THE SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT THEORY The origin of scientific management theory is considered to be a major breakthrough in industrial management. With the growing expansion and consolidation of large-scale industries in the wake of the Industrial Revolution, the Western world had witnessed a resultant crisis of management. The problem was further aggra- vated by events like the First World War. The growing scarcity of resources, competition, and complexity in managing business had demanded an efficient science of management. The scientific man- agement theory was the outcome of such a need. It had drasticallyPublic Adminstration na Globalizing Word ‘redefined’ the science of management by ensuring maximum ef- ficiency with the consequent eccnomization of time and resourc~ es. In other words, it had ‘revolutionized’ industrial relations by proposing to revamp the age-old manager-worker relationship by standardization of work procedure, improvement in the working conditions, and so on, and also by making managers equally re- sponsible for overall productivity. It suggested that the applic of scientific technology would meximize the overall producti ‘an industry, which in effect would increase the earnings ofboth Whe workers and employers and minimize the friction between them, Frederick W. Taylor has been considered as the father of sci- entific management theory, though the term ‘scientific manage- ‘ment’ was coined much later by Louis Brandeis in 1910, retlecting on the ideas of Taylor. Taylor believes that in every trade there is cone best way of doing a job, and the objective of the manager is to explore that best way to expedite the situation optimally. Taylor's own words better convey the essence of scientific management theory: IATmong the various methods and implements used in each ele- ment of each trade there is always one method and one implement Which is quicker and better thanany ofthe rest. And this one best method and best implement can only be discovered or developed through a scientific study and analysis of all the methods and im- plements in use, together with accurate, minute, motion and time study, (Taylor, quoted in Nigro and Nigro 1983) ‘The major works of Taylor indude ‘A Piece-rate System (1895), ‘Shop Management’ (1903), ‘The Art of Cutting Metals’ (1906), “The Principles of Management’ (1911)."” Aims of Scientific Management ‘The major objectives of scientific management theory, as articu- lated by the advocates ofthis school, may be summarized as: ‘+ To gauge industrial tendencies and the market, in order to regularize operations in a manner which will conserve the 5Ainsracve Theories investment, sustain the enterprise as an employing agency, and assure continuous operation and employment; to assure the employee, not only of continuous operation and employment by correct gauging of the market, but also assure by planned and balanced operations, a continuous earning opportunity while on the payroll toearn through a waste-saving management and processing technique, a large income from a given expenditure of hu- can and snaterial energies, which sball be shared Uarough, increased wages and profits by workers and management; to make possible a higher standard of living as a result of increased income of workers; to assure a happier home and social lite to workers through removal (and by increase of income), of many of the dis- agreeable and worrying factors in the total situations, to assure healthy as well as individually and socially agree- able conditions of works to assure the highest opportunity for individual capacity through scientific methodsof work analysis and of selection, training, assignment, transfer, and promotion of workers; to assure by training and instructional foremanship the op- portunity for workers to develop new and higher capacities, and eligibility for promotien to higher position; to develop self-confidence and self-respect among workers through opportunity afforded for understanding of ones ‘own work specifically, and of plans and methods of work generally; to develop self-expression and self: realization among work- ers through the simulativeinfluence of an atmosphere of re- search and valuation, through understanding of plans and ‘methods, and through the freedom of horizontal as well as vertical contacts afforded ty functional organization; to build character through the proper conduct of works to promote justice throug’ the elimination of discrimina- tion in wage rates and elsewhere; and to eliminate factors of the environment which are irritat- ing and the cause of frichons, and to promote common sPublic Adminstration na Globalizing Word understandings, tolerances and the spirit of teamwork (H.C. Person, quoted in Sapru 1996). Principles of Scientific Management ‘The distinguishing features of Taylor's scientific management the- ory can be enumerated as follows: 1 ‘The development of a true science of work: Scientific manage- ment theory seeks to discover a true science of work, which in effect will benefit both the workers and managers alike. ‘The basic objective of this principle is to replace the ‘rule of ‘thumb! by application of scientific methods. Taylor claimed that there was ‘one best way’ to perform almost any task ‘This can be done by observing and analysing the work as- signed to a worker with respect to each element and the time involved in it. This proced.e will decide the ideal working ‘method or the best way of doing a job. Taylor considers this ‘organized knowledge’ as science of work’ ‘The scientific selection, training, and progressive development of the workman: This theory has puta lot of emphasis on scientif- ic selection and proper grooming of the workforce. It believes that vibrant workforce can >ring about rapid increase in pro- ductivity. Scientific selection involves selecting a right person for a right job. For this, scme standard selection procedure must be there, Workers'skill and experience must be matched ‘with the requirements of the respective jobs they are to per- form. The workmen so selected must be given training for the specific tasks assigned. This would help worker to accept new methods, tools, and conditions willingly and enthusiasti- cally. Taylor holds that it is the managements’ responsibility to implement appropriate selection and training systems and to see to it that the worker’ intellectual, psychological, and physical traits match the requirements of these jobs. The close coordination between the science of work and the scientifically selected and trained men: The theory advocates 2 close coordination betwaen the science of work and theAinsracve Theories trained workforces for smooth functioning of an organiza tion. Taylor says that in onder to get the best results, some~ ‘one has to bring the science and workmen together. He felt that it is the exclusive responsibility of the management to do this job. He believes that workers are always willing to co- ‘operate with the management but there is more opposition from the management side. He suggests ‘mental revolution’ for a change in this perception 4, The division of work and responsibilty between the munuge- ‘ment and workers: This is another important hallmark of the scientific management theory. It put the onus of industrial productivity equally on the management and workers, That is, industrial well-being is joint responsibility, which needs to be shouldered by both of them, None of the above mentioned principles could be isolated and called scientific management. Collectively, they contribute as sci- entific management, In “The Principles of Scientific Management’ (1911), Taylor states that scientiiic management is ‘no single ele- ‘ment, but a combination summarized as: + Science, not rule of thumb Harmony, not discord Cooperation, not individualism ‘Maximum output, in place of restricted output Development of each mano his greatest efficiency and pros- perity (Taylor 1947: 140). "These characteristics constitute the philosophy of scientific man- agement. ‘Taylor employs a number of techniques to facilitate the appli- cation of the principles of scientific management. These include functional foremanship, motion study, time study, piece-rate plan, exceptional principle, standardization of tools, and so on, In or- der for scientific management to succeed, Taylor urges a complete ‘mental revolution’ in the attitude of managers and workers as to their duties, towards their fellow workers and towards all of their aPublic Adminstration na Globalizing Word problems. Mental revolution or we can say a new outlook requires the realization on part of both the parties (workers and manag- ers) that their mutual interest is not contradictory and both can prosper only through cooperation, not contlict. Taylor believes that without this great mental change and new outlook on both sides, scientific management carnot exist. Taylor suggests that in any organization both workers and employers should cooperate. with each other and work towards increasing the productivity. In- aeased organizational output would give beter wages lo workers and high profit to management aad the atmosphere of conflict will be replaced by peace and harmony. Critique of Scientific Management Scientific management led to a reform movement which offered the hope of minimizing industrial problems. However, it was equally opposed by many people The anger of the labour commu- nity was so harsh that, early in his career at Midvale Steel, Taylor received death threats for trying to speed up work, and when he later worked at Bethlehem Steel, the planning room was mysteri- ously burned. The application of Taylor’ ‘mental revolution’ re- solves all the disputes between the employers and the workers and establishes effective cooperation between them and thus makes the role of trade union unnecessary. Thus, labour leaders considered ‘Taylorism as not only destroying trade unions, but also destroy- ing the principle of collective bargaining, They also had a fear that it would increase in unemployment. Taylorism was also attacked by the managers. Their workloac increased due to the application of ‘equal division of work and responsibility. Those who wanted promotion to high managerial positions also opposed Taylor's stand, which advocated training and assessment of managers by highly trained experts. It was because of the differences with the ‘company managers that Taylor had to resign from Midvale Steel as. ‘well as Bethlehem Stee! companies. Human relation theorist criti- cized Taylor's principles for being impersonal and undermining the human factor. Behaviourist also charged that Taylor’s methods scared the Initiative of the worker, his individual freedom, andthe use of his intelligence and responsibility. Herbert Simon and James G. March described the scientific management principles as the ‘physiological organization theory. Taylor's theory is also criticized for oversimplifying human motivation in terms of eco- nomic rewards and neglecting the social and psychological aspects of motivation. Likewise, the assumption that an individual existed in isolation from his social environment is erroneous. Contribution of Fredrick W. Taylor Taylor is considered as the father of scientific management theory. An engineer by profession, Taylor was obsessed with efficiency and economy. Orderliness was the hallmark of Taylor's thought. He had reacted to the disorder he found in organizations in his time. Ina true commitment to the spirit of science, he believed that there is always a best way of doing a job and the manager should strive for achieving that best way through the application of the scientific technique. Instead of the rule of thumb method, he was in favour of greater autonomy for the workers, who would decide the work methods among themselves and select their tools accordingly. Apart from the scientific management, Taylor was also known for his idea of participative management, which was implicit in his advocacy for greater autonomy of workers. Thus, despite a numbers of limitations, the ideas of scientific management greatly influenced administrative thought and management practices in subsequent years. Even after the initial period of resistance, it conquered the citadels of old-fashioned industrial management in the United States and had a tremendous effect on industrial practice (Gross 1964: 127). It even influenced the administrative and managerial practices of France, Germany, England, erstwhile USSR, and other European countries.