Ms(h1 - h f 2 ) Ms(h1 - h f 2 )

Gen. Output
6.0. Combined or Overall Thermal Efficiency: CTE =
Ms (h1 - h f 2 )

h1 - h2
7.0. Ideal Rankine Thermal Efficiency: IRTE =
h1 - h f 2

Brake Power
8.0. Brake Engine Efficiency: BEE =
Ms(h1 - h2 )

Gen. Output
9.0. Combined or Overall Engine Efficiency: CEE =
Ms(h1 - h2 )

CEE = RCR x em x egen.

ENGR. ANACLETO M. CORTEZ, JR. 27

 æ PLAN ö æ PLAN ö
Pind . = ç ÷ +ç ÷
è k ø HE è k ø CE
æ 171.6 x 0.3556 x 0.114 x 250 ö æ 171.6 x 0.3556 x 0.111 x 250 ö
Pind . = ç ÷+ç ÷ = 57.2 KW
è 60 ø è 60 ø
Pind . = 76.69 hp
Where : Pind . = is the indicated power
Pb = Pind . x Mechanical Efficiency
Pb = 76.69 x 0.90 = 69 hp
Where: Pb = is the brake power

STEAM TURBINES

Steam Turbine is a machine for conversion of heat of steam into work in a revolving
shaft, utilizing fluid acceleration principles in jet and vane machinery.

ENGR. ANACLETO M. CORTEZ, JR. 26

 h2a = h1-Wind.- QR = 2884.4 – 348 – 10.44 = 2525.96 KJ/kg
2525.96 - 490.68
X 2a = = 0.92
2211.2

d. Ihp = 500 / 0.96 = 520.83 hp

Ms = 7.71 kg/ihp-hr X 520.83 ihp = 4015.6 kg Steam / hr

hf = 276.23 KJ/kg; hf at 66 C

Avail. Process Heat = Ms(h 2a - hf ) = 4015.6(2525.96 - 276.23) = 9,034,000 KJ / hr

Ex. 4.16: Estimate the bhp of a 381 mm x 355.6 mm double-acting steam engine with 60.3
mm piston rod when operating at 250 rpm. Steam pressure is 620 kPag and the exhaust
pressure is 10.3 kPag. The engine is Corliss type with cut-off = 15 %, diagram factor = 85 %,
mechanical efficiency = 90 %.
Given: r = 15 %
Ps = 620 + 101.325 = 721.325 KPa
Pd = 10.3 + 101.325 + 111.325 KPa

Theoretical mep = Ps. r éê1 + ln ùú - Pd (Potter,P.; Pp. 500)

1
ë rû
= 721.325(0.15)éê1 + ln
1 ù
- 111.325 = 201.84 KPa
ë 0.15 úû

Pmi = Theoretical mep x Diagram Factor

Indicated mep;
Pmi = 201.84 x 0.85 = 171.6 KPa
p
Area of Head End : AHE = x0.3812 = 0.114 m 2
4
p
Area of Crank End : ACE =
4
(0.3812
)
- 0.0603 2 = 0.111 m 2

ENGR. ANACLETO M. CORTEZ, JR. 25

Ex. 4.15: A uniflow engine has a steam consumption of 7.71 kg / ihp-hr. Operation is under
the following conditions:
Steam pressure = 1.4 MPa
Steam temperature= 232 C
Back Pressure = 0.01585MPag(0.18 MPa)
Calculate: a) Ind. Engine Efficiency; b) Ind. Thermal
Efficiency
c) Exhaust-steam enthalpy and quality, assuming radiation
losses 3 % of indicated power.
d. Available process heat in KJ/hr if, at above rate, 500 bhp
is developed at 96 % mechanical efficiency and condensate
returns at 66 C.

Steam properties: P1=1.4MPa, T=232 C ; h1=2884.4 S1= 6.66346

P2=0.18 MPa, S2’=S1; Sf=1.4944 Sfg= 5.6679 hf= 490.68 hfg=2211.2
6.66346 - 1.14944
X2= = 0.91
5.6679
h 2 = 490.68 + 0.91x 2211.2 = 2507.2

a) IEE or h i =
(2545 x1.055)KJ / ihp - hr = 2684
= 0.923
ISR(h1 - h 2 ) 7.71(2884.4 - 2507.2 )

2684 2684
b) ITE = = = 0.1454
ISR(h1 - hf ) 7.71(2884.4 - 490.68)

2684 KJ / hp - hr
c) Wind . = = 348 KJ / kg ; QR = 0.03Wind . = 0.03 x348 = 10.44
7.71 kg / ihp - hr

ENGR. ANACLETO M. CORTEZ, JR. 24

 h1 - h2
10. Equivalent Rankine Cycle Efficiency, ERCE =
h1 - h f 2

Where: Ms= mass flow rate of steam, kg/sec

h1 = enthalpy of steam entering the steam engine
hf2 = enthalpy of condensate leaving the condenser
h2 = enthalpy of steam exhaust from engine

Ex. 4.14: A 254 mm x 305 mm double-acting uniflow engine has a 46mm piston rod and
no tail rod. Indicator-card data are as follows:
Head-end card= 852 mm2
Crank-end card= 929 mm2
Card length= 74 mm
Spring Scale= 21.7 KPa / mm
Brake Arm= 1524 mm
Net brake weight= 78 kg
Speed= 250 rpm
Calculate: a) Ind. Hp b) brake hp c) fhp d) mechanical effy.
Area of card x spring scale
a. Pmi =
length of card
852 x 21.7 p
Pmi HE = = 249.8 kPa ; AHE = x0.254 2 = 0.05067 m 2
74 4
p
Pmi CE =
929 x 21.7
74
( )
= 272.4 kPa ; ACE = 0.254 2 - 0.046 2 = 0.049m 2
4
Pind = (PLAN )HE + (PLAN )CE
æ 249.8kPa x0.305m x0.05067 m 2 x 250rpm ö æ 272.4 x0.305 x0.049 x 250 ö
Pind = çç ÷÷ + ç ÷
è 60 ø è 60 ø
Pind = 33.05kw = 44.3 hp

2p N F r 2p x 250rpm x(78 x0.00981)kN x 1.524m

Pb = =
b. k 60
Pb = 30.529 kw = 40.92 hp

c. fhp = Pind - Pb = 44.3 - 40.92 = 3.38 hp

Pb 40.92
d. ME or h m = = x100% = 92.37%
Pind 44.3

ENGR. ANACLETO M. CORTEZ, JR. 23

1.0. Volume Displacement, VD
a. If piston rod is neglected:
éæ pD 2 ö ù
VD = 2 êçç ÷÷ LN ú
ëè 4 ø û
b. If piston rod is considered:
æ pD 2 ö p
VD = çç (
÷÷ LN + D 2 - d 2 LN)
è 4 ø 4

Where: D = diameter of the piston

d= diameter of the piston rod
L= length of stroke
N= rotative speed of the crankshaft

2.0. Indicated Power, Pind:

Pind. = Pmi x VD KW
Where: Pmi = indicated mean effective pressure

3.0. Brake Power, Pb:

Pb = Pmb x VD KW
2pTN
Pb = KW
60
Where: VD = volume displacement in cu.m / sec
Pmb = brake mep in KPa
T = Torque in (KN-m)
N = rotative speed in rpm

4.0. Friction Power, Pf: = Pind. – Pb

Brake Power Pb
5.0. Mechanical Efficiency, ηm = =
Indicated Power Pind .

Pind
6.0. Indicated Thermal Efficiency, ITE =
Ms (h1 - h f 2 )

Pb
7.0. Brake Thermal Efficiency, BTE =
Ms (h1 - h f 2 )

Pind .
8.0. Indicated Engine Efficiency, IEE =
Ms(h1 - h2 )

Pb
9.0. Brake Engine Efficiency, BEE =
Ms(h1 - h2 )

ENGR. ANACLETO M. CORTEZ, JR. 22

 64.43kg / hr
Vf = = 75.4 liter / hr
0.855kg / liter
p
Volume of oil in the tank; Vo = (1.4)2 x9 = 13.85 m 3 = 13,850 liters
4
13850 Liters
Number of Days = = 7.65 days
liters hr
75.4 x 24
hr day

STEAM ENGINES

Steam Engine is a machine for the conversion of heat into work, generally in the
form of a positive displacement, piston and cylinder mechanism. It was the first type of prime
mover used in power plants.

Steam Engine may classified as:

1. Single-valve counterflow
2. Four-valve counterflow
3. Uniflow (most efficient)
Any of the three above may be classified further as:
1. Simple or Compound
2. Cut-off or throttled governed
3. Condensing or noncondensing
4. by type of valve: D, Piston, Poppet, Corliss
5. According to speed
6. horizontal or vertical.

Performance of Steam Engines: (Steam engines are double acting)

ENGR. ANACLETO M. CORTEZ, JR. 21

Ex. 4.12: A steam plant has a 2,000 KW turbine that uses 5.4 kg steam/kw-hr at 2.75 MPa
and 260 C. Steam generator efficiency is 75 % when burning coal with an HHV of 31,660
KJ/kg and when supplied with 138 C feedwater. The underfeed stoker serving the furnace
needs 0.5 hp per 500 kg of coal burned per hour.

Steam properties:
h1 = 2896.6 at 2.75 MPa , 260 C
hF= 580.5 at 138 C

Steam consumption, Ms = 2,000 x 5.4 = 10,800 kg steam/hr

Ms(h1 - hF ) 10800(2896.6 - 580.5)
= = 1053.4 kg coal / hr
Mf = HHVxh bo. 31660 x0.75

0.5 hp kg coal
Power needed by Stoker Drive = x1053.4 = 1.05 hp
500 kg coal hr
Percent Power for sto ker drive 1.05 x0.746
= x100% = 0.039%
Turbine Capacity 2000

SUSPENSION FIRING
Suspension Firing – uses burner (as mixing device for air and fuel) such as
pulverized coal, liquid fuel, gas fuel. Ignition takes place in the furnace.
Pulverized Coal System – reduces coal sizes to powdered size before it is feed to the burner.
Oil Burning System- usually uses Bunker C. Atomization of fuel into fine spray occurs in the
burner.
Gas Burning System – usually uses natural gas if available. No atomization is needed using
burner as mixing device.

Ex. 4.13 : A circular oil tank 9 m long with a 1.4 m diameter is used for oil storage.
Calculate the number of days oil supply the tank can hold for continuous operation at the
following conditions:
Steam flow, 952 kg/hr
Steam, dry and saturated at 1.4 MPa
Feedwater temperature, 110 C
Boiler Efficiency, 75 %
Fuel Oil, 34 0API

HHV by ASME Formula; HHV = 41130 + 139.6xAPI =41130+139.6x34

HHV = 45876.4 KJ/kg
141.5
SG = = 0.855
131.5 + 34
Steam properties: h1 = 2790, hg at 1.4 MPa
hF= 461.3, hf at 110 C
Ms(h1 - hF ) 952(2790 - 461.3)
Mf = = = 64.43 kg oil / hr
HHVxh b 45876.4 x0.75

ENGR. ANACLETO M. CORTEZ, JR. 20

 Boilers and its Accessories:

1. Stoker – is the combustion equipment for firing solid fuels.

2. Burner – is the combustion equipment for firing liquid and gaseous fuels.
3. Feedwater Pump – is a device used to deliver water into the boiler.
4. Economizer – is a feedwater preheating device which utilizes the heat of the flue gases.
5. Feedwater Heater – is a preheating device which utilizes steam mixed with the feedwater.
6. Air Preheater – is a heat exchanger which utilizes the heat of the flow gases to preheat the
air needed for combustion.
7. Breeching – is the duct that connects the boiler and the chimney.
8. Blowdown Valve – is the valve through which the impurities that settle in the mud drum
are removed.
9. Draft Fans (Forced draft and Induced draft fans) – it supply air needed for combustion and
create the draft required for the flow of gases in the boiler.
10. Soot Blower – a device which uses steam or compressed air to remove that has
accumulated in the boiler tubes and drums.
11. Furnace – it encloses the combustion equipment so that the heat generated will be
utilized effectively.
12. Baffles - it directs the flow of the hot gases to effect efficient heat transfer between the
hot gases and the heated water.
13. Fusible Plug – a metal plug with a definite melting point through which the steam is
released in case of excessive temperature which is usually caused by low water level.
14. Temperature gauge – an instrument that indicates the temperature of the steam in the
boiler.
15. Pressure Gauge – an instrument that indicates the pressure of the steam in the boiler.
16. Gage Glass (Water Column) – indicates the water level existing the boiler.
17. Safety Valve – a safety device that automatically releases the steam in case of over-
pressure.
18. Water Walls – water tubes installed in the furnace to protect the furnace against high
temperature and also serve as extension of heat transfer area for the feedwater.

FUEL BED FIRING

Fuel Bed Firing is applicable for solid fuels such as coal, coke, wood, and refuse.
Grate- holds the fuel bed at the furnace.
Stoker Mechanism - places the fuel on the grate automatically.
Important parameters of combustion:
1. high flame temperature
2. turbulent mixing of air and fuel
3. correct ratio of air and fuel
4. enough time to complete burning process.
Method of feeding coal to the grates:
1. overfeed 2. underfeed
Types of Traveling grate stokers:
1. chain grate 2. bar grate

ENGR. ANACLETO M. CORTEZ, JR. 19

 QSh h - h1 3134.091 - 2780.3
%= 2 x100% = x100% = 14.132 %
QA h2 - h f 3134.091 - 630.96

Ex. 4.11: A spray type desuperheater is furnished with 49 C water. It is connected in a steam
line carrying 158,730 kg/hr at 3.3 MPaa. Calculate the kg/hr of water that must be sprayed to
maintain steam at 404 C when the boiler causes steam to leave the superheater at 420 C.

Energy Balance in desuperheater:

Ms1 h1 + Mw hf = ( Ms1 + Mw)h 2

Ms1(h 2 - h1) kg water
Mw =
(hf - h2) hr
Where: Ms1 = 158,730 kg steam/hr
Mw = mass flow rate of spray water used in desuperheater

ENGR. ANACLETO M. CORTEZ, JR. 18

 Ms(h1 - h f ) 54,422(2842.4 - 410.61)
Solution: Mf x HHV = = = 163,386,265 KJ / hr
overall effy. 0.81

MfxHHV 163,386,265 KJ / hr
V= = = 109.736 m 3
H RV kCal KJ
355,600 3 x 4.187
m - hr kCal

V 109.736 m 3
H= = = 3.92 m
AF 28 m 2
H = Height of the furnace.

Ex.4.9: Dry steam at 1.4 Mpa is supplied to a superheater in which 83 C of superheat

occurs. The gas temperature drops 117 C in flowing over the superheater. Estimate the kg of
flue gas per kg of steam.

Properties from steam table:

hb= 2790 KJ/kg, hg at 1.4 MPa, Tsat.=195.07 C
hs= 2991.5 KJ/kg, at 1.4 MPa, T2 = 195.07 + 83 = 278.07 C
Cpfg = 1.026 KJ/kg.K

Energy Balance in the Superheater:

Mfg Cpfg (Tg1 – Tg2) = Ms (hs – hb)

Mfg hs - hb 2991.5 - 2790 kg gas

= = = 1.68
Ms Cpfg (Tg1 - Tg 2 ) 1.026(117 ) kg steam

Ex. 4.10: Steam at 4.48 MPa and 371 C comes from a superheater receiving steam at a
quality of 99 %. Feedwater enters the economizer at 149 C and 5.2 MPa. What percentage of
the heat transfer to the steam occurs in the superheater if there is a pressure drop through it of
0.20 MPa.
P1 = 4.48 + 0.20 = 6.68 MPa; x1 = 99 % h1 = 2780.3 KJ/kg
P2 = 4.48MPa and 371 C ; h2 = 3134.09 KJ / kg
At PF = 5.2MPa and 149 C ; h f = 630.96 KJ / kg
Heat Transfer in the Superheater: Qsh = h2 – h1
Heat Added to SGU: QA= h2 - hf

ENGR. ANACLETO M. CORTEZ, JR. 17

 14510
a. Actual = = 8.70 kg steam/kg dry fuel
1668.88
b. Equivalent = 1.14 x 8.70 = 9.92 kg steam/kg dry fuel
6. Mc = mass of combustible = Mf(1 – M – A) = 1814(1-0.08-0 12)=1451.2 kg/hr
Evaporation, kg steam / kg combustible:
14510
a. Actual = = 10 kg steam /kg combustible
1451.2
b. Equivalent = 1.14 x 10 = 11.40 kg steam /kg combustible
7. Mcb = mass of combustible burned
Mcb= mass of fuel – mass of moisture – mass of dry refuse
Mcb = 1814 – 0.08(1814) – 325 = 1343.88 kg combustible burned

Equivalent evaporation = FE æç
14510 ö
÷ = 12.30 kg steam / kg combustible
è 1343.88 ø

8. Evaporation; kg steam / m2-hr of heating surface

14510
a. Actual = = 19.50 kg steam / m2-hr
744
b. Equivalent = FE x 19.50 = 22.23 kg steam/ m3-hr
c. Number of 1000 KJ/hr-m2 = Ms(hs-hf) / (HS)(1000)

14510(2866 - 293)KJ / hr
= = 50.2
744 m 2 x1000
Furnace Volume 45m 3 m3
9. Combustion space = = = 0.025
Mass of Fuel 1814 kg coal / hr kg coal / hr

10. Efficiency, per cent, as fired

Ms(hs - hf ) 14510(2866 - 293)
Efficiency = = = 0.7311 or 73.11%
Mf (HV ) 1814(28150 )

Ex. 4.8: A furnace is to be designed for the following conditions:

Steam capacity maximum, 54,422 kg/hr
Overall efficiency, 81 %
Steam pressure, 1.4 MPa
Steam temperature, 215 C
Feedwater temperature, 98 C
Stoker projected grate surface, 28 m2

Determine the furnace height for a heat liberation not to exceed 355,600 kCal/m3-hr.
Properties from steam table: h1 = 2842.4 KJ/kg at 1.4 MPa, 215 C
hf= 410.61, at 98 C

ENGR. ANACLETO M. CORTEZ, JR. 16

 Dry refuse from ashpit= 325 kg
Temperatures:
Flue gas = 250 C
Feedwater = 70 C
Boiler Room = 27 C

Relative humidity of air = 50 %

Steam Pressure = 0.9632 MPa with 38 C superheat
Barometric pressure = 737 mm Hg abs.

Required:
1. Factor of evaporation.
2. Boiler horsepower developed.
3. Per cent of builder’s rating.
4. Evaporation, kg/ kg fuel, as fired
a. Actual b. Equivalent
5. Evaporation, kg/kg dry fuel
a. Actual b. Equivalent
6. Evaporation, kg/ kg combustible
a. Actual b. Equivalent
7. Equivalent evaporation, kg / kg of combustible burned
8. Evaporation, kg /m2 of heating surface:
a. Actual b. Equivalent
c. Number of 1000 KJ absorbed per hour per square meter of heating
surface.
9. Combustion space, m3/kg per hour of coal; as fired
10. Efficiency of the boiler, furnace, superheater, and grate.

Steam properties: At 0.9632 MPa and 216.14 C; hs = 2866 KJ/kg

At 70 C feedwater; hf = 293 KJ/kg

1. FE =
(hs - hf ) = (2866 - 293) = 1.14
2257 2257
14,510(2866 - 293)
2. Dev. Bo. HP = = 1057 hp
35322
Dev. Bo. HP 1057
3. Per cent Ratings = = = 1.30 or 130 %
Rated Bo. HP (744 / 0.91)
14510
4: a. Actual Evaporation, as fired = = 8 kg steam / kg fuel
1814
b. Equivalent Evaporation, as fired = FE x 8 = 9.12 kg steam/ kg fuel
5: Mf = mass of fuel as fired = 1814 kg/hr
Mdf = mass of dry fuel = 1814 ( 1 – M) = 1814(1 – 0.08) = 1668.88 kg/hr

Evaporation, kg / kg dry fuel:

ENGR. ANACLETO M. CORTEZ, JR. 15

Area of the shell, A1 = pDo L = p (1.982)(4.25) = 26.46 m 2
94.8
Inside area of all tubes, A2 = p di L N = p ( )(4.25)100 = 126.57 m 2
1000
Area of the rear head, A3 =
(
pDi p 1.95
2
=
) 2
= 2.99 m 2
4 4
p d o N p (100 / 1000)2 100
2
A4 = = = 0.785 m 2
4 4
1 2 1 2
Total Heating Surface = A1 + A2 + A3 - A4 = (26.46 ) + 126.57 + (2.99 ) - 0.785
2 3 2 3
= 141 m2
141
Rated Boiler Horsepower = = 128 hp
1.1

Ex. 4.6: At rated load a 30,000 kw steam turbine and auxiliaries require 5.44 kg steam per
kw-hr. Steam conditions are: initial pressure, 1.80 MPa; superheat, 140 C; feedwater, 82 C.
Assuming the boilers are operated at 250 % percent rating when supplying the steam
requirement, determine: a) the boiler horsepower, and b) ratio of KW turbine rating to
boiler horsepower rating.

Steam properties: At 1.80 MPa and 347.15 C; hs = 3134.9 KJ/kg

At 82 C; hf = 343.3 KJ/kg

a) Actual Evaporation = 5.44 kg/kw-hr x 30,000 kw = 163,200 kg/hr

Ms(hs - hf ) 163,200(3134.9 - 343.3)
Developed Bo. HP = = = 12898 hp
35322 35322
12898
b) Rated Boiler HP = = 5159 hp
2.5
kw Turbine Rating 30,000 KW KW
= = 5.82
Boiler HP Rating 5159 hp Bo. hp Rating

Ex. 4.7: The following data were taken from a boiler test:
Heating surface = 744 m2
Grate Surface = 14.87 m2
Furnace volume = 45 m3

Coal analysis, as fired:

Moisture = 8%
Ash = 12 %
Heating Value = 28150 KJ/kg

Mass per hour:

Water feed to boiler= 14510 kg
Coal burned = 1814 kg

ENGR. ANACLETO M. CORTEZ, JR. 14

11. Equivalent Specific Evaporation is the product of Actual Specific Evaporation and the
Factor of Evaporation.
Equivalent Specific evaporation = Boiler Economy x FE
Ms
= xFE
Mf

12. Boiler Efficiency or Overall Thermal Efficiency is the measure of ability of a boiler or
steam generator to transfer the heat given it by the furnace to the water and steam.
Ms (hs - h f )
ebo =
Mf HV

13. Net Boiler Efficiency

Ms(hs - h f ) - Energy Consumed by Accessories
ebo. net =
Mf HV

Ex.4.3: A water tube steam boiler having 153.4 m2 heating surface area has a steaming
capacity of 6800 kg/hr. Steam is generated at 1.724 MPa and 249 C from 138 C feedwater.
Determine: a) Rated boiler horsepower, b) operating boiler horsepower, c) percent rating, and
d) equivalent evaporation.
Steam properties: hs = 2915.3 KJ/kg at 1.724 MPa and 249 C
hf= 580.54 KJ/kg at 138 C
153.4
a) Rated Bo. Hp = = 169 Bo. hp
0.91
6800(2915.3 - 580.54 )
b) Operating Bo. Hp = = 449 hp
35322
449
c) Percent Rating = x100 = 266%
169
æ h - hf ö 2915.3 - 580.54 ö
d) Equivalent Evaporation = Ms x FE = 6800çç s ÷÷ = 6800æç ÷
è 2257 ø è 2257 ø
= 7034 kg /hr

Ex. 4.5: An HRT boiler is 4.25 m long, 1950 mm inside diameter and has one hundred 100
mm by 2.60 mm tubes. The shell is 16 mm thick. Setting walls touch the shell at the
horizontal diameter. Calculate the total heating surface and the rated boiler horsepower.

Solution: Do = outside diameter of the shell

Do = 1950 + 2(16) = 1982 mm
Di = inside diameter of shell (given)
Di = 1950 mm
do= 100 mm = outside diameter of tubes
di = 100 – 2(2.6) = 94.8 mm = inside diameter of tubes
L = 4.25 m = length of shell and tubes
N = 100 = number of tubes

ENGR. ANACLETO M. CORTEZ, JR. 13

 Where: D = diameter of shell
di = inside diameter of the tube
do = outside diameter of the tube
t = thickness of the tube
L = length of tube
n = number of tubes

3. Heat Supplied by Fuel, Qs = Mf . HV

Mf = mass of fuel
HV = heating value of fuel

4. Rated Boiler Horsepower is the Manufacturer’s Rating

a. For Water Tube Boiler:
HS in m 2
Rated Bo. HP =
0.91

b. For Fire Tube Boiler:

HS in m 2
Rated Bo. HP =
1.1

Ms(hs - h f )
5. Developed Boiler Horsepower =
35,322
Where: hs = enthalpy of steam leaving the boiler, kJ/kg
hf = enthalpy of refrigerant, kJ/kg
kJ
1 Bo. HP = 35,322
hr

Developed Bo. HP
6. Percent Rating =
Rated Bo. HP

7. ASME Evaporation Units is the heat output of the boiler or the rate at which the heat is
transformed.
ASME Evaporation Units = Ms(hs - h f )

8. Factor of Evaporation, FE = is the actual heat absorption per kg of steam generated divided
by 2257 kJ/kg (hfg from and at 100 C)
h - hf
FE = s
2257

9. Equivalent Evaporation = Ms x FE

Ms kg steam
10. Actual Specific Evaporation or Boiler Economy =
Mf kg fuel

ENGR. ANACLETO M. CORTEZ, JR. 12

Furnace Design:
S Ms Dh
1.0. Fuel Burning Rate; Mf =
HHV x Overall SGU Effy.
S Ms Dh = total heat transfer in boiler, superheater, economizer, etc.

Mf x HHV
2.0. Furnace Volume; V =
H RV

HRV = furnace heat release rate, æç 3

KJ ö
÷
è m - hr ø

Mf x HHV
3.0. Area of projected furnace envelope; AF =
H Ra

HRa = heat release rate, æç 2

KJ ö
÷
è m - hr ø

Performance of Steam Generators (Boilers):

1. Ms = rate of evaporation, kg steam / hr

2. Boiler Heating Surface, HS (m2) = total surface area through which the heated water and
hot gases exchange heat.
a. Horizontal Return Tubular Boiler (HRT)

1 2
HS = A1 + A2 + A3 - A4
2 3

A1 = area of the shell = pDL

A2 = inside area of all tubes = p d i L n
p D2
A3 = area of the rear head =
4
p do2n
A4 = cross-sectional area of the tube section =
4

ENGR. ANACLETO M. CORTEZ, JR. 11

 STEAM GENERATORS (STEAM BOILERS)

Steam Generator or Steam Boiler – is a pressurized vessel in which water is vaporized to

steam by heat transferred from a source of higher temperature usually the products of
combustion from burning fuels.

Primary Classification of Boilers:

1. Water Tube (Tubulous) Boiler – type of boiler in which the water is inside the tubes while
the water is outside the tubes.

2. Fire Tube (Tubular) Boiler - type of boiler in which the hot gasses pass inside the tubes
while the water is outside the tubes.

Types of Boilers and Pressure Vessels:

1. Power Boiler is a closed vessel in which steam is generated at a pressure of more than
1.055 kg/cm2 gage by the direct application of heat.

2. Portable Boiler is an internally fired boiler which is self contained and primarily intended
for temporary location and the construction and usage is obviously p;ortable.
3. Low Pressure Heating Boiler is a boiler operated at pressure not exceeding 1.055 kg/cm2
gage steam, or water temperature not exceeding 121 C.

4. Hot Water Boiler is boiler furnishing hot water to be used externally to itself.

5. Locomotive Boiler is a boiler mounted on a self-propelled track locomotive and used to

furnish motivating power traveling on rails.

6. Miniature Boiler is any boiler which does not exceed any of the following limits: 405 mm
inside diameter, 1,065 mm overall length of outside to outside of heads at center 1.85 m2 of
water heating surface, 7.03 kg/cm2 maximum allowable working pressure.

7. Unfired Pressure Vessel is a vessel in which pressure is obtained from an external sources
or from an indirect application of heat.

Limits of Package type boilers:

1. Fire Tube – 17.6 kg /cm2 gage ; 9072 kg steam /hr
2. Water Tube - -do- ; 22,680 kg steam /hr

Large Boilers – has capacity 45,360 kg steam /hr or higher

Low Pressure Large Boilers – 28.1 kg /cm2 gage and below
High Pressure Large Boilers - - do - and above.

ENGR. ANACLETO M. CORTEZ, JR. 10

◊ ANALYSIS OF REHEAT REGENERATIVE CYCLE:
►Heat Added in the SGU; QA
Q A = m[(h1 - h9 ) + (h3 - h2 )] KW

►Heat Rejected in the Condenser; QR

QR = (m - m1)(h5 - h6 ) KW

►Turbine Work, Wt
Wt = m[(h1 - h2 ) + (h3 - h4 )] + (m - m1)(h4 - h5 ) KW

►Pump Work, Wp
Wp = Wp1 + Wp 2
Wp = (m - m1)(h7 - h6 ) + m(h9 - h8 )
Approximate pump work
Wp = v f 6 (P9 - P6 )

►Net Cycle Work, Wnet

Wnet = Wt - Wp
Wnet = Q A - QR

►Heat Added in the Reheater; QRH

QRH = m(h3 - h2 ) KW

►Thermal Efficiency; eth

æ Wnet ö
eth = çç ÷÷
è QA ø

3600 æ kg ö
►Steam Rate; SR = ç ÷
Wnet è kw - hr ø

ENGR. ANACLETO M. CORTEZ, JR. 9

 ►Net Cycle Work, Wnet = Wt – Wp
Wnet = QA- QR

►Thermal Efficiency, eth

Wnet
eth =
QA

►Steam Rate, SR
3600 æ kg ö
SR = ç ÷
Wnet è kw - hr ø

►Mass of Extracted Steam:

æ h - h8 ö
m1 = mçç 9 ÷÷
è h2 - h8 ø
æ h - h6 ö
m2 = (m - m1)çç 7 ÷÷
h
è 3 - h6 ø

D. REHEAT REGENERATIVE CYCLE

ENGR. ANACLETO M. CORTEZ, JR. 8

C. REGENERATIVE CYCLE:
This is done by bleeding a fraction of steam from the turbine and using this steam for
regenerative heating of feedwater. This process would increase the efficiency of the plant.

◊ ANALYSIS OF REGENERATIVE CYCLE:

►Heat added in the boiler, QA
Q A = (h1 - h2 ) KJ / kg
Q A = m(h1 - h2 ) KW

►Heat Rejected in the condenser, QR

QR = (m - m1 - m2 )(h4 - h5 ) KW

►Turbine Work, Wt
Wt = m(h1 - h2 ) + (m - m1)(h2 - h3 ) + (m - m1 - m2 )(h3 - h4 ) KW

►Pump Work, Wp
Wp = Wp1 + Wp 2 + Wp 2
Wp = (m - m1 - m2 )(h5 - h6 ) + (m - m1)(h8 - h7 ) + m(h10 - h9 )

ENGR. ANACLETO M. CORTEZ, JR. 7

 Solving for h6:
h6 – h5 = V5(P6-P5)
h6 – 109.84 = 0.0010032(13850-3.4)
h6 = 123.73 KJ/kg
Solving for pump work:
Wp = h6 – h5 = 123.73 – 109.84 = 13.89 KJ/kg

a) QB = h1 - h6 = 3434.1 - 123.73 = 3310.37 KJ / kg

b) QRH = h3 - h2 = 3548.5 - 2204.5 = 1344 KJ / kg

Wnet = (h1 - h2 ) + (h3 - h4 ) - Wp

c)
Wnet = (3434.1 - 2974.9 ) + (3548.5 - 2204.5) - 13.89 = 1789.31 KJ / kg
d) Q A = 3310.37 + 1344 = 4654.37 KJ / kg

Wnet 1789.31
eth = = = 38.44 %
QA 4654.37

e) For the actual engine:

( ) ( )
Actual Q A = h1 - h6' + h3 - h2' = (3434.1 - 127.6 ) + (3548.5 - 3066.74 ) =
= 3788.26 KJ/kg

Wp 13.89
Solving for h6' = + h5 = + 109.84 = 127.6 KJ / kg
np 0.78

Solving for h2' :

h2' = h1 - (h1 - h2 )nt = 3434.1 - (3434.1 - 2974.9)(0.8) = 3066.74 KJ / kg

Actual Wnet = 1789.31 x 0.80 = 1431.45 KJ/kg

1431.45
Actual Thermal Effy.= = 37.78 %
3788.26
3600
Actual Steam Rate = = 2.51 kg / kw - hr
1431.45
Note: h2' = actual enthalpy of steam leaving the high pressure turbine.
h6' = actual enthalpy of feedwater entering the boiler.

ENGR. ANACLETO M. CORTEZ, JR. 6

 ► Heat rejected in the condenser, QR
QR = (h4 - h5 ) KJ / kg
QR = m(h4 - h5 ) KW

► Turbine Work, Wt:

Wt = (h1 - h2 ) + (h3 - h4 ) KJ / kg
Wt = m[(h1 - h2 ) + (h3 - h4 )] KW

► Pump Work, Wp:

Wp = (h6 - h5 ) KJ / kg
Wp = m(h6 - h5 ) KW
Approximate pump work
Wp = v f 5 (P6 - P5 ) KJ / kg
Wp = m v f 5 (P6 - P5 ) KW

► Net Cycle Work, Wnet:

Wnet = Wt - Wp KW

► Thermal Efficiency, eth:

Wnet
eth =
QA
3600 æ kg ö
► Steam Rate, SR = ç ÷
Wnet è KW - hr ø

Ex. 4.2: A steam power plant operates on single reheat. The steam at 13.85 MPa and 540C
enters the turbine and expands to 2.8 MPa where it is withdrawn from the turbine and
reheated in the steam generator to 540 C. The steam re-enters the turbine at the reheat
pressure and continue to expand to the condenser pressure of 3.4 KPa. Determine: a) the heat
transfer in the boiler; b) the heat transfer in the reheater; c) the net work; d) the cycle thermal
efficiency.
e).Considering an engine efficiency of 80 % both in high pressure and low pressure
side and a pump efficiency of 78 %, solve for: heat added, net work, thermal efficiency and
steam rate.

Steam properties:
At 13.85 MPa and 540 C; h1= 3434.1 KJ/kg
At 2.80 MPa and 540 C h3 = 3548.5 KJ/kg
h5 = hf at 3.4 KPa = 109.84 KJ/kh
V5 = Vf at 3.4 KPa = 0.0010032 cubic meter/ kg

Using Mollier Diagram;

h2 = 2974.9 KJ/kg; h4 = 2204.5 KJ/kg

ENGR. ANACLETO M. CORTEZ, JR. 5

B. REHEAT CYCLE
After partial expansion in the turbine the steam is withdrawn and reheated in the steam
generator. The reheated steam is piped back to the turbine and continue to expand to the
exhaust pressure. This process would increase the efficiency of the plant and limit the
moisture content to 10 or 12 %.

T-S DIAGRAM OF REHEAT CYCLE

◊ Processes of Reheat Cycle:

1-2 : Partial isentropic expansion in the turbine
2-3 : Constant pressure reheating in reheater
3-4 : Complete isentropic expansion in the turbine
4-5 : Constant pressure heat rejection in the condenser
5-6 : Adiabatic pumping
6-1 : Constant pressure heat addition in the boiler

◊ ANALYSIS OF REHEAT CYCLE:

► Heat added in the SGU, QA
Q A = (h1 - h6 ) + (h3 - h2 ) KJ / kg
Q A = m[(h1 - h6 ) + (h3 - h2 ) KW ]

ENGR. ANACLETO M. CORTEZ, JR. 4

 ►Pump Work, Wp = h4 - h3 KJ / kg (Exact)
Wp = m(h4 - h3 ) KW
Approximate pump work;
Wp = v f 3 ( P4 - P3 ) KJ / kg
Wp = m v f 3 ( P4 - P3 ) KW

►Net Cycle Work, Wnet = Wt – Wp = Q A - QR

Wnet = h1 - h2 - Wp

Wnet
►Thermal Efficiency, eth =
QA

3600 kg
►Steam Rate, SR =
Wnet kW - hr

Ex. 4.1: In a Rankine cycle, steam enters the turbine at 2.5 MPa dry and saturated and
exhaust to a condenser pressure of 50 KPa. Determine: a) Heat added; b) Heat rejected; c)
Net work; d) Thermal efficiency; e) Steam rate; f) Turbine work.

Steam Properties: At 2.5 MPa; h1 = hg = 2803.1 KJ/kg ; S1 = Sg = 6.2575 KJ/kg.K

at 50 KPa , Sf = 1.0910 kj/kg.K; Sfg = 6.5029 KJ/kg.K; hf = 340.49 KJ/kg; hfg= 2305.4
KJ/kg.K , Vf = 0.00103 m3/kg

h1= 2803.1 KJ/kg h3 = 340.49

Solving for X2, h2 and h4
S 2 - S f 6.2575 - 1.0910
X2 = = = 0.7945
Sfg 6.5029
h2 = hf + xhfg = 240.49 + (0.7945 x 2305.4) = 2172.13 KJ / kg
h4 = hf + Vf ( P2 - P1 ) = 340.49 + 0.00103(2500 - 50) = 342.98KJ / kg

Q A = h1 - h4 = 2803.1 - 342.98 = 2460.12 KJ / kg

a)

b) QR = h2 - h3 = 2172.13 - 340.49 = 1831.64 KJ / kg

c) Wnet = Q A - QR = 2460.12 - 1831.64 = 628.48 KJ/kg
Wnet 628.48
d) eth = = = 0.2555 or 25.55%
QA 2460.12
3600 KJ / kw - hr
e) SR = = 5.728 kg / kw - hr
628.48 KJ / kg
f) Wt = h1 - h2 = 2803.1 - 2172.13 = 630.97 KJ / kg

ENGR. ANACLETO M. CORTEZ, JR. 3

Discussion:

1. STEAM CYCLES
A. Rankine Cycle

Processes of Rankine cycle:

1 – 2 : Isentropic expansion in the turbine
2 – 3 : constant pressure heat rejection in the condenser
3 – 4 : adiabatic pumping
4 – 1 : constant pressure addition of heat in the boiler

◊Analysis of the Rankine Cycle:

►Heat added in the Boiler, QA = h1 - h2 KJ / kg
Q A = m(h1 - h2 ) KJ / s or KW
Q = h2 - h3 KJ / kg
►Heat rejected in the condenser, R
QR = m(h2 - h3 ) KW

►Turbine Work, Wt = h1 - h2 KJ / kg

Wt = m(h1 - h2 ) KJ / s or KW
If change in Kinetic Energy is given;
Wt = (h1 - h2 ) + ( KE1 - KE 2 ) KJ / kg
Wt = m[(h1 - h2 ) + (KE1 - KE 2 )] KW

ENGR. ANACLETO M. CORTEZ, JR. 2

 College of Engineering, Architecture and Technology
Name: ____________________________________ Course & Year: ____________

Module 4 : Steam Power Plant

Course Title : Power Plant Engineering
Course Number : ME -
Course Description : Study of the fundamental concepts in the design and
installation of typical power plants such as steam power
plant, diesel electric plant, geothermal power plant as well
as other generating plants using non-conventional sources
of energy.
Total Learning Time : 5 units (4 hours lec., 3 hours computational lab., per week)
Pre-requisites : Combustion Engineering, Fluid Machinery, Heat Transfer
(if there’s any)

Overview:

Centralized power generation became possible when it was recognized that alternating
current power lines can transport electricity at low costs across great distances by taking
advantage of the ability to raise and lower the voltage using power transformers. Since 1881,
electricity has been generated for the purpose of powering human technologies from various
sources of energy. The first power plants were run on water power or coal, and today we rely
mainly on coal, nuclear, natural gas, hydroelectric, and petroleum with a small amount from
solar energy, tidal harnesses, wind generators, and geothermal sources. Rotating turbines
attached to electrical generators produce most commercially available electricity. Turbines
are driven by a fluid, which acts as an intermediate energy carrier.

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of the lesson the students should be able to:

1. name the components of steam power plant;

2. discuss or explain the function of its components;
3. analyze and solve evaluation problems; and
4. appreciate the significance of steam in power generation and in manufacturing
industry.

Indicative Content:

This learning module provides the basic understanding underlying steam power plants
and its auxiliaries such as, but not limited to steam generators, heat exchangers, steam
turbines, steam engines and the theoretical analysis of its operation.

ENGR. ANACLETO M. CORTEZ, JR. 1