SCHOOL OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND PUBLIC SAFETY (SCJPS)

INTRODUCTION TO THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION WITH CRIME

PREVENTION
COMPILED AND EDITED BY: MARK P. CIANO,
MSCRIM
I: INTRODUCTION
 There is a growing body of evidence about the factors that place individuals
at risk of criminal oending. The theoretical approaches discussed below attempt

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erisek tfhacetories sa anndd c riti minaay l be hthaev icoar.u Tsahlere mechanisms
proposed below are more or less signicant for dierent individuals.
Most crime prevention programmes are based, sometimes implicitly, on more of
the theoretical understandings of crime. Therefore, even when focusing on
practical response, there is value
Correspondingly, this endeavor focuses on the information about theories
and causation crimes. Dierent theories about the criminology are described.
Main focus will be on the criminology and its two theories. Criminology is the
study of factors about the crimes that lead to its phenomena. This crime may be
of individual or social nature. It includes making laws, breaking laws and attempts
to break the laws. Criminology focuses on the social, cultural and individual
causes of the illegal behavior. Criminology is directly related to sociology and
psychology in all disciplines that deal with a group or individual behavior.
However an act that is immoral or indecent can be criminal act unless it is not
outlawed by the state.
C o o g y c o n s is ts f o u r o rga a n iz ed d w ay s o f
c ri m i na l s a n d c ri m e c o n tr o l (G r la n
th i n k in g a n d t a l k in g a b o u t c rime, neighborhood a nd S p a r
k s, 2 0 0 0 , 1 9 2 ) . P e rs o n a l a n d
income are the strongest predictors of violent crime” (cited in “Wasting America’s
Future (Arloc Sherman, 1994, p88). Demonstrates that glaring social and
economic inequalities in our society impose correspondingly high costs in the
form of street crime. (John Hagan & Ruth D. Peterson, Crime and Inequality, 1995,
Stanford U, p4)
One common denition of CRIMINOLOGY - Is – the study of crimes, criminals
and their treatment. This is understanding the provisions of law regarding acts or
behavior which are dened by law as crime. The criminal justice system declares
who the criminal is, and provides him/her with treatment commensurate to
the gravity of the illegal act committed. Furthermore, CRIMINOLOGY - Is
interdisciplinary which means, it upon either academic discipline including
political science, economics, psychology, law, biology, and sociology (Fulter,
2012).
Moreover, CRIMINOLOGY - Can also be dened as the scientic study of causes of 
crime in relation to man and society who set and dene rules and regulations for
himself and others to govern. The study of criminology involves man and social
forces through the passage and enactment of laws, maintenance of peace and
order, and the imposition of the punishment by government whose law has been
violated.
 Thus, in most complete denition of criminology is – “A BODY OF
KNOWLEDGE REGARDING CRIME AS A SOCIAL PHENOMENON. IT
INCLUDES WITHIN ITS SCOPE, THE PROCESS OF MAKING OF LAWS, THE
BREAKING OF LAWS AND THE REACTION TOWARDS THE BREAKING OF
LAWS” 
(Sutherland, 19_).
II: BODY 
THEORIES AND CAUSATION OF CRIME

BY: MPC, RC, 1

MSCRIM
CAUSES OF CRIMES

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nhdernetd ictaurys eosr opfs ycrcihmoelosg. iBcuatl. psychological conditions are
said to be determinant of an individual’s reaction to persuasive environmental
inuence. Criminologist says that certain oenders are born to create crimes in the
environment. Other cause may be the poverty. Due to low condition of their living,
they are enforced to commit crimes. Discrimination

BY: MPC, RC, 2

MSCRIM
against minorities may become the cause of crimes. Emotional disorders are also
cause of crimes.
CRIME PREVENTION
Ultimate aim of crime prevention is to reduce the risk of victims. Here we
nd the ways to prevent crimes. Do not provide the opportunity to the thief to take
advantages of your property. Fewer opportunities may become the cause of
reduction in the crime rates. States should enhance the way of living of poor of
that country. Poverty alleviation programs on sound basis can reduce the crime
rates. Law and enforcement agencies are key role player in prevention of crimes.
Delay in justice must be avoided.

ISSUES IN CRIMINOLOGY 
Several issues arise which are serious causes to put the crimes rate not
reducing. These issues vary from the level of crime. Due to dierence in the legal
and criminal justice system the crime rate is not reducing. Contrast in the police
reporting and actual crime report is another issue. Proper prosecution is not
observed when a crime is committed. Due to dierences in data quality a crime
rate cannot be feasible work to reduce the rate of crime.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MICRO-AND MACRO THEORIES
Dierences between micro and macro level theories exist. To identify a
theory whether it is macro or micro level is to check what the theory
predicts. Focus of the MICRO-LEVEL THEORY  is on the individual interaction.
Individual characteristics can be explained by the interactions of people
within an environment. These are described as EPIDEMIOLOGY.
EPIDEMIOLOGY  here is concerned with the overall crime rates. Example of
this kind of theory is the
relationship
THEORY  is mostbetween adult children and their parents. MACRO-LEVEL
extended and focuses on the social problems, social conditions
and social
processes. For example; how the old people’s status is aected by
industrialization. MICRO LEVEL THEORIES are called role theories while macro
level theories include age stratication theory. MACRO THEORY  shows the
criminal behavior of the crimes across the world.

DEFINITION OF
THEORY WHAT IS A
“THEORY?”
A theory is a set of logically interconnected propositions explaining
how phenomena are related and from which a number of hypotheses can be
derived and tested. Theories should provide coherent explanations of the
phenomena they address, they should correspond with the RELEVANT
EMPIRICAL FACTS, and they should provide practical guidance for researchers
looking for further facts.
 This guidance takes the form of a series of statements that can be logically
deduced from the assertions of the theory. We called these STATEMENTS
HYPOTHESES, which are statements about relationships between and
among factors we expect to nd based on the logic of our theories. HYPOTHESES
AND THEORIES support one another in the sense that theories provided the
raw material (the ideas) for generating hypotheses, and hypotheses support
or fail to support theories by exposing them to empirical testing. Theories are
devised to explain how a number of dierent correlates may actually be
causally related to crime and criminality rather than simply associated with
them. We emphasize that when we talk of causes we do not mean that
when X is present Y will occur in a completely prescribed way. We mean
that when X is present Y has a certain probability of occurring, and perhaps
only then if X is present along with factors A, B, and C. In many ways, crime
is like illness because there may be as many routes
to becoming criminal as there are to becoming ill. In other words, criminologists
have never uncovered a necessary cause (a factor that must be present for
criminal behavior to occur and in the absence of which criminal behavior has
never occurred) or a sucient cause (a factor that is able to produce criminal
behavior
without being augmented by some other factor). There is a lot of confusion among
laypersons about the term theory.
We often hear statements such as, “THAT’S JUST THEORY” OR HEAR IT
NEGATIVELY CONTRASTED WITH PRACTICE: “That’s all right in theory, but it
won’t work in the real world.” Such statements imply that a theory is a
poor relative of a fact, something impractical we grasp at in the absence of
solid, practical evidence. Nothing could be further from the truth. Theories
help us to make sense of a diversity of seemingly unrelated facts and
propositions, and they even tell us where to look for more facts, which make
theories very practical things indeed. We all use theory every day to t facts
together. A detective confronted with a number of facts about a mysterious murder
must t them together, even though their meaning and relationship to one
another is ambiguous and perhaps even contradictory. Using years of
experience, training, and good common sense, and the detective constructs
a theory linking those facts together so that they begin to make some
sense and begin to tell their story. An initial theory derived from the
available facts then guides the detective in the search for additional facts in a
series of “if this is true, then this should be true” statements. There may be
many false starts as our detective misinterprets some facts, fails to uncover
others, and considers some to be relevant when they are not. Good
detectives, like good scientists, will adjust their theory as new facts warrant;
poor detectives and poor scientists will stand by their favored theory by not
looking for more facts or by ignoring, downplaying, or hiding contrary facts
that come to their attention. When detectives do this, innocent people suer
and guilty people remain undiscovered;

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iaebnocuet swuhaetr sc.o Tnhseti tpuhteys icthael acnodre n baotudrya lof
knowledge within their disciplines; thus, they have few competing theories. Within
criminology there is little agreement about the nature of the phenomena we study,
and so we suer an embarrassment of theoretical riches. Given the number of
criminological theories, students may be forgiven for asking which one is true.
Scientists never use the term “truth “in scientic discourse; rather, they tend to
ask which theory is most useful. CRITERIA FOR JUDGING THE MERITS OF
A THEORY ARE SUMMARIZED BELOW:
1. PREDICTIVE ACCURACY - A theory has merit and is useful to the extent that
it accurately predicts what is observed. That is, the theory has generated a
large number of research hypotheses that have supported it. This is the most
important criterion.
2 . P R E D I C T IV E S C O P E -   P r ed i c ti v e s co p e
t h u s th e s c op e o r r a n ge o f t h h y p o t h e se s
i s t h e s c o pe o r a n g e fth e t e o r y a n d
t h a t ca n b d er i v e d f r om it . T h a t is , h o w much of
the empirical world falls under the explanatory umbrella of theory A compared to
how much falls under theory
3. SIMPLICITY - If two competing theories are essentially equal in terms of the
rst two criteria, then the less complicated one is considered more “elegant.”
4. FALSIFIABILITY - A theory is never proven true, but it must have the quality
of being falsiable or disprovable. If a theory is formulated in such a way that no
amount of evidence could possibly falsify it, then the theory is of little use
(Ellis, 1994, pp.202–205).
THEORY – Also dene the imaginative contemplation of reality, direct intellectual
apprehension, insight or body of generalizations and principles developed in
association with the practice in a certain eld of activity.
A statement of set of statements about the relationships between 2 or more
events
Are sets of propositions that explain phenomena.
In simple terms, theory is an explanation of something.
IN THE SCIENCE OF CRIMINOLOGY 
A.  Theories of crime
 B.  Theories of how the criminal justice system operates
C.  A theory predicts what will happen, not how the world should be
KEY CONCEPTS OF THEORIES
1.  Theories are useful tools that help us to understand and explain the world
around us. In criminology, they help us to understand the workings of the
criminal
 justice system and the actors in the system.
2.  Theories suggest the way things are, not the way things ought to be. They
are not inherently good or bad; however, they can be used for good or bad
purposes. 3. A theory can try to explain crime for a large social unit or area
(macro), or it can attempt to explain crime at the individual or smaller unit
level (micro).
4.  Because we are dealing with human behavior, the social sciences will never be
l i ke t h h a r d s c i e n c e s . I n th h a r d s c ie n c
c h a n g e. I n th e s o c i a l s c i e n ce s , h o w e v e r,
es , t h e t h e o r y o f r e la t i v it y w i ll n o t
w e d e a l w it h p ro b a b il i t ie s . T h e so cial scientist
will say things such as, “A severely neglected child will probably commit, or tend
to commit, delinquent acts.”
5.  To be used for maximum eectiveness, theories must make sense (logical
consistency), explain as much crime as possible (scope), and be as concise as
possible (parsimony). Most important, the theory must be true or correct (validity).
Having met these basic goals, the theory must then have some real world
applications and policy implications.
6.  Many theories have common traits, but dierences among them still exist.
Understanding these dierences is keys to understanding the often contradictory
views of crime and deviance they purport to explain. THEORY - Means dierent
things to dierent contemporary criminologists, depending on their philosophies
about the nature of criminology, what it is attempting to accomplish, and
how they think criminology ought to be done. Diversity is evident from the
presence of at
least seven diering “philosophies of the enterprise,” expressed in
distinct “models” for doing criminology. THE SEVEN (7) APPROACHES
INCLUDE: 
1. Theoretical science;
2. Problem solving;
3. Verstehen” analysis;
4. Descriptive approaches;
5. Critical work;
6. Nihilistic thinking; and
7. Amelioration. Yet, there does appear to be a dominant paradigm.

1. THEORETICAL SCIENCE
 Theoretical accounts within a scientic model are intellectual structures
designed to help explain things within given domains of interest (for more detailed
descriptions of theoretical science see Reynolds, 1971; Tittle, 1995; Turner, 2003:
Chapter 1). That is, scientic theories, and explanations try to provide answers to
questions of “why” and “how” that are deemed satisfactory by critical audiences
made up of s scientists who expect such a theory to provide intellectual
satisfaction as well as the means for predicting aspects of the phenomena of
interest.
2. PROBLEM SOLVING
A substantial number of criminologists, perhaps even a majority (though
theoretical science seems to be the dominant approach, there are no hard data to
establish that judgment), aim their work toward nding solutions to crime or crime‐
related p roblems (for examples, see any issue of journal Criminology and Public
Policy, or Kleiman, 2009). Such problems range all the way from international
threats of terrorism to very focused concerns with how best to prevent littering on
public streets in particular towns or cities, and may even involve eorts to assess
all manner of collateral damage for crime‐linked activities. Problem‐solving
criminology includes ad hoc explanatory eorts as well as evaluations of existing
programs designed to achieve specic purposes.
3. VERSTEHEN” ANALYSIS
 This approach to criminology features eorts to “understand” the actions
and thoughts of participants. (Verstehen is the German word for “to understand”;
its use as the name for this process became popularized in sociology and
criminology by the writings of Max Weber.) The verstehen researcher usually tries
to put himself psychically in the positions of the research subjects in order to see
and interpret the world as the subjects see it and interpret it. This emphatic
process is often assisted by careful ethnographic research and sometimes it is
aided by comparative analyses designed to isolate dierences between subjects
exhibiting dierent outcomes or exposures. In recent times there has been a
strong emphasis in criminology on exploring the active part that individuals play
in their crime‐relevant behavior or in escaping from criminal pasts (sometimes
called human agency), and the verstehen approach is especially useful in
pursuing that theme (see for example: Giordano, Cernkovich, & Rudolph, 2002;
Maruna, 2001).

4. DESCRIPTIVE APPROACHES
A f o u rt h s t y le f w o r k in co n t e m p o ra r y
re le v a n t p h e n om e n a , s it u a ti o n s, a n d r e
c ri m i n o lo g y a tt e m p ts t o d c r ib e c ri m e
la t io n s h ip s a m o n g v a r i a b les , o r to o  e r
conceptual distinctions with which to classify, think about, or analyze crime
relevant aspects of social life. The objective is to identify the relevant variables
empirically, and show how they actually mesh together in various circumstances.
Once accurate description has been achieved, many descriptive criminologists are
ready to move on to other research issues. In other words, the bulk of descriptive
work is a theoretical – neither inspired by nor answerable to theory (see, for
example: Farrington, 1997; Loeber, Slot, & Stouthamer ‐Loeber, 2006).
5. CRITICAL WORK 
A substantial number of criminologists dene their work roughly as spelling
out social conditions that they believe are responsible for human suering,
injustice, or inequality, which, in turn, are thought by many to be linked with
criminal behavior and crime‐relevant phenomena (cf. Bonger, 1916 (1969); Daly &
Chesney‐Lind, 1988; Gove, 1980; Quinney, 1970, 1974). Within this camp, any
argument that l ogically or meaningfully connects a social situation or condition
with a negative outcome that is assumed to be associated with crime or crime ‐
relevant outcomes is called “theory.” Often the identied culprits are capitalism,
mal‐distribution of economic resources, patriarchy, racism, or other large structural
arrangements. Scholars working in this vein share with theoretical science the
goals of showing why and how the particular problem‐generators operate.
However, critical work diers from theoretical science in several crucial ways.
6. NIHILISTIC THINKING
A relatively small, yet vocal, segment of criminologists embrace the notion that it
is impossible to build theories or explanations, and they are highly critical of
science as a model for crime studies (cf. Arrigo, 2003; Einstadter & Henry, 1995;
 Taylor, Walton, & Young, 1973). Such scholars essentially contend that nothing can
be known except that nothing can be known. For them, theory is simply the
collection of arguments, many of which are based on obvious biases evident in
mainstream criminology, purportedly showing that humans are incapable of
general understanding of human behavior or social structure and are utterly
unable to study social life objectively. So, the idea of theory as a set of explanatory
principles setting out the causes of things relevant to crime is far ‐fetched. To the
nihilist, one can only d document human attempts to understand each other or
situations through n narratives, or stories, shared and reacted to by members of
local communities.
7. AMELIORATION
A nal style of criminology bears much in common with critical work in that it
attempts to identify sources of human suering or injustice, but it goes a step
further and oers a prescription for overcoming those forces (cf. Pepinsky &
Quinney, 1991). Theory for such criminologists, then, consists of the arguments

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bleilaitdyi nogf ctori mhuinmaal nb edhisatvrieosrs o, rw thiech are construction of
legal rules articially constraining various segments of the population, along with
the remedies to be f followed in overcoming those forces. Such scholars often
reject legal notions of crime, redening it in terms of behaviors or social structures
producing suering or injustice. Such theory diers from that
central to theoretical science in that it is not subject to test except through
practical application and its aim is action not explanation.

HOW DO YOU KNOW A “GOOD THEORY” WHEN YOU SEE

ONE? AKERS’ SIX (6) CRITERIA FOR EVALUATING A THEORY 
1.   Logical Consistency
2.   Scope
3.   Parsimony
4.   Testability
5.   Fit with Empirical Evidence
6.   Usefulness of Policy Implications
1. LOGICAL CONSISTENCY 
A. Clearly Defned Concepts
A. Concept = symbol/label that we apply to an abstract image
B.  Examples?
B. Concepts must ft in a logical manner
A.  BAD LOGIC: All crime is caused by
imprisonment 2. SCOPE (NOT THE MOUTHWASH)
A. DEPENDENT variable
B. How “general” is your explanation?
A. Specic forms of crime/deviance?
B. All crime?
C.  All crime, deviance, sin, and recklessness?
C. All else being equal, “Wider is
better” 3. PARSIMONY 
A. INDEPENDENT (predictor) variables
B. How complex is your
explanation?
A.  Parsimony: Low self-control is single cause of crime
B.  Not: Crime caused by a combination of poverty, inequality, average
daily temperature, intelligence, hair color, weight, daily stress…
C. All else being equal, more parsimony is better!
4. TESTABILITY 
A. A valid theory can be alsifed
B. Non-alsifable theories?
A. Tautological arguments (crime causes crime)
B. Vague and open-ended statements (Freud)
C. Must be observe/measure concepts (little green men)
5. IS THE THEORY CORRECT?
A. Survive empirical scrutiny
B. Few theories are entirely correct or alse
A. To what degree is the theory
supported? B. Preponderance of
evidence support?
C.  Incorrect theories must be modied or discarded

6. POLICY IMPLICATION
A. All crime theories attempt to identiy the “causes” o crime.
A.  Can the causes be reversed?
B.  Does the theory translate into
practice? C. Example: Marxist theory of
crime

THE 10 MOST WIDELY ACCEPTED CONCLUSIONS THAT EACH THEORY

NEEDS TO BE ABLE TO EXPLAIN INCLUDE THE FOLLOWING (Farrrington):
1.  The prevalence of oending peaks in the late teenage years (between ages
15 and 19).
2.  The peak age of onset of oending is between 8 and 14, and the peak age
of desistance is between 20 and 29.
3.  An early age of onset predicts relatively long criminal career duration and
the commitment of multiple oenses.
4.  A marked continuity is seen in oending and antisocial behavior from
childhood to adolescence to adulthood.
5.  A small fraction of the population commits a large fraction of all
crimes. 6. Oending is versatile rather than specialized.
7.  The types of acts dened as oenses are elements of a larger syndrome of
antisocial behaviors (e.g., heavy drinking, reckless driving, sexual promiscuity,
bullying, and/or truancy).
8.  Most oenses up to the late teenage years are committed with others,
whereas most oenses from age 20 onward are committed alone.
9.  The reasons given for oending up to the late teenage years are quite
variable (e.g., excitement, enjoyment, or anger).
10.  Dierent types of rst-time oenses tend to be committed at distinctively
dierent ages.

SUMMARY OF THEORY AND CONTEMPORARY CRIMINOLOGY 

 Theory takes many forms in contemporary criminology because
criminological scholars endorse and follow various philosophies of the enterprise,
each involving specic notions about the value of theory and/or the form it should
take. The dominant philosophy appears to be that of theoretical science in which
theory to explain (answer questions of why and how about phenomena within its
domain) is the ultimate goal. Desirable theory within that philosophical camp
follows a deductive framework, is subject to empirical test, admits the possibility
of negative evidence, and reects demanding characteristics. Problem ‐solving
criminology, probably the second‐most popular style of criminology may or may
not draw on theory and usually produces at best ad hoc causal explanations
applying to specic problems or situations. Verstehen analysis aims to permit
scholars and consumers of verstehen work to see the world through the eyes of
the subjects of investigation, to vicariously experience the things the subject’s
experience, and to appreciate, from the point of view of the subjects, why they did
or do various things linked to crime or crime‐related phenomena. Descriptive
scholars frequently eschew theory altogether, focusing instead on accurate
portrayal of patterns of behavior, though sometimes they produce conceptual
schemes that organize recurrent patterns of crime‐relevant factors. Critical
scholars try to identify the social conditions producing human injustice or suering,
often asserting favorite villains and attempting to persuade audiences of the
validity of their arguments rather than testing their ideas. Accounts of how those
structures or forces seem to operate is the essence of critical theory. Nihilistic
criminologists question the whole project of other styles of work, claiming that
nothing can be known, particularly scientically, except that nothing can be
known. To them, “theory” consists of such arguments, often complicated and
insightful, along with admonitions to key into folk narratives to appreciate how
people interpret their own worlds. Finally, amelioration usually combines critical
analysis with prescriptions for remedying structures or situations that produce
injustice or destructive criminal behavior.

THE ROLE OF THEORY IN CRIMINOLOGY AND CRIME CAUSATION

When an FBI agent asked the depression-era bank robber Willie Sutton why
he robbed banks, Sutton replied, “Because that’s where the money is.” In his own
way, Sutton was oering a theory explaining the behavior of bank robbers. Behind
his witty answer is a model of a kind of person who has learned how to take
advantage of opportunities provided by convenient targets ush with a valued
commodity. Thus, if we put a certain kind of personality and learning together with
opportunity and coveted resources, we get bank robbery. This is what theory
making is all about: trying to grasp how all the known correlates of a phenomenon
are linked together in no coincidental ways to produce an eect.
 Just as medical scientists want to nd out what causes disease,
criminologists are interested in nding factors that cause crime and criminality. As
is the case with disease, there are a variety of risk factors to be considered when
searching for causes of criminal behavior. The rst step in detected causes is to
discover correlates, which are factors that are related to the phenomenon of
interest. To discover whether two factors are related, we must see whether they
vary together; that is, if one variable goes up or down, the other goes up or down
as well. Establishing causality requires much more than simply establishing a
correlation. Take gender, the most thoroughly documented correlate of criminal
behavior ever identied. Literally thousands of studies throughout the world,
including European studies going back ve or six centuries, have consistently
reported strong gender dierences in all sorts of antisocial behavior, including
crime, and the more serious the crime the stronger that dierence is. All studies
are unanimous in indicating that males are more criminal than females.
Establishing why gender is such a strong correlate of crime is the real challenge, as

it is with any other correlate. Trying to establish causes is the business of theory.
PRINCIPLE DIVISIONS OF CRIMINOLOGY 
1. CRIMINAL ETIOLOGY – which is an attempt at scientic analysis of the
causes of crime.
2. SOCIOLOGY OF LAW – which is an attempt at scientic analysis of the
conditions under which penal or criminal laws develop as
a process of formal social controls.
3. PENOLOGY – which is concerned with the controls and prevention
of crime and the treatment of youthful oenders.
4. VICTIMOLOGY – Is a discipline/study which deals of the nature, causes
of victimization, as well as the programs for aiding and
preventing victimization.

ANATOMY OF CRIME

1. INTENT (MOTIVE/ REASON) – Refers to a state of mind, deliberately

functioning to reach a goal-that is, to perpetrate a crime. EXAMPLES
ARE:
A. Intent to rob a bank E. Intent to sabotage
B.  Intent to commit murder F. Intent to commit homicide
C.  Intent to carnap G. Intent to hi-jack a plane
D.  Intent to kidnap H. Intent to rape
INTENT OR INTENTIONALLY – In perpetrating a crime by a person is often
synchronized or harmonized with MOTIVATION. MOTIVATION – Shall mean the
reason, ground or cause why a person perpetrates a crime, thus, creating on
his/her mind the INTENT to perform it. DESIRE is a WHISHFUL thinking

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Crime is more identied with INTENT rather than MOTIVATION OR
DESIRE. His/her motivation could be:
A. Economic gain D. Thrill
B. Jealousy E. Political gain,
C. Revenge F. Etc.

2. INSTRUMENTALITY (TOOLS) – Is the means or implemented used in the

commission of the crime. It could be a: (Coronel, 1996).
A.  Bolo F. Battery-operated hand drill for carnapping
B.  Fan knife G. Motor vehicle
C.  An icepick H. Gun,
D.  Poison or obnoxious substance I. Etc.
E. Crow bar
Both the INTENT and INSTRUMENTALITY are harbored and wielded by the
perpetrator. The OPPORTUNITY  consists of the acts of omission and/or
commission by a person (the victim) which enables another person’s or groups
of
persons (the criminal/s) to perpetrate the crime. EXAMPLE FOR THIS
ARE: A. Leaving one’s home or car unattended for a long time
B. Walking alone in a well-known crime prone alley
C. Wearing expensive jewelries in a slum area, and
D. Readily admitting a stranger into one’s residence

3. OPPORTUNITY (CHANCE) – Is synonymous with carelessness, acts of

indiscretion and lack of crime-prevention-consciousness on the part of the
victim. (Coronel, 1996).
Whether a crime incident would happen or not, it will depend on the
presence and merging of INTENT, INTRUMENTALITY and OPPORTUNITY at the
same time and in the same place. The absence of any one ingredient will mean
that there shall be no crime.
 The most that could happen is an accident arising out of reckless
imprudence, where there is no intent. A freak crime incident occurs with all the
three elements present and simultaneously occurring at the same time and place,
though the victim is not the intended one.

THE NATURE AND EXTENT OF CRIME

 There are various methods of classifying crimes. According to LUIS
B. REYES, (1998), in his book CRIMINAL LAW, crimes are CLASSIFIED
AS: 1. Crimes against persons 6. Crimes against honor
2. Crimes against property 7. Crimes committed by public ocers
3. Crimes against personal liberty and security 8. Crimes against public morals
4. Crimes against chastity 9. Crimes against public interest
5. Crimes against the civil status of persons 10. Crimes against public order
and crimes against the fundamental laws of the state

Frequently, crimes in the context of the study of criminology are classied in

respect to gravity of the act, motives of the oender, for statistical purposes and for
theoretical purpose.
THE FOLLOWING ARE THE CLASSIFICATION OF CRIMES:
1. ATROCITY OR GRAVITY – Crimes are committed at dierent degrees of
seriousness. It can be observed on the harm or damage that resulted
from a criminal act.
Atrocity or gravity of the oense may be categorized as felony or
misdemeanor. The more serious are called FELONIES and are punishable
by death or by connement in a state prison; the less serious are
MISDEMEANORS and are usually punishable by connement in a local jail or by
paying nes.
 The classication of crimes as FELONIES and MISDEMEANORS  is also used
as a classication of criminals. The individual who commits a felony is a
FELON, and the individual who commits a misdemeanor is a
MISDEMEANANT.

2. MOTIVES OF THE OFFENDER (Bonger). – The reason or reasons of the

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ceahtaevgionrgiz iend aI NspTeOc:ic way is his/her motive in
I. ECONOMIC MOTIVE – The reason for the act is for economic gain. FOR
EXAMPLE:
A.  Kidnap for ransom (KFR) (which can be sometimes be political in
motive); E. Corruption
B.  Illegal importation; F. Robbery
C.  Sabotage; G. Burglary;
D.  Counterfeiting H. Smuggling.
II. SEXUAL MOTIVE – A direction towards sexual gratication. Or, monetary gain
in exchange of sexual gratication on the part of the client. FOR
EXAMPLE: A. Rape
B. Prostitution;
C. Acts of lasciviousness
III. POLITICAL MOTIVE – (Encarta, 2009) –  Denes political motive as “motive
carried for reasons that best serve a desired outcome rather than for other
reasons such as being morally justiable.” FOR EXAMPLE:
A.  Graft and corruption C. Rebellion
B.  Tyranny – Powerful/harsh in used of power and authority D. Sedition
3. STATISTICAL PURPOSES – It is imperative to gain awareness on the statistics
of crime incidence and this is one purpose why there is a need to classify crimes.
Classifying crimes for statistical purpose would enable us to be aware of the
FREQUENCY of the commission of such CRIMES AS:
A.  How many crimes against person were committed in a quarter of a
year? B. How many crimes against property were committed annually?
C. How many crimes against dishonesty were committed semi-annually? And
D. How many crimes against public decency, public order or public morality are
committed in a certain period of time?

4. THEORETICAL PURPOSES. – For theoretical purposes, each class should be a

sociological entity, dierentiated from the other classes by variations in
social processes, SUCH AS: 
A. PROFESSIONAL CRIMES – Dierentiated from other crimes by the
regularity of behavior, development of skills and techniques, association among
oender,
consequent development of a group culture. Usually, crimes committed
by organized/syndicated criminals. FOR EXAMPLE: A. Drug tracking
B.  Racketeering
C. Syndicated
crimes

B. HABITUAL CRIMES – Oenses that are either habits in the literal sense of
the word, which have been made illegal or these are crimes in the
common acceptance of the term, REPEATEDLY BUT NOT SKILLFULLY
PERFORMED. FOR EXAMPLE:
- Those that are committed by disorderly drunkards; drug addicts, vagrants,
petty thieves, dope peddlers, and prostitutes.

C. RECIDIVISM – It refers to the act of committing the same type of crime at

a certain period of time. FOR EXAMPLE:
- A person was arrested, convicted and served imprisonment for a crime of
robbery. After being freed from imprisonment for not more than two years, he
again committed robbery. This person is considered a recidivist.

D. OCCASIONAL – Commits crime perhaps only once, perhaps separated by

long intervals of time. The oender commits a crime only when occasion
paves opportunity.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
1. CAUSALITY - A concept more applicable to the hard sciences. Does the
appearance of X cause eect Y? In a perfect relationship, the appearance
of X would always cause the eect Y. each and every time the relationship
is seen. 2. EMPIRICAL VALIDITY -  This is the most important factor in
evaluating a
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onf scuoprep ovratleude sb yo r epsheilaorscohp ehvyi.d eIn cae p. ure sense, an
ideology states or explains how things should be, and a theory explains how
things actually are.
BY: MPC, RC, 10
4. INTERNAL LOGICAL CONSISTENCY - A theory needs to be presented in a
logical manner and to have clearly stated propositions that agree with or
do not

BY: MPC, RC, 11

contradict one another. Restated, does the theory make logical and consistent
sense?
5. MACRO - Macro theories of criminal behavior explain the “big picture” of crime
—crime across the world or across a society. They attempt to answer why there
are variations in group rates of crime. Other authors have used the terms
“epidemiology” or social structural theories.
6. MICRO - Micro theories of criminal behavior focus on a small group of
oenders or on an individual crime. They attempt to answer why some
individuals are more likely than others to commit crime. Other authors have
used the terms “individual conduct” or processual theories.
7. NECESSARY CONDITION - This means that X must be present to
produce eect Y. If X is not present, Y will not occur.
8. PARSIMONY - This refers to how many propositions, steps, or statements are
involved. How simple is the theory?
9. POLICY IMPLICATIONS - If the theory is empirically valid, what solutions
are suggested.
10. PROBABILISTIC CAUSALITY -A concept more applicable to the social
sciences. X is more or less likely to cause eect Y. Restated, X tends to
cause Y. 11. SCOPE -Refers to how much or how many types of crime or
deviance the theory covers.
12. SOFT DETERMINISM - The view that human behavior is not wholly caused,
determined, or predictable by any set of biological, psychological, or
sociological forces but that these interact with exercise of choice and will by
individuals.
 Therefore, explaining or predicting human behavior is dicult.
13. SUFFICIENT CONDITION.  Each time X is present, eect Y will always occur.
14. TAUTOLOGY - Circular reasoning. If a theory states that greed causes
people to commit crime, and then says we know Jon is greedy because he
committed a
crime, it becomes impossible to subject the theory to the scientic process. In this
case, you would nd that greed has been dened as someone who commits
criminal acts. The circle of the reasoning never stops.
15. TESTABILITY - To be valid and ultimately useful, a theory must be able to be
subjected to scientic research. Theories may be untestable if they are
tautological, propose causes that are not measurable, or are so open-ended that
empirical ndings can always be re-interpreted to support the theory.
16. THEORY - In simple terms, theory is an explanation of something.
17. THEORIES OF CRIMINAL AND DEVIANT BEHAVIOR - Theories in this
category attempt to explain why an individual commits criminal or delinquent
acts. 18. THEORIES OF LAW AND CRIMINAL JUSTICE - Theories in this category
attempt to explain how laws are made, and how the criminal justice
system operates as a whole.
19. USEFULNESS - This refers to the real world applications that the theory
proposes or suggests, and the ability to implement those applications.
20. THEORY - Is the imaginative contemplation of reality, direct
intellectual apprehension, insight or body of generalizations and principles
developed in association with the practice in a certain eld of activity.
II. BODY: THEORIES OF THE CAUSATION OF CRIME AND CRIME
PREVENTION –
UNDERSTANDING AND EXPLANATION OF SOME MAJOR THEORIES AND
CAUSATION OF CRIME AND ITS INSIGHTS

1. BIOLOGICAL THEORIES
Biological theories focus on aspects of the physical body, such as inherited
genes, evolutionary factors, brain structures, or the role of hormones in inuencing
behavior. Biological theories about the causes of crime on the idea that the
physical body, through inherited genes, evolutionary factors, brain structures, or
tbheh arovlieo ro. f hormones, has inuence on an individual’s involvement in criminal

Growing understanding of these mechanisms suggests that certain

biological factors, such as particular genes, neurological decits, low
serotonin activity, malnutrition and environmental pollutants may all aect
a person’s biological
propensity of criminal or antisocial behavior. The challenge for biological
theories of crime is to adequately represent the complex interplay between
inherited characteristics and environment.

RESPONSES OFFERED BY BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE INCLUDE

MEASURES SUCH AS:
A.  Maternal health initiatives to reduce the incidence of smoking and
drinking amongst pregnant women, thereby reducing neurological damage
to the developing fetus; and
B.  Public health initiatives and policy responses to reduce alcohol consumption and
binge drinking by teenager, as heavy alcohol use in adolescence is associated with
serious neurological damage and long-term cognitive decits.
2. DEVELOPMENTAL LIFE-COURSE THEORY 
Developmental life-course theories focus on human development and how
individual and social factors interact in dierent ways and at dierent
developmental stages to inuence individual propensity for criminal behavior.
Developmental life-course explanations see crime as the result of a development
process that starts before birth and continues throughout a person’s life. It seeks
to understand the interaction between individual factors such as genetics and
personality, and social factors such as family and community wellbeing. The theory
argues that while biological factors tend to be more signicant early in the
individual’s life, the relative eect of social inuences grows over time. A key aspect
of the development-life course approach is the identication of key developmental
junctures that can be used as points to intervene to promote positive
development.
RESPONSES FROM THE DEVELOPMENTAL-LIFE COURSE THEORY INCLUDE:
A.  A focus on pre- and post-natal care to ensure that babies are well cared
for during this developmentally important period; and
B.  Analyzing data about the change in oending over oenders’ loves to plan
government responses
3. PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES
Psychological theories focus on human cognition and its development, and
how this relates to criminal behavior. Psychology presents a number of
perspectives on the causes of crime. Of particular importance are theories
exploring the relationship between crime and individual personality, social factors,
cognition and developmental factors. These psychological theories have dierent
degrees of focus on individual, family, group and societal psychology.
Psychological literature shows that a key variable identied in the
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ansd cahniyld c-reimariinagl praocpteicnessit,i east,t aisc hthme rnotl,e neglected,
abuse, supervision, and the parents own anti-social or criminal behavior.

RESPONSES BASED BROADLY IN PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORY SPAN A WIDE

RANGE BUT INCLUDE:
1.Early intervention programmes in health and education that support the
healthy development of children; and
2.Supporting positive parenting practices, which research shows have a
correlation with reductions in risk-taking, anti-social behavior, and alcohol
and other drug abuse by adolescents.
4. SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES
Sociological theories focus on the inuence of the organization of society and
social conditions. Sociology encompasses a very wide range of theoretical
perspective, but generally regards crime as a social phenomenon, and emphasizes
the cultural and social elements of criminal behavior. Some sociological theories
emphasize the relationship between social structures, such as language, ethnicity
and class, and criminal behavior. Other theories emphasize the eect of social
conditions on an individual’s propensity to become involved in crime. Theories of
this type often focus on the relationship between crime and factors such as social
inequality; the inuence of peers; social disorganization in a community; the
consequences for an individual of being unable to achieve social success; and the
role of criminal sub-cultures, including gangs. Sociological theories are often
criticized for not being able to provide strong evidence for the causal
relationships they posit. Nevertheless, they are important because they
complement the more individually focused biological and psychological theories.
SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES RESPONSES INCLUDE:
1. Programmes to address multi-generational unemployment for particular group
or i n a p rti cu l a r a re a s ;
2   P r o g ram m e s t h a t b u ild cultural identity and positive
.community values to lift self-esteem, and strengthen social connectedness;
and
3. Anti-family violence programmes that try to change norms and behaviors in
relation to family violence.
5. GEOGRAPHIC THEORIES
Geographic theories focus on the location of crime and how physical
environments promote or discourage criminal behavior. Geographical theories of
crime focus on analyzing data about the geographic distribution of crime,
modifying the physical environment to reduce the likelihood of crime and
targeting initiatives to geographic areas with high rates of oending. Using data
about the geographic distribution of crime, it is possible to nd patterns that can be
used to inform crime prevention projects. Geographic theories of crime prevention
that
focus on the physical environment tend to focus on such things as how urban
planning, building design and the design of public spaces aect crime, and also on
how physical environments can be modied to make businesses and residences more
resistant to crime (sometimes called “situational crime prevention”).
RESPONSES OF GEOGRAPHIC THEORIES TO CRIME INCLUDE:
1.  Using lighting and better design of pedestrian ow to minimizes crime in an area
at night or planning licensed premises so that patrons do not come in conict as
they leave; and
2.  Using information about the distribution of crime in a neighborhood to
develop a area-specic crime prevention plan with the local community.
6. ECONOMIC THEORIES
Economic theories focus on how oending is inuenced by incentives. The

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expected costs of crime (such as increasing the likelihood of apprehension or
severity of punishment) or reduce the expected benets (such as improved
educational or job opportunities) can reduce the incidence of crime. The economic
framework can also encompass other theories of crime that provide a richer
understanding of rationality and decision-making (such as the biological basis of
impulsivity), the costs of crime (such the social capital in anti-social peer networks)
and the benets of crime (such as local economic conditions).
ECONOMIC RESPONSE TO CRIME INCLUDES:
1.  Improving engagement in education or employment so that the relative benets
of crime are reduced vi-a-vis legitimate economic activities; and
2.  Increasing or decreasing criminal sanctions to change the relative disincentive
associated with particular criminal activities.
III: THE THEORIES COVERED CAN BE CATEGORIZED INTO TWO (2)
MAIN APPROACHES:
1)  Biological theories
2)  Sociological theories
LOMBROSO AND BIOLOGICAL POSITIVISM
In the 19th Century, Italian prison psychiatrist Cesare Lombroso drew on the
ideas of Charles Darwin and suggested that criminals were atavistic: essentially
‘evolutionary throwbacks’. He suggested that their brains were mal-developed or
not fully developed. In his review of prisoners, he found that they shared a
number of common physical attributes, such as sloping foreheads and receding
chins. In so doing, Lombroso suggested that involvement in crime was a product
of biology and biological characteristics: criminals were born that way. Lombroso’s
theory is essentially a theory of biological positivism.
POSITIVISM -Inuenced by the scientic discoveries of the 18th and 19th
centuries, positivism is a research tradition that seeks to establish objective causes
of individual behavior.
Lombroso’s work has long since fallen out of favor. However, biological
theories have continued to develop. Rather than measuring physical
features of the body, contemporary approaches FOCUS ON: 
1. Biochemical conditions (e.g. linked to poor diet or hormone imbalance)
2. Neurophysiological conditions (e.g. learning disabilities caused by brain
damage)
3. Genetic inheritance and/or abnormality
4. Intelligence
 These attempts, to locate the causes of crime within the individual, suggest
that there are identiable dierences between oenders and non-oenders. In other
words, the criminal is ‘other’: in some way dierent or abnormal to everyone else.

2) SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES
Sociological approaches suggest that crime is shaped by factors external to the
individual: their experiences within the neighborhood, the peer group, and the
family.
THE CHICAGO SCHOOL/SOCIAL DISORGANIZATION THEORY
Social disorganization theory grew out of research conducted by
sociologists at the University of Chicago in the 1920s and 1930s. It key proponents
were Cliord R. Shaw and Henry D. McKay (1942), who used spatial mapping to
examine the residential locations of juveniles referred to court. Shaw and McKay
found that patterns of delinquency were higher in areas characterized by poor
housing, poor health, socio-economic disadvantage and transient populations.
This led them to suggest that crime was a function of neighborhood dynamics
and not due to individual actors and their actions. Shaw and McKay explained
these patterns by reference to the problems that accompanied immigration to
Chicago at this time.
 They claimed that areas settled by newly arrived immigrants experienced a
breakdown of social norms due to ethnic diversity and competing cultural
traditions. Conventional institutions of social control were therefore weakened
and unable to regulate the behavior of local youths.
CONTEMPORARY THEORIES OF CRIME, PLACE AND SPACE INCLUDE:
1. Defensible space theory, which examines how the design of physical space
is related to crime;
2. Broken windows theory, which looks the relationship between low level
disorder and crime; and
3.  Routine activities theory, which considers how opportunities to commit
crime are shaped by between people’s everyday movements through space
and time.
ANOMIE/STRAIN THEORY
Anomie is a concept developed by one of the founding fathers of sociology,
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(1957) drew on this idea to explain criminality and deviance in the USA. His
theory argues that crime occurs when there is a gap between the cultural goals
of a society (e.g. material wealth, status) and the structural means to achieve
these (e.g. education, employment). This strain between means and goals
results in
frustration and resentment, and encourages some people to use illegitimate or
illegal means to secure success. In short, strain theory posits that the cultural
values and social structures of society put pressure on individual citizens to
commit crime.
 JOCK YOUNG DRAWS ON MERTON’S ANOMIE/STRAIN THEORY IN HIS
RECENT BOOK, THE EXCLUSIVE SOCIETY (1999) - was locating crime in
relation to both structural and cultural processes. Structurally speaking,
Young argues that the dismantling of the welfare state, alongside increasing
disparities between the rich and the poor, have served to further exclude
disadvantaged groups. This has occurred alongside high levels of cultural
inclusion. Contemporary consumer capitalism places greater emphasis on
conspicuous consumption and material success, intensifying feelings of
deprivation experienced by the less
successful.
SUBCULTURAL THEORY
Linked to anomie and strain are concepts of status frustration and
dierential opportunity, which North American subcultural theorists used to
explain the delinquent activities of disadvantaged groups in the 1950s and 60s.
STATUS FRUSTRATION - Is associated with the work of Albert Cohen (1955), who
conducted research into group oending by young, lower-class men. Cohen
argued that lower-class youths could not aspire to middle-class cultural goals and
so, frustrated, they rejected them to create their own subcultural system of values.
In school, for example, they gain status and respect by meeting the expectations of
peers not teachers, engaging in delinquent activities such as smoking, truanting,
and acting up in class.

RICHARD CLOWARD AND LLOYD OHLIN (1960) - Built on these ideas, pointing
to the dierential opportunity structures available to lower-class young people
in dierent neighborhoods: criminal (making a living from crime), conict
(territorial violence and gang ghting) and retreatist (drugs and alcohol).
SOCIAL CONTROL THEORY
Strictly speaking control theory does not address the causes of crime, but
rather focuses on why people obey the law. In other words, it explains
conformity rather than deviance. It is primarily associated with the work of
TRAVIS HIRSCHI (1969), an America social scientist who proposed that people
general conform to social norms due to strong social bonds. Conversely, they
engage in delinquent acts when these bonds are broken or weak. THE KEY
COMPONENTS OF SOCIAL BONDS ARE: 
1. ATTACHMENT: How strong or weak is an individual’s relationship with others?
Do these others expect certain kinds of behavior (such as obeying the law)
from this individual? The stronger the attachment and the stronger the
expectations, the more likely it is that the individual will conform.
2. COMMITMENT: The more an individual commits his/herself to a particular
lifestyle (for example, being married, being a parent, having a job), the more
he/she has to lose if he/she becomes involved in crime (and so deviate from the
lifestyle).
3. INVOLVEMENT: This component comes down to time – the more time the
individual spends engaging in law abiding behavior, the less time he/she
has to engage in law breaking behavior.
4. BELIEF: this relates to upbringing. If an individual has been brought up to be
law abiding, they are less likely to become involved in crime. Control theory is
one of the most frequently used and tested criminological theories.
RIGHT REALISM/RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY
 This branch of criminology sees individuals as rational actors: individuals are
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action.
Right realism emerged in the USA and the UK around the 1980s, in response to
rising crime rates and a perceived failure of sociological approaches to adequately
address the real causes of crime. Prominent right realists such as James Q. Wilson
(1975) and Charles Murray (1990) come from political backgrounds and claim that
criminological theory should inform criminal justice policy.
One of the key theories to emerge from this branch of criminology is rational
choice theory, associated with the work of Cornish and Clarke (1986). According
to this theory, individuals not only decide to commit crime, but decide when and
where to commit crime.
As Walklate observes, this theory lends itself to the range of policy initiatives
known as situational crime prevention, sometimes referred to as designing out
crime. This is the umbrella term for a range of strategies that are used to reduce
the opportunities to commit crime.

REALISM - Realist criminology tends to be written from a particular

ideological
position, i.e. it is politically right or left. Both approaches attempt to get ‘real’
about the problem of crime: treating it as a serious social issue.
EXAMPLES OF THIS STRATEGY INCLUDE:
1.Increasing formal surveillance measures such as CCTV and alarms, and the
Neighborhood Watch scheme
2.Increasing natural surveillance such as improving street lighting
3.Concealing or removing ‘targets’ e.g. ‘High value’ goods such as mobile
phones, cash and jewelry
LEFT REALISM/RELATIVE DEPRIVATION
Left realism is a branch of critical criminology (see SCCJR what is crime?) that
developed in the UK and the USA in the 1980s. It suggests that crime
disproportionately aects the lives of the poor and disadvantaged. Key proponents
include Lea and Young (1984) and Elliot Currie (1985).
One of the key concepts of left realism is relative deprivation. Closely
associated with anomie theory, relative deprivation suggests that crime happens
when individuals or groups see themselves as being unfairly disadvantaged
compared to other individuals or groups who they see as being similar to
themselves. Since the disadvantage is perceived and determined by an individual,
it is a subjective assessment.

LEFT REALISTS ALSO SUPPORT TWO (2) OTHER KEY THEORIES TO EXPLAIN
CRIME:
1. MARGINALIZATION - Some groups experience marginalization and at dierent levels
(social, political and economic). These groups are on the periphery of society. Lacking
political representation, these groups represent themselves and their ways of taking
political action include the commission of crime and violence.
2. SUB-CULTURES: Marginalized individuals and groups may come into contact with
others who share these experiences, and who then may form their own sub cultures in
which crime and violence may feature.

FEMINIST PERSPECTIVES/GENDER
Feminist perspectives share a concern with gender inequality, pointing to the
fact that crime is disproportionately committed by men. Feminist
criminologists such as ELIZABETH STANKO (1985) have paid particular attention
to male violence against women, explaining its occurrence by reference to
wider structures of oppression – as well as gendered norms regarding
‘appropriate’ masculine and feminine behavior.
One concept used by feminist perspectives to explain the maleness of
crime is hegemonic masculinity: the set of ideas, values, representations and
practices associated with ‘being male’ which is commonly accepted as the
dominant position in gender relations in a society at a particular historical
moment ( JEFFERSON, 2006, SAGE DICTIONARY OF CRIMINOLOGY ). In
contemporary Western society, the dominant or hegemonic masculinity is
expressed through paid employment (perhaps being the ‘bread winner’ in
the household); being
heterosexual; and subordinating women. Criminologist JAMES W.
MESSERSCHMIDT (1993) argues that for some men, in certain groups, men do
masculinity (that is, express their masculinity) through the engagement and
commission of crime.
DETERRENCE AND RATIONAL CHOICE THEORIES (TERMINOLOGY)
1. DETERRENCE THEORY - A core principle of classical school and rational
choice theories, this theory states that crime can be controlled through
the use of punishments that combine the proper degrees of certainty,
severity, and celerity.
Deterrence is a key element in the U.S. justice system.
A. ABSOLUTE DETERRENCE - This refers to the amount of crime that has
been prevented simply due to the fact that a formal system is in place
so that an individual could be legally punished for committing a criminal
act.
B. GENERAL DETERRENCE - General deterrence is the doctrine that a
community or a society of people can be deterred from committing a criminal
act after having witnessed the punishment of an individual or individuals for
having committed that act.
C. SPECIFIC DETERRENCE - This style of deterrence is used with a specic
oender in mind. The belief is that if an individual is punished for a criminal
act,
then that individual will be less likely to violate the law in the future.
D. PERCEPTUAL DETERRENCE -  This concept applies to an individual oender,
and refers to what he or she believes the likelihood of arrest to be, and how
severe he or she believes the punishment for a crime will be if caught. The
perceptions of the individual are often very dierent from the actual reality
experienced.
E. RETRIBUTION - Making the punishment t the crime. It also referred to as “an
eye for an eye.”
THREE (3) ELEMENTS OF DETTERENCE THEORY 
A. CELERITY - One of the three elements of deterrence. Celerity refers to
how quickly an individual is punished after committing a crime.
B. CERTAINTY - One of the three elements of deterrence. Certainty refers to how
likely it is that an individual will be caught and punished for a crime that he or
she
has committed. Certainty is the most important of the three elements.
C. SEVERITY - One of the three elements of deterrence. Severity refers to how
harsh the punishment for a crime will be. In classical criminology, it is important
to remember that a punishment must t the crime. If a punishment is not severe
enough, it will not deter crime. If it is too severe, it is unjust and can lead to more
crime.
2. CLASSICAL CRIMINOLOGY - A school of thought based upon utilitarian
notions of free will and the greatest good for the greatest number. At its
core, classical criminology refers to a belief that a crime is committed after an
individual weighs the pros and cons. The decision to commit a crime is a
rational decision, and is best countered through a deterrence-based
system.
3. CRIME PREVENTION THROUGH ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN (CPTED) - This
refers to a set of practices designed to make potential criminal targets less
attractive. The belief that crime is a rational act is used to make a potential
target less attractive to a criminal, and thus not a “rational” target.
4. EXPECTED UTILITY PRINCIPLE - Economic theory which states that people will act
in a manner that increases their benets and reduces their losses. This ties in
closely with classical criminology and, by denition, rational choice theory, where
people seek to increase their pleasure and reduce their pain.

5. FREE WILL - The belief that humans are rational, and have the ability to
make decisions according to each individual’s own will and purposes. Under
this perspective, people can understand the dierence between right and
wrong, and can choose to commit criminal acts or to follow the law.
6. PROPORTIONALITY - Punishment should t the crime without regard to
individual dierences.

7. RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY - This is the 1980s formulation of classical

criminology. While the beliefs of rational choice theory can be traced
back to
edigmhetneseinotnh -tcheant teumryp phhaisloizseosp ther eCxepsanred iBnegc
rcoalrei ao,f thies veecrosnionm aisdtd ins ac rnimewinological thought. The
emphasis is placed on the expected reward for committing a crime, and other
associated costs and benets surrounding criminal activity.
8. ROUTINE ACTIVITIES THEORY - This theory states that for crime to be
committed, three elements must be present: an available target, a
motivated oender, and a lack of guardians.

9. SCARED STRAIGHT - This program began in the 1970s with the belief that
taking young oenders or potential oenders to a prison environment, and
exposing them to the realities of prison life, could prove benecial in reducing
delinquency. Like boot camps, however, Scared Straight did not produce the
expected results.

10. SHOCK INCARCERATION.  This approach generally uses a combination of

a brief prison sentence followed by probation. The hope is that a brief
exposure to
the realities of incarceration will deter the oender from further criminality.
11. BOOT CAMPS - Programs used in place of incarceration, and based upon a
military model of discipline and order. These programs are designed to have a
deterrent eect on young oenders, but they have generally failed to yield long- term
reductions in recidivism.

NOTABLE INDIVIDUALS OR PERSONALITIES WHO CONTRIBUTED IN THE

STUDY OF CRIMINOLOGICAL THEORY (SET 01)
1. BECCARIA, CESARE: (1738-1794) - Italian nobleman, prominent in the
eighteenth century, wrote On Crimes and Punishment (1764).
2. BENTHAM, JEREMY: (1748-1832) - Jurist and philosopher, prominent in the
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, advocated abolishing the death
penalty.
3. COHEN, LAWRENCE E.: - Collaborated with Marcus Felson in developing
the routine activities theory.
4. FELSON, MARCUS: - Collaborated with Lawrence Cohen in developing the
routine activities theory.
5. LOMBROSO, CESARE: (1836-1909)  - rst to use scientic method in
criminology, wrote the criminal man (1876).
6. EYSENCK, HANS J.: - Proposed the biosocial “arousal” theory.
7. FERRERO, WILLIAM: - Co-authored Female Oender (1958 [1897])
with Lombroso.
8. GORING, CHARLES: (1870-1919) - BRITISH criminologist, proposed the idea
that criminals are shorter, weigh less, and “mentally defective,” wrote The
English Convict: A Statistical Study (1913).
9. FREUD, SIGMUND: (1856-1939) - Psychologist, pioneer of psychoanalysis and
psychological theory; theorized the Oedipus complex, and the Electra
complex; and coined the terms id, superego, ego, sex drive, and libido. 
10. FRIEDLANDER, KATE: - Wrote The Psychoanalytic Approach to
Juvenile Delinquency (1947).
11. HOOTEN, E.A.: (1887-1954) - Anthropologist and neo-Lombrosian,
proposed the idea that crime is caused by physical inferiority, wrote Crime
and the Man (1939). 
12. MEDNICK, SARNOFF: - Developed the best-known and most systematically
stated and tested modern biosocial theory.

NOTABLE INDIVIDUALS OR PERSONALITIES WHO CONTRIBUTED IN THE

STUDY OF CRIMINOLOGICAL THEORY (SET 02)
1. AKERS, RONALD: - Sociologist and criminologist, who, along with Robert
Burgess, developed the dierential reinforcement theory, wrote Deviant
Behavior: A Social Learning Approach (1973, 1977).
2. BANDURA, ALBERT: - Psychologist and child development expert,
examined stages of development and concluded conduct develop at particular
stages when certain interaction stimuli are present.
3. BURGESS, ROBERT L.: - Behavior sociologist collaborated with Ronald Akers
t4o. dEeLvLeIOloTp, a D “EdLiBeErRenTt:i a-l  Daesvsoecloiapteiodn a-rne
intfeogrcreamteedn th”e tohreyo, rwy roft ec rEimxpinlailn bineghavior.
Delinquency and Drug Use (1985).
5. SUTHERLAND, EDWIN: (1883-1950) - Developed the dierential association
theory, wrote The Professional Thief (1937) and Principles of Criminology
(1947).
 6. GOTTFREDSON, MICHAEL: - Co-authored A General Theory of Crime (1990)
with Travis Hirschi.
7. HIRSCHI, TRAVIS: - Criminologist, developed the social bond theory, wrote
 The Causes of Delinquency (1969) and co-authored A General Theory of Crime
(1990) with Travis Hirschi.
8. MATZA, DAVID: - Collaborated with Gresham Sykes in 1957 and
proposed “techniques of neutralization,” developed drift theory of
delinquency in 1964, wrote Delinquency and Drift (1964).
9. NYE, F. IVAN: - Wrote Family Relationships and Delinquent Behavior
(1958), expanding on Reiss’ denitions of social controls.
10. RECKLESS, WALTER: - Proposed the containment theory of delinquency
and crime.
11. REISS, ALBERT J.: - In 1951, identied delinquency as resulting from the
failure of “personal” and “social” controls.
12. SYKES, GRESHAM: - Collaborated with David Matza in 1957 and
proposed “techniques of neutralization.”
NOTABLE INDIVIDUALS OR PERSONALITIES WHO CONTRIBUTED IN THE
STUDY OF CRIMINOLOGICAL THEORY (SET 03)
1. BECKER, HOWARD -Criminologist and social psychologist, primary theorist
in labeling, wrote Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance (1963).
2. BRAITHWAITE, JOHN - Wrote Restorative Justice and Responsive Regulation
(2002). His concept of reintrogrative shamming remains at the core of
restorative
 justice.
3. COOLEY, CHARLES HORTON - (1875-1940) Sociologist who developed
the concept of “looking- lass self.”
4. LEMERT, EDWIN M. - Sociologist, collaborated with Howard Becker to
extend the labeling theory to include both primary and secondary deviance,
wrote Social
Pathology (1951) and Human Deviance, Social Problems, and Social Control
(1967).
5. TANNENBAUM, FRANK - Criminologist, coined the phrase “dramatization
of evil,” wrote Crime and the Community (1938).
Notable Individuals
6. AGNEW, ROBERT. - Sociologist who proposed the general strain theory
to account for criminal behavior.
7. BURGESS, ERNEST - (1886-1966) Helped form the “Chicago School,”
collaborated with Sutherland and Park.
8. CLOWARD, RICHARD - Collaborated with Lloyd Ohlin to form a theory
of dierential opportunity, co-authored Delinquency and Opportunity (1960)
with Ohlin.
9. COHEN, ALBERT K. - Criminologist who developed the perspective
of delinquent subculture.
10. DURKHEIM, EMILE - (1858-1917) French sociologist, wrote Suicide
(1893). 11. MCKAY, HENRY D. - Sociologist who collaborated with Shaw
on the social disorganization theory.
12. MERTON, ROBERT K. - Focused on anomie and strain theory, wrote
Social
 Theory and Social Structure (1957).
13. MESSNER, STEVEN F. - Collaborated with Rosenfeld on the ideology of
the “American Dream” and institutional anomie theory.
14. MILLER, WALTER. - Criminologist who focused on gang delinquency as
a result of lower-class values.
15. OHLIN, LLOYD. - Collaborated with Cloward to form a theory of
opportunity and co-authored Delinquency and Opportunity (1960) with
Cloward.
16. PARK, ROBERT EZRA - (1864-1944) Associated with the “Chicago
School,” collaborated with Sutherland and Burgess.
17. ROSENFELD, RICHARD. - Collaborated with Messner on the ideology of the
“American Dream” and institutional anomie theory.

d1i8s.o rSgHaAniWza,t iCoLnI FthFeOoRryD. R. -  Sociologist who collaborated

with McKay on the social Notable Individuals
19. CHAMBLISS, WILLIAM J. - Criminological and sociological theorist,
co- authored Law, Order, and Power (1971) with Robert Seidman.
20. DURKHEIM, EMILE: - (1858-1917) French sociologist wrote Suicide (1893).
21. MARX, KARL: - European theorist whose view of the history of society as
class struggle and capitalism as a two-class system of the ruling elite and the
proletariat inspired many scholars and revolutionaries (see Chapter 10).
22. QUINNEY, RICHARD: - Sociologist known early on as a conict theorist and
later as a Marxist theorist. More recently he has been known for viewing
criminology for its peacemaking potential, wrote The Social Reality of Crime
(1970) and Class, State, and Crime (1980)
23. SUMNER, WILLIAM GRAHAM: - Pioneering sociologist who proposed the
classic statement of consensus theory. Developed the terms “folkways”
and “mores,” wrote Folkways (1906).
24. TURK, AUSTIN T. - Sociologist and criminologist who has written
extensively on the conict perspective, wrote Criminality and the Legal Order
(1969).
25. VOLD, GEORGE B. - Conict theorist, wrote Theoretical Criminology (1958).
26. WEBER, MAX: - German sociologist who pioneered work on bureaucracy,
law,
and economy.
NOTABLE INDIVIDUALS OR PERSONALITIES WHO CONTRIBUTED IN THE
STUDY OF CRIMINOLOGICAL THEORY (SET 04)
1. BONGER, WILLEM: - (1876-1940) Dutch theorist, who endorsed the
Marxist view of class conict, wrote Criminality and Economic Conditions
(1916).
2. CHAMBLISS, WILLIAM J. - Criminological theorist, wrote Law, Order,
and Power (1982).
3. KIRCHHEIMER, OTTO: - European theorist, co-authored Punishment and
Social Structure (1968) with Rusche.
4. MARX, KARL: - (1818-1883) European theorist, wrote The
Communist Manifesto (1848).
5. QUINNEY, RICHARD: - Sociologist, wrote The Social Reality of Crime (1970)
and Class, State, and Crime (1980).
6. RUSCHE, GEORG: - European theorist, co-authored Punishment and
Social Structure (1968) with Kirchheimer.
7. ADLER, FREDA: - Wrote Sisters in Crime: The Rise of the New Female
Criminal (1975).
8. CHESNEY-LIND, MEDA: - Feminist criminologist who attempt to balance
coverage of both males and females in criminological research, wrote The
Female Oender: Girls, Women, and Crime (1997).
9. MESSERSCHMIDT, JAMES W. - Wrote Crime as Structured Action:
Gender, Race, Class, and Crime in the Making (1997).
10. SIMON, RITA: - Wrote Women and Crime (1975).
NOTABLE INDIVIDUALS OR PERSONALITIES WHO CONTRIBUTED IN THE
STUDY OF CRIMINOLOGICAL THEORY (SET 05)
1. AKERS, RONALD L. - Proposed the absorption of concepts from other
theories by social learning concepts, wrote Criminological Theories:
Introduction, Evaluation, and Application (1994; 1997; 2000; and with Christine
S. Sellers, 2004). 2. BERNARD, THOMAS: - Proposed an integration of conict and
social learning theories to account for both criminal behavior and criminal law.
3. COLVIN, MARK: - Proposed that coercion may be a unifying concept
in criminology.
4. CULLEN, FRANCIS T. - Proposed that social support can be used as a
central concept around which all of criminology can be unied.
5. ELLIOTT, DELBERT S. -  One of the rst to integrate strain, control, and social
learning theories, wrote Explaining Delinquency and Drug Use (1985).
6. KAPLAN, HOWARD B. - Proposed a self-esteem/derogation
theory of adolescent deviance.
7. KROHN, MARVIN D. - Proposed the social network theory.
8. LAUB, JOHN H. - Collaborated with Robert Sampson to propose and test
life-
 Tcohurorsueg hp eLrisfep e(1c9ti9v3es). Wrote Crime in the Making: Pathways and
Turning Points
9. SAMPSON, ROBERT. - Collaborated with John Laub to propose and test life-
course perspectives coauthored Crime in the Making: Pathways and Turning
Points through Life (1993) with Sampson.
10. THORNBERRY, TERENCE P. - Proposed an interactional theory of
delinquency. Tittle, Charles R.: Proposed the control balance theory, wrote
Control Balance: Toward a General Theory of Deviance (1995).

MAJOR THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION AND DEFINITION

OF TERMINOLOGIES
A. PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES

THREE (3) PSYCHE OF PERSONALITY 

A. ID - One of the three components of Freudian personality development.
The id contains basic instincts and drives, such as the need for food, water,
sex, and pleasure.
B. EGO - One of the three components of Freudian personality development. The
ego is referred to as the executive or rational part of the personality and it acts
to
keep the id in check.
C. SUPEREGO - One of the three components of Freudian personality
development. This part of the personality contains the conscience of the
individual.
1. ELECTRA COMPLEX - This occurs at the beginning of the phallic stage
(around ages 3 to 6) in which a girl develops a desire to possess her father
and a hatred and fear of her mother.
2. FREUDIAN - This view of behavior focuses on early childhood development. It
claims that criminal activity is the result of a conict between the id, ego, and
superego, which can be traced back to a conict in early childhood.
3. OEDIPUS COMPLEX - This occurs at the beginning of the phallic stage
(around ages 3 to 6) in which a boy develops a desire to possess his
mother and a hatred and fear of his father.
4. PERSONALITY THEORY - This theory believes that criminal activity is the
result of a defective, deviant, or inadequate personality. Examples of
deviant personality traits include hostility, impulsiveness, aggression, and
sensation- seeking.
5. PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY - A general perspective stating that the causes of
criminal behavior can be found in the mind of the individual.
6. PSYCHOLOGICAL COUNSELING - The process by which an underlying mental
issue can be addressed. The assumptions are that only by treating an
individual who has committed a criminal act as someone who is sick and
in need of treatment can the problem truly be addressed; punishing the
criminal act without addressing the root mental cause is of little or no value;
and counseling is the only way in which the root mental cause can be dealt
with adequately.
7. PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORY - A general perspective that looks to the
pexsypclahionliongi carilm fuinactl iorn dinegv,i adnetv ealcotpsm. Ue ntd, earn
tdh iasd ajupsptrmoaecnht ,o tfh aen c rinimd ivniadlu acl ti nitself is only
important in that it highlights an underlying mental issue.

PSYCHOPATHIC THEORY
PSYCHOPATHIC - A general term referring to a variety of antisocial personality
disorders.
PSYCHOPATHY CHECKLIST (PCL-R) - Developed by HARE, this is a tool
comprised of a check list that is designed to measure the feeling and
relationships of an individual, along with the social deviance of an individual. This
tool is the main one used in the measurement of a psychopathic personality.
KEY CONCEPTS OF PSYCHOPHIC THEORY 

1 .  P
di s tusrybcahnocaen.a lFyrtoicm t hae Foreisutds iabne lipevres pthecacti
vceri,m thinisa lm baeyh ahvaivoer ibse tehne craeususeltd o bf ya amental conict
between the id, ego, and superego, or it may be the result of an improper
xation during a stage of emotional development.
 2.  Personality theorists believe that criminal behavior is the result of an
improper or defective personality or personality traits. Instead of developing a
conforming appropriate-social personality, the criminal has developed a
personality based upon conict, impulsiveness, and aggression. The criminal
does not have the ability to feel empathy, remorse, or guilt for his or her actions,
and has not developed a sense of right and wrong.
3.  Under both of these approaches, the criminal act is not important, in that it is
only one of many symptoms of the underlying psychological or personality
disorder. Both approaches recommend various forms of therapy and treatment
to
x the disorder. When the underlying psychological or personality disorder is
a d d r e s s e d, th e c r i m i n a l a n d d e v ia n t a c t s
4 4 .  P s y c h o l o g ic a l t h e o r ie s a re d i  c u l t i f n o
s h o u ld c e a s .
t i m p o s s i b le to test. One cannot see, identify, or measure the id, ego,
or superego. As a result, testing these theories becomes virtually impossible. Similar
diculties are faced when trying to test personality theories, and tautological issues
remain a problem.
5. Programs that oer therapy and counseling in attempts to reduce delinquency
have not been shown to be particularly eective. While the role of psychology in
criminal justice and criminology is indeed important, we have not yet reached a
place where the key concepts of psychological and personality theories, along with
their recommended treatments, have had a measured impact on criminal activity.

B. BIOLOGICAL THEORIES
DEFINITION OF BIOLOGICAL THEORIES

 1  . ADOPTION STUDIES - Studies that have been done with children reared by
biological parents compared to their siblings or twins reared by adoptive parents in
an attempt to demonstrate a genetic link to criminal behavior. Results have been
mixed.

2. ATAVISM - Part of the theory developed by Lombroso in which a person is a

“born criminal.” Atavistic or primitive man is a throwback to an earlier stage of
human evolution, and will commit crimes against society unless specically
restrained from doing so.
3. AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM (ANS) - Mednick’s theory that individuals
who inherit a slower than normal autonomic nervous system learn to
control aggressive or antisocial behavior slowly or not at all. This leads
to increased violence and criminal activity.
4. BEHAVIORAL GENETICS - This covers a range of theories in which a
c5o. mBbIOinLaOtiGonIC oAf Lg eSnCeHtiOcsO aLn -d  Ath veie ewn voifr
ocnrimen at lisno ruefnecrre db ethoa avsi obri.ological positivism that claims
that criminal behavior is the result of biological or inborn defects or
abnormalities. This view directly conicts with classical criminology, which claims
that criminal activity is the result of free will. Under a biological perspective,
deterrence is of little value.
6. BIOSOCIAL THEORIES - Theories that examine the combined eects of
biology, behavior, and the environment on criminal behavior.
7. BIOSOCIAL AROUSAL THEORY - This theory states that an individual’s level of
arousal works in conjunction with the social environment. Those with low
levels of arousal are less likely to learn appropriate ways to deal with
aggression and violence and thus are more prone to commit crime.
8. BORN CRIMINAL - One of three criminal types identied by Lombroso. This
type of criminal is the most dangerous, and can be identied through their
stigmata or identifying characteristics.
9 . C O N C O R D A N C E -  T h i s e x a m es t h e
be h a v io r of s ib li ng s , id e n t i c a l t wins , o r f r
 d g re e o w h c h c r m i n a l r la w - a b id i n g
a te rn a l tw in s is s i m i la r t o on e a n o t h e r . 10.
CRIMINALOID - One of three criminal types identied by Lombroso. The
criminaloid is motivated by passion, and will commit criminal acts under the
proper circumstances.
11. DETERMINISM - In considering biological theories, determinism refers to the
view that an individual’s criminal lifestyle or actions is the direct result of genetic
inheritance or biological predisposition. Soft determinism, as explained by Matza,
examines the role of determinism, but also acknowledges that other factors, from
environmental to choice, may be part of the equation. This assumes that behavior
is not completely and strictly determined by the individual’s genetic or biological
makeup.
12. EVOLUTIONARY THEORY - A broad-based view that certain types of
criminal behavior are genetic and passed down from one generation to the
next through evolutionary processes of natural selection and survival.
1 3 . G E N E - B A S E D E V O L U T I O N A R Y T H
th a t th e p r o c e ss o f n at u ra l s e le c tio n h a s
E O R Y -  A g e n e r a l a p p r o a c h h a t s u g g e sts
re s u lt e d i n cr i m i n l g e n e t ic te n d e n c i e s that
are passed down from generation to generation.
14. INSANE CRIMINAL - One of three criminal types identied by Lombroso. The
insane criminal type includes idiots, imbeciles, epileptics, psychotics, and the
mentally unstable. These criminals are unable to control their actions; however,
they do not possess the stigmata or identifying characteristics of the born
criminal. 15. STIGMATA - Characteristics claimed by Lombroso that could be used
to identify the “born criminal.” They include things such as extra ngers or toes,
large lips, receding chins, excessive skin wrinkles, and large monkey-like ears.
KEY CONCEPTS OF BIOLOGICAL THEORIES TO THE EXPLANATION OF THE
CAUSATION OF CRIMINALITY 
1.  The fundamental concept behind the early biological theories was the belief
that individual dierence could be scientically measured.
2.  Early biological theories view criminal behavior as the result of a defect in the
individual. This defect can be biological or genetic in nature, and serves to
separate the criminal from the law abiding citizen. Contemporary biological
theories concentrate more on variations in genetic and other biological factors in
interaction with the environment, and are less likely to refer to biological defects
or abnormalities. 3. Punishment serves a dierent goal in biological theories.
While punishment may be appropriate to protect society, it will not have a
deterrent eect. Because there is an inherent defect or abnormality within the
individual, deterrence or the threat of punishment will not aect behavior.
4.  Although early biological theories lacked validity, they were among the rst to
use the scientic method. The process of measuring body parts, shapes, and
sizes, (although awed) represented a dramatic shift from the philosophical
approach oered by the classical school.
5.  Biological theories trace back to Lombroso, and vary in the amount of
determinism built in. Atavistic man or the “born criminal” was always going to be
at odds with civilized society. More modern biological theories seek to establish
a link between things like IQ, testosterone, and criminality. While they share a
biological link, modern theories understand that the inuences of choice and the
larger society also play a role in the crime dynamic.
6.  If traditional biological theories are correct, then society is limited in its
responses to oenders. There are ve basic responses. First, we could try to x
the oender. This may be accomplished through medication, treatment, or
therapy. Second, we could lock the oender up and keep him or her physically
separated from larger society. Third, we could sterilize the oender. This would

kwee cpo iunldi vdiedpuoarlst foro bma npiasshs tinhge aoloenngd der.f
eFcitnivaell yg,e wne sc tou lfdu tcuhroeo gsen teor aktililo tnhse. Fourth,
oender. If crime is truly biologically determined, these options, or close
derivatives of these options, would prove more useful than any punishment
designed to remove the pleasure from a criminal act.
7.  More recent biological or biosocial theories believe that even if some
biological traits are passed down that would make an individual more pre-
disposed to commit criminal acts; these traits can be dealt with through
eective social programs. Having a biological trait then, is not the end of the
story. It does not doom one to a life of crime, and can in fact be dealt with and
managed.

C. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

DEFINITION OF SOCIAL LEARNING THEORIES
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY - In general, social learning theory proposes
that both criminal and conforming behavior are acquired, maintained, or
changed by the same process of interaction with others. The dierence lies in
the
conforming or deviant direction or balance of the social inuences such as
reinforcement, values and attitudes, and imitation.
One of the four main concepts OF AKERS’ SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY -
 The process through which an individual rationalizes, evaluates, and assigns right
and wrong. Denitions of the law may be general or specic. One may have the
general view that the law needs to be obeyed, but a specic view that a 20-year-
old who can ght in a war should be allowed to drink a beer. This person may
follow the law in general, but violate the liquor law.

1. BEHAVIOR THEORY - Burgess and Akers expanded dierential association and

included elements of behavior theory and behavior modication. This expansion
allowed them to identify the learning process, and included elements such as
operant behavior, respondent conditioning, discriminative stimuli, and schedules
of reinforcement.
2. DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION - A theory of crime and delinquency developed
by Sutherland. This is a social learning theory presented in nine steps. Criminality
is basically the result of engaging in inappropriate behaviors exhibited by those
with whom we interact. Also, one of the four main concepts of Akers’ social
learning theory. Akers retains the process of dierential association, and expands
upon it in his theory.
3. DIFFERENTIAL IDENTIFICATION -  A modication of dierential association
theory. In this view, people commit criminal or delinquent acts if they believe that
it will lead to acceptance by and approval of these important people in their lives.

4. DIFFERENTIAL REINFORCEMENT - One of the four main concepts of Akers’

social learning theory. The concept refers to the potential rewards and
punishments for committing or not committing a criminal or deviant act. This
process includes a consideration of punishments and rewards that have been
received in the past, as well as present and future rewards and punishments.
5. DISCRIMINATIVE STIMULI - Internal or external factors or cues that aid an
individual in determining an appropriate response to a given situation.
6. IMITATION - One of the four main concepts of Akers’ social learning theory.
Behavior modeled by others for an individual may be copied by that individual.
Impressions of the individual doing the modeling, along with perceived risks
and rewards, will factor into the imitation decision.
7. POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT - This refers to an individual receiving something
of value for committing a certain act. This may include things such as money,
food, or approval.
8. NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT - This refers to an individual escaping
something painful such as a punishment or reprimand by committing a
certain act.
9. NEUTRALIZING DEFINITIONS -  This type of denition helps a person justify
committing a crime by making it seem that although the act itself might be
wrong, under certain conditions it is all right.
 10. OPERANT CONDITIONING - The view that voluntary actions and decisions
made by an individual are inuenced and shaped by punishments and rewards
found in the external world.
11. RETROFLEXIVE REFORMATION - This process is based upon dierential
association and often takes place in a group setting working with both
oenders and non-oenders. This concept suggests that the oenders in such
groups, who
 join on the side of the non-oenders in attempting to get the other oenders to
change their denitions favorable to law violation, actually wind up reducing their
own denitions favorable to crime.
12. SELF-REINFORCEMENT - The exercise of self-control used by an individual to

r e i n f o rc e his or her own behavior, by seeing that behavior through the

a no th e r .
eyes of 13. SOCIAL REINFORCEMENT - This refers to the actual, perceived,
expected, tangible, or intangible rewards or punishments conveyed upon
an individual by society or a subset of society.
14. SOCIAL STRUCTURE AND SOCIAL LEARNING MODEL - A model proposed
by Akers in which social structural factors have an indirect eect on an
individual’s actions through the social learning process.
15. SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM - The process by which two or more
individuals share a commonly understood language or set of symbols. All
individuals have the ability to incorporate other people’s reactions into their
own behavior, and use those reactions as part of their own understanding of
themselves. Example: You want to know how you look in a new outt. Part of your
understanding of how you

l o o k is g o i ng o be b a s e d up o n h ow o h e r
ru en sdpe or sn t da n td o o ty ho eu r . p e Yo op ule ’ sh afav ce ia l thr eaa ctbility
io n to
s,
b o d y la n g u a g e , a n d l a n g u a ge in
understanding how they view you. You then use this information when deciding
if you look good in the outt.
KEY CONCEPTS SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY TO THE EXPLANATION OF THE
CAUSATION OF CRIMINALITY 
1.  As a general concept, social learning theory has been applied to the elds of
sociology, psychology, criminal justice, and criminology in an attempt to explain
how criminal values, ideas, techniques, and expressions are transmitted from
one individual to another.
2.  Dierential association theory, developed by Sutherland, is a learning
theory that concentrates on one’s associates and the normative denitions one
learns from them.
3.  Akers identied four dimensions of the social structure that can possibly be
integrated with social learning. The four dimensions are: dierential social
organization, dierential location in the social structure, theoretically dened
structural variables, and dierential social location.
4.  Learning theorists believe that deviant behavior can be eliminated or modied
by taking away the reward of the behavior, increasing the negative
consequences of the behavior, or changing the balance of reward/punishment
for the behavior.
5.  Just as positive behaviors reinforce positive behaviors, deviant behaviors
also reinforce deviant behaviors. Deviant peers who reinforce one
another’s behaviors can form fast bonds of friendship. The eects of such a
relationship subjects all of the individuals involved to higher rates of future
substance abuse and criminal activity.
D. SOCIAL BONDING AND CONTROL THEORIES

DEFINITIONS OF SOCIAL BONDING AND CONTROL THEORIES

 SOCIAL BONDING THEORY - A control theory that states that individuals
will commit criminal or delinquent acts when their ties (bonds) to society
are weakened or have broken. There are four types of bonds: attachment,
commitment, involvement, and belief. When the bonds are strong, an
individual will refrain from criminal activity.
A. SOCIAL CONTROL - Under a control theory perspective, social control
refers to those elements that keep an individual from committing a criminal
or deviant act. Examples include the family, church, and school.
B. SELF-CONCEPT - An element of containment theory thought to be responsible
for insulating an individual from criminal activity. This is Similar to self-esteem.
C. SELF-CONTROL THEORY - A specic type of control theory developed by
GOTTFREDSON and HIRSCHI in which self-control is the key factor in
understanding criminal and deviant acts.
1. CONTAINMENT THEORY - A control theory in which the inner and outer
pushes and pulls on an individual will produce delinquency unless they
are constrained or counteracted by inner and outer containment
measures.
2. CONTROL THEORIES - A classication of theories that claim to ask not why do
people commit criminal acts, but why do they not commit criminal acts? These
theories assume everyone has the desire to commit criminal and deviant acts,
and seeks to answer why some people refrain from doing so.
3. DELINQUENT SUBCULTURE - A group of delinquent peers which may inuence
an individual to commit criminal acts in order to receive approval from the group.
This concept works in conjunction with control theory and may pull an individual
towards delinquency.
4. DRIFT THEORY - This theory states that people can ‘drift’ or oat back and
forth between obeying and breaking the law. People can use techniques of
neutralization as excuses to break the law when other forms of social control
are weak. When social control is stronger, the oender will drift or oat back to
law- abiding behavior.
5. EXTERNAL CONTROL - A concept in control theory in which agents outside the
control of the individual are responsible for keeping that individual from
committing criminal or deviant acts. These agents include parents, teachers, or law
enforcement.
6. INTERNAL CONTROL - A concept in control theory which explains why a
person will not commit a criminal act by reference to the person internally
monitoring and controlling his or her own behavior. This includes such things
as feelings of guilt and not wanting to disappoint others.
7. NATURAL MOTIVATION - This refers to the belief in control theories that
the desire to commit criminal acts is uniform and spread evenly across
society.
KEY CONCEPTS SOCIAL BONDING AND CONTROL THEORIES to THE
EXPLANATION OF THE CAUSATION OF CRIMINALITY 
1.  Social bonding and control theories are nontraditional criminological
perspectives because they seek to explain why individuals conform to
societal norms, and not why they commit crime.
2.  TRAVIS HIRSCHI’S theory has many policy implications and can be used
to reduce delinquency. His theory can be seen in policies such as curfew
laws, after- school programs, parenting classes, and job placement
programs.
3.  HIRSCHI utilized theory construction, conceptualization, operationalization, and
empirical testing to develop a perspective that still stands as a criminological
model today.
4.  The Social Development Model (SDM) has supported bonding and learning
theories and has demonstrated success in areas of commitment and attachment.
E. LABELING THEORY
DEFINITION OF LABELING THEORIES TO THE EXPLANATION OF THE
CAUSATION OF CRIMINALITY 
LABELING THEORY - The theory that the formal and informal application
of
stigmatizing and deviant “labels” or tags applied to an individual by society will not
deter, but rather instigate future deviant or criminal acts.
RESTORATIVE JUSTICE - This refers to programs which are designed to make
oenders take responsibility for their actions and restore them and their victims,
as much as possible, back to things as they existed before the oense. Often
oenders will apologize to the victims and to the community, and attempt to
nancially compensate the victims for their losses.
1. DEINSTITUTIONALIZATION - The removal of juveniles from jails, detention
centers, and institutions. Removing juveniles from these facilities, and
when possible removing status and minor oenders from the juvenile justice
system as a whole, is the most basic type of diversion.
2. DISINTEGRATIVE SHAMING - The process by which an individual is punished,
labeled, and made to feel shame for committing a deviant act in a manner that
degrades and devalues the individual. This occurs without an attempt after the
oenders have been punished to reconcile them with or restore them to the
larger community.
3. DIVERSION MOVEMENT - This refers to all those eorts to divert individuals,
primarily youth but also adults who are suspected of or have been charged with
minor oenses, from the full and formal process of the juvenile or adult justice

sy s e m . T h e i n te n t is t o r e d u c e t h e s t ig m
oa n oth
f fe o ir nmd ai lv d
id ue lia nq
ls ua en nd t t oo r r ce r d im
u cine a oa lr ala vbels
o id
t h e c o s t s o f fo r m a l p ro c e s s in g o f t h e
crime.
4. FAITH-BASED PROGRAMS - These are religiously based programs which
can be operated within the institution or the larger community. They can be
run by inmates or religious leaders, and use spiritual beliefs and values to
change oenders’ attitudes and behaviors.
5. NET WIDENING - A problem that occurs when oenders who would have
been released from the system are placed in a program simply because a
program exists. This often occurs in diversion programs. Boot camps may be
a viable option to keep kids out of institutions, but it becomes netwidening
when kids, who otherwise would have been sent home, are sent to boot
camps.
6. PRIMARY DEVIANCE - Deviant acts that are committed in the absence of or
preceding the application of a deviant label for the acts. While it may or may not
be the rst crime a person has committed, it is not based on a response to being
labeled as a deviant (see Secondary Deviance).
7. SECONDARY DEVIANCE - Criminal or deviant acts those are committed
in response to, or because of, a label that has been applied to an
individual.
8. REINTEGRATIVE SHAMING - The process by which an individual is punished,
labeled, and made to feel shame for committing a deviant act, but done in a
way that the individual who is shamed is brought back into the larger
community and restored to a position of respectability.
KEY CONCEPTS OF LABELING THEORIES TO THE EXPLANATION OF THE
CAUSATION OF CRIMINALITY 
1.  Labeling theory focuses on formal and informal applications of stigmatizing
and deviant “labels” by society on some of its members. Many have argued
however,
that these labels are often the result of the statues of the individual, ie race, social
class, and socioeconomics, as opposed to any act committed.
2.  Labeling theory treats such labels as both cause and eect, as independent and
dependent variables.
3.  Lemert focused on two stages of deviance: Primary deviance is the commission
of criminal acts before the individual is caught and punished for them; and
secondary deviance refers to crimes committed due to the label society has
placed upon an oender.
4.  A major concept in symbolic interactionism is the “looking-glass self,” in which
our self concepts are reections of other people’s conceptions of us, as revealed in
their interactions with us.
5.  Labeling theory mirrors conict theory in that the individuals with power create
and enforce rules at the expense of the less powerful.
F. SOCIAL DISORGANIZATION, ANOMIE, AND STRAIN THEORIES

DEFINITION OF SOCIAL DISORGANIZATION, ANOMIE, AND STRAIN

THEORIES TO THE EXPLANATION OF THE CAUSATION OF CRIMINALITY 
ANOMIE - A state of normlessness or norm confusion within a society. The
term was coined by Durkheim to explain suicide in French society, and later
applied by Merton and others to other forms of deviance and crime in
American society.
SOCIAL DISORGANIZATION - Social disorganization refers to the breakdown in
traditional social control and organization in the society, community,
neighborhood, or family so that deviant and criminal activity results. It is most
often applied to urban crime.

INSTITUTIONAL ANOMIE - This theory was created by MESSNER AND

ROSENFELD.  The premise of the theory is that American society is set up in
such a way so as to give prestige and priority to economic institutions. This
means that
the accumulation of wealth and individual success are people’s highest priorities.
Prioritizing economic institutions weakens the ability of other social institutions
(family, education, government) to control crime that occurs in response to the
lack of access to or failure in the economic sphere. Therefore, a high level of
criminal activity is a natural result of the setup of American society.
MERTON’S ANOMIE THEORY - This version of anomie theory looks at American
society, and what happens when an individual realizes that not everyone
can achieve the American dream of equal opportunity for economic success.
When this happens, one of ve adaptations will occur. The conformist accepts the
goals of society, and the means for achieving them: the college student.
The innovator accepts the goals of society, but rejects the means of
achieving them: the drug dealer. The mode of rebellion refers to one who
rejects both the goals and means of society, and wants to replace them with
new goals and means: the militia member. The retreatist gives up on both
the goals and means, and withdraws from society: the alcoholic. Finally, the
ritualist rejects the goals, and accepts the means: this person has given up
on the promotion, nice car, etc., and simply punches the time clock to
keep what they have.

1. DIFFERENTIAL OPPORTUNITY - A theory which draws from anomie and the
work of MERTON AND COHEN; the SOCIAL DISORGANIZATION THEORY  of
SHAW and MCKAY ; and the DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION THEORY  of
SUTHERLAND. This view says that although one may be denied legitimate
opportunity that does not mean that one has access to illegitimate
opportunity. Although deprivation and strain can and do play a role, one
learns a good or bad response to that strain depending on the available
opportunities and role models, legitimate or illegitimate.

THREE (3) GROUPS EXIST UNDER THIS PERSPECTIVE OF DIFFERENTIAL

OPPORTUNITY THEORY 

p1r.i mTHarEy FgIoRaSl To fI Sth eC RaIcMtivINitAy Lis -toIn m carikmei nmaol

ngeroyu. pAs ,l ajucvke onfi lesg iatrime aotreg amneizaends, ahnads the been
replaced by illegitimate ones, such as theft or extortion.
2. THE SECOND GROUP IS THE CONFLICT GROUP - In this group, there are few
legitimate or illegitimate opportunities. These groups are found primarily in
poor
socially disorganized neighborhoods. As a result, toughness and ghting are the
primary goals.
3. THE FINAL GROUP IS THE RETREATIST -  This group cannot ght well, or
prot from their crimes. They are the double-losers.

2. FOCAL CONCERNS OF THE LOWER-CLASS CULTURE - The list of focal

concerns or values believed to be prevalent among lower-class males
was developed by MILLER to describe the behavior of street corner groups
or gangs. According to MILLER, the behavior of these juveniles was an
adaptation to lower- class culture. This culture valued THINGS SUCH AS: 
A. Trouble, D. Excitement
B. Toughness, E. Fatalism
C. Smartness F. and autonomy.

3. GENERAL STRAIN THEORY OF CRIME AND DELINQUENCY - A micro-level

social psychological revision of Agnew’s strain theory. According to this
theory, criminal and deviant acts are one possible adaptation to stress.
THE THREE (3) MAJOR TYPES OF DEVIANCE-PRODUCING STRAIN ARE:
1. Failure to achieve positively valued
goals 2. Removal of positively valued
stimuli, and 3. Confrontation with
negative stimuli.
Deviance is most likely to occur when the response of the individual to any
of these stressors is anger. Factors such as peer associations, beliefs, and
attributions of causes, self-control, and self-ecacy will aect each individual’s
reaction to stress.

COHEN is in agreement with MERTON that blocked goals produce STRAIN; his

theory looks at status as opposed to material gain. Under this perspective,
 juveniles are measured against the standard of the middle class. Lower-class kids,
who cannot meet the middle-class standards of dress, talk, and manners are, in a
sense, deprived. This ‘status deprivation’ leads to ‘status frustration,’ which in turn
causes deviant and criminal acts. Instead of ve groups like Merton proposes,
Cohen sees only one group—a conict group which values toughness, ghting, and
respect.

4. URBAN ECOLOGY THEORY - A theory that views a city as analogous to the
natural ecological community of plants and animals. This relationship is
understood through the use of concentric zones that spread from the center
to the outer regions of a city. This work done by PARK  and BURGESS inuenced
the social disorganization theory developed by SHAW and MCKAY. 
5. COLLECTIVE EFFICACY - This refers to the actual or perceived ability of the
residents of a given neighborhood to maintain informal social control over the
criminal or deviant behavior of other residents. This would have the eect of
keeping crime rates lower.
6. CHICAGO AREA PROJECTS -  This was the rst large-scale urban delinquency
prevention program. Started by Shaw and McKay in the 1930s, it used their
social disorganization theory as a core. Cohen’s Anomie Strain. This version
of anomie theory examines juveniles.
KEY CONCEPTS OF SOCIAL DISORGANIZATION, ANOMIE, AND STRAIN
THEORIES TO THE EXPLANATION OF THE CAUSATION OF CRIMINALITY 
1.  Anomie was coined by the French sociologist Durkheim, and rst applied to
French society to examine rates of suicide. The concept of anomie was rst used
in this country by Merton, in an eort to describe adaptations in behavior, and
the interaction between legitimate and illegitimate means.
2.  Anomie may apply when there are not enough legitimate means to reach
legitimate societal goals. This can occur when society is in a state of disorder and
disintegration, as opposed to stability and integration.
3.  Depending on the theorist, anomie has been applied to the acquisition of
wealth, the attainment of status, or the expression of cultural or class values.
4. Agnew’s revision of anomie strain theory examines several possible sources of
strain that may result in criminal activity. These sources include: failure to achieve
positively valued goals, removal of positively valued stimuli, and confrontation
with negative stimuli.
5. With mixed support, anomie strain theories have been used to develop projects
d s i g n e d t o br in g s ta b il it y n d o r d e r to
be e n th a t i n c e a si n g t h e s ta b il it y o f t h e
d i s or ga ni z e d c o m m u n i t ie s . T h e h o p e h as
c o m m u i t y , t h e s ch o o l s , a n d t h e fa m i ly
would reduce criminal and delinquent acts.

G. CONFLICT THEORY
DEFINITION OF CONFLICT THEORIES TO THE EXPLANATION OF THE
CAUSATION OF CRIMINALITY 
CONFLICT THEORY - The view that society is divided into two or more
groups with competing ideas and values. The group(s) with the most power makes
the laws and controls society. Groups lacking the formal power to make the rules
still maintain their own group norms, and continue in their behavior which is now
viewed as criminal by the larger society. This perspective explains both law and
criminal justice (why some acts are legally dened as criminal), as well as criminal
and deviant behavior (why some individuals commit acts dened as criminal).
1. CONSENSUS THEORY - In general, this theory states that laws are a result of,
and a reection of, general agreement in society. Views of right and wrong, which
can be reected through folkways and mores, inuence the laws and rules which
govern a society.
2. FUNCTIONALIST THEORY - Similar to consensus theory, but this theory also
looks at how the law acts to resolve everyday disputes in society; and how it
acts to serve everyone, not just the powerful. The law also serves a symbolic
function and discourages deviant behavior.
3. INTEREST GROUPS - These groups form and act in such a manner so as to
inuence the political system in ways that will provide the greatest benets to
members of the group. They are also referred to as pressure groups.
4. LAW - Rules and regulations backed with the coercive power of the state.
Depending upon one’s view, law is either formed with the agreement of the
majority of society and designed to promote order, or formed by the powerful in
society to keep control of the masses. 5. PLURALISTIC CONFLICT - A type of
conict perspective which emphasizes that instead of one centralized, all-powerful
group making the rules, there are several power groups, both formal and
informal and often with overlapping interests, which wrestle for control and
power.
6. POLITICAL CRIMES - Crimes committed by radical groups to overthrow a
government or overturn a government action; or crimes committed by
government ocials to control groups seen as a threat. Which side in any given
conict is labeled radical, depends upon which side one supports and which side
wins the dispute.
7. RACIAL PROFILING - Actions taken by the police based solely on the race
of an individual.
8. SOCIAL CONTROL - A normative system with rules concerning the way
people should and should not behave. This is combined with a formal and
informal system to encourage and promote conformity, while at the same time
discouraging
and punishing deviance. Informal social control is exhibited by the family, church,
and school, while formal social control is exhibited by the police and the courts.
9. SOCIAL THREAT HYPOTHESIS - This hypothesis states that criminal and
deviant acts will increase as the number of people opposed to the interests
of the powerful increases.
KEY CONCEPTS OF CONFLICT THEORIES TO THE EXPLANATION OF THE
CAUSATION OF CRIME
1.  Conict theory proposes that the law and the criminal justice system primarily
embody the interests and norms of the most powerful groups in society, rather
than those of society as a whole.
2. Consensus theory explains the content and operation of the law by referring
to a broad-based agreement in society on social and moral norms within the
society, and the common interests of all elements of society.
3.  Conict and consensus theories imply support for fair representation of diering
interests and values and non-discrimination in the law and criminal justice system.
4. There are two forms of social control. Informal social control exists in families,
peer groups, churches, and in communities. When there is a breakdown of
informal social control, formal social control increases. Law is formal social
control.
5. Empirical evidence on consensus and conict theory is based on studies of the
enactment of laws and studies of public opinion; on crime; and on disparities in
arrests, convictions, and penalties based on race, sex, and socioeconomic status.
H. MARXIST AND CRITICAL THEORIES

TERMINOLOGIES RELATED TO MARXIST AND CRITICAL THEORIES

MARXIST THEORY - This theory explains both law and criminal justice,
and focuses upon the division between the ruling-class elite and the
laborers. In a capitalist society, the ruling-class elite (bourgeoisie) control
the means of production which allows them to control the political state as
well. They use this control to manipulate the laborers (proletariat) and keep
them in a position of powerlessness. The masses are thus controlled both
economically and legally.
STRUCTURALIST MARXISM - While close to the view of Instrumental
Marxism, this perspective states that the political state is not under the total
control of the ruling elite; that from time to time, laws may be passed that harm
the ruling elite; and that their members, on occasion, may be subject to state
control.

1po. RGEOIS - The ruling-class elite in a capitalist system; those with the

wBeO
rU.
2. PROLETARIAT - The working class or laborers in a capitalist society; those
with
no power.
3. CAPITALISM - A system of economic organization in which the means of
production are held privately in the hands of a few.
4. SOCIALISM - A system of economic organization in which the means of
production are held by the state for the benet of all.
5. CONSTITUTIVE CRIMINOLOGY - A variation of critical criminology, which
recommends that we the search for the cause of criminal activity. Instead, it
examines how the relationships between criminals, victims, and agents of
control act and react to form our understanding of crime.
6. CRIMES OF ACCOMMODATION AND RESISTANCE - Crimes committed by
the lower class against the upper class, or the capitalist system.
7. CRIMES OF DOMINATION AND REPRESSION - Crimes committed by the
ruling class against the lower class.
8. CRITICAL CRIMINOLOGY - An extension of Marxist theory that goes
beyond the examination of the eects of capitalism on crime. It takes a
critical stance against mainstream criminology.
9. LEFT REALISM - A variation of critical criminology. While this perspective
examines the role capitalism plays in society, it also recognizes the impact,
damage, and fear caused by traditional street crime. It proposes reforms to the
system that would deal with these crimes, assist the victims, reduce the use of
prisons, and reduce crime as a whole. This perspective rejects both the
conservative and choice perspective of the right, and the tendency of the left
to overlook or disregard the true damage caused by crime.
1 0 . I N S T R U M E N T A L M A R X IS M -   T he
cr im i na l ju s ti ce s y s te m ) i s a lw a ys a n d o
p o l it i c a l s t a t e ( in lu d i n g h e l a w a n d th
n l y a t o o l o f th e ca p it a l is t c la s s t o o p p ress the
working class.
11. PEACEMAKING CRIMINOLOGY - This perspective is often viewed as a
philosophy as opposed to a theoretical perspective, and it may or may not
contain a religious core. In essence, it is an attempt to get all players in society
(victims, oenders, and criminal justice agents) to recognize and reduce the
violence that is at the heart of the society and the system. The violence can then
be replaced with non-violent solutions.
12. POSTMODERNISM - Closely related to critical criminology, his perspective
seeks to discover and eliminate the power of language and text which is used
to give power and privilege to specic groups, while denying it to others. This
perspective also seeks to eliminate reliance on testable scientic explanations of
criminology, and replace it with a language-based perspective that recognizes and
advances the cause of disadvantaged individuals.
KEY CONCEPTS MARXIST AND CRITICAL THEORIES
1. Marxist theorists believe that capitalism is the cause of crime and delinquency.
2. The instrumental Marxist theorist believes that the entire system of capitalism
serves to benet the ruling elite; while the structural Marxist believes that, at least
in the short term, the political state maintains some degree of independence from
the ruling elite.
3.  The Marxist view states that crime is either committed by the ruling class to
keep the working class in place, or by the working class to strike out against
the ruling class.
4.  Marxist theory is unable to explain the level of power and control held by an
elikliete t hfew T ianl ibthaen fionr mAfegrh Saonvisietat nU. nTiohne, caosl
lwaeplsle ea so ft hthe r igsoev aenrndm peonptu lanrdit yt hoef ugusrsoeu opfs
the law as a weapon against the oppressed have been more evident in those
societies than in the United States.
5.  Constitutive criminology recommends that we abandon traditional searches
for the cause of criminal activity. It examines how all the actors in the system
collectively inuence our understanding of crime.
6.  Critical criminology is similar to Marxist theory in the belief that crime and
delinquency are dened by those who have the power in society. The law and
criminal justice system are then used to keep the powerless under control.
After this has been acknowledged, critical criminology works to nd ways to
empower the powerless.
I. FEMINIST THEORIES
TERMINOLOGIES RELATED TO FEMINIST THEORIES
FEMINIST THEORY - This theory attempts to dene criminology and
criminal justice based upon the experiences, understanding, and view of the
world as perceived by women. It tries to counter most theories of criminology
that have
been developed, tested, and applied by men to men, which have only incorporated
women as an afterthought.

MASCULINITIES - A trait shared by all men, but one that changes and
evolves depending upon the race, economic status, and sexual orientation of
any particular man. Crime may be viewed as an attempt to claim, re-claim, or
prove the very qualities that make one a man.
MASCULINITY THESIS - The view that as women become more equal in
society with men, their crime rates will increase.

1. EGALITARIAN FAMILY - Part of Hagan’s power-control theory. A family in

which the mother and father occupy similar roles in the workplace and share
power and control in the family.
2. PATRIARCHAL FAMILY - Part of Hagan’s power-control theory. In a patriarchal
family, the father is typically in a command position in the workplace and runs the
family. Mothers are more likely to supervise daughters more closely than sons and
encourage risk-taking in sons, more than in daughters.
3. POWER-CONTROL THEORY - A theory proposed by Hagan in which patriarchal
and egalitarian families are examined. In patriarchal families, sons are more
likely than daughters to be delinquent because sons receive less supervision
than daughters. In egalitarian families, the delinquent behavior of sons and
daughters becomes more similar.
4. ECONOMIC MARGINALIZATION HYPOTHESIS - The belief that economic
pressures put on women to support themselves and their dependent children,
along with the stepping back of men from their roles of nancial support of women
and children has pushed women into criminal activity for economic gain.
5. LIBERATION HYPOTHESIS - This view states that as men and women become
more equal in society in terms of family, politics, and education, their crime rates
will begin to equalize as well.
6. OPPORTUNITY HYPOTHESIS - The view that as women increase their
numbers in corporate America, their rates of white collar and corporate
crime will increase along with this increased opportunity.
7. PATERNALISM - This view claims that men act in a manner designed to keep
women and girls in a subservient position in society. While women and girls may
be treated less severely as indicated under the chivalry hypothesis, they may also
be treated more harshly in an attempt to keep them from achieving equality with
men.
8. SELECTIVITY HYPOTHESIS - The belief that chivalry in the criminal justice, ie
lenient sentencing, is extended primarily to white, middle class, privileged women.
9. TYPICALITY HYPOTHESIS - The belief that chivalry in the criminal justice, ie
lenient sentencing, is extended primarily to women who commit crimes consistent
with the stereotypical view of women, and to women who can still be viewed as
“feminine”
10. CHIVALRY HYPOTHESIS -  The view that male police ocers, prosecutors, and
judges tend to have traditional views of women and girls. As a result, the ocials
are more lenient on the females for committing criminal acts than on their male
counterparts.
KEY CONCEPTS OF FEMINIST THEORIES IN RELATION TO THE
EXPLANATION OF THE CAUSATION OF CRIMINALITY
1. While there is no one feminist theory, all variations focus on patriarchy and the
r ole it p la y s i n s o c ie t y .
2 2 .   A c c o r d in g t o fe m i n i st theory, women can be treated less
severely than men for committing a crime or more severely than men in an attempt
to keep them subservient to men. Feminist theory focuses on the patriarchal system
as the root division in society between the dominant and subordinate groups.
3.  Feminist theory questions whether or not theories of crime developed by
men and for men adequately explain female crime. In addition, they seek to
understand why men traditionally commit so many more crimes than women.
4.  Power-control theorists contend that traditional families encourage male
delinquency, while they inhibit female delinquency. In addition, many feminist
scholars contend that as females achieve more power and equality in society,
female crime rates will rise.
5.  In order to correct the inequities facing women, feminist theorists contend
that major societal changes must occur. In addition, many feminist theorists
believe that when dealing with female oenders, prevention and treatment are
preferable
t o p u i sh m e n t .
6 6 .   G en d er e d P a thways and Gendered Contexts have oered news
ways to
examine feminist theories and beliefs, while at the same time remaining connected
to broader criminological concepts. Gendered pathways focuses on the courses
women and girls have taken which lead to criminal activity, while gendered
contexts examines how the opportunities, contexts, and meanings of criminal
activity may vary among the genders.
 J. INTEGRATING CRIMINOLOGICAL THEORIES
TERMINOLOGIES RELATED TO INTEGRATING CRIMINOLOGICAL THEORIES
THEORETICAL INTEGRATION - This occurs when two or more theories are
combined in such a manner so as to make the new theory explain criminal activity
in a more comprehensive manner. It can also be used to combine two competing
theories which, upon reection, were not as incompatible as once thought.

THEORETICAL ELABORATION - A term coined by Thornberry in which he states

that one begins with a particular theory and extends it as far as one can.
THEORY COMPETITION - Logical, conceptual, or empirical comparison of two or
more theories to determine which oers the better or best explanation.

1. CONCEPTUAL ABSORPTION - Concepts from one theory are subsumed as

special cases of the phenomena dened by the concepts of another theory.
2. CONCEPTUAL INTEGRATION - Concepts from one theory are shown to overlap
in meaning with concepts from another theory.
3. CONTROL BALANCE THEORY - The ratio of how much the individual is liable
to control to how much he or she is able to control. It operates in the
context of four main variables: predisposition, provocation, opportunity, and
constraint.
4. LIFE-COURSE THEORIES - These theories attempt to explain better the
stability and changes in criminal and deviant behavior through time
and at
dierent life stages.
5. NETWORK ANALYSIS - An explanation of delinquency that draws on
social learning and social bond theories. It connects the structural
characteristics of social networks and interactional processes.
6. PROPOSITIONAL INTEGRATION - This explains how two or more
theories make the same predictions about crime or make propositions
that can be put together, even though each may begin with dierent
concepts and assumptions. 7. SELF-DEROGATION THEORY - A theory in
which delinquency and drug use are explained through the use of social
learning theory, control theory, strain theory, and labeling theory. In
this perspective, delinquency is viewed as the result of the weakening of
one’s self-esteem.
BY: MPC, RC, 34
8. SOCIAL SUPPORT - Social integration in a group relationship in which
emotional, material, and social assistance is provided to each group
member.
KEY CONCEPTS OF INTEGRATING CRIMINOLOGICAL THEORIES IN
CONNECTION TO THE CAUSES OF CRIMES

BY: MPC, RC, 35

1.  Theoretical integration is the process of combining similar theories. The goal
is to produce a theory that is superior to any theory individually. It also
recognizes the fact that new theories are not created in isolation; and that they
are created with the knowledge gained from earlier theoretical exercises.
2.  Theoretical integration has had minimal success. While theories may be
recognized for a while as integrative, over time they tend to be cited and tested
as separate theories.
3.  There are dierent types of theoretical integration such as conceptual
and propositional integration.
4.  Social learning theory, in one way or another, is a main component of
i n t e g r a t iv e m o ls i n c rim in o lo g y , a o n g
5 5 .   T h e o r e ti c al dev e l o p m en t ta k e s p la c e
w it h s o c ia l b o n d a n d s t ra i n t h e ori e s .
t hr o u g h e x p li c a ting, te s t i n g , a d m d i fy ing a
single theory; through competition of rival theories; and through theoretical
integration.

THEORIES OF CRIME: CLASSICAL, BIOLOGICAL, SOCIOLOGICAL,

INTERACTIONIST
 There are FOUR (4) BASIC THEORIES of crime and knowing and
understanding each one is imperative for one to succeed in any legal
profession. Whether one desires to become a lawyer, crime scene investigator,
law enforcement ocer, they will need to understand the dierent theories of crime.
Understanding these theories will help with dispute resolution, crime identication,
and justice for all.

THEORY L THEORY 
OF CRIME CHARACTERISTICS OR
BELIEFS OF THEORY 
CLASSICAL
THEORY   Crime is caused by the
individuals free will
 Human beings are rational
and make decisions freely and
with understanding of
consequences
 Crime is an immoral form
of human behavior
 Such behavior weakens society


necessaPruyn iesvhiml ent is a

sometimes intended to deter
criminals and serve as an
example to those who would
violate the law
 Crime prevention is
possible through swift and
certain punishment that
counters possible gains from
criminal behavior
 More prisons and stier
criminal laws with greater
p en a l ti e s fo r o  e n
th b e s t s lu t io n s
d er s a r
to c r i m e
  The basic determinants of
BIOLOGICA human behavior are to a
considera
ble SOLUTIONS TO CRIME
degree,
 Punishment is a
necessary evil
sometimes intended to
deter criminals and
serve as an example to
those who would
violate the law
 Crime prevention is
possible through swift
and certain punishment
that counters possible
gains from criminal
behavior
More prisons and stier
criminal laws with
greater penalties for
oenders are the best
solutions to crime

 Historically,
individuals with genetic
defects have been
sterilized (meaning
there will be
 determined by genetics for acceptance, social standing
and power within
  These basic that group
determinants of human  Oenders have the
behavior may be responsibility and ability to
passed from one
generations to the next
 Human DNA,
environmental
contaminants, nutrition,
hormones, trauma to
the brain, exposure to
drugs

a n d a l c o h o
l pdreu gr i nnagn c y
a n d b o dy
chemistry can all
SOCIOLOGI contribute to
CAL criminal behavior.
THEORY 
 Social Environment
as the cause of criminal
behavior
 Weak, broken bonds
with family, school,
religion as catalyst to
human behavior
 People engage in
criminal behavior
because

t he y d o no t s e e
b
th ne e  conventional
t s f a d h
r in g to
social values and believe
that crime is a way to
improve their social,
nancial conditions
 Positive alternatives
divert people’s actions
away from criminal activity
and create a sense of
belonging, competence,
and empowerment
 Social programs that
change the cultural and
social conditions that
INTERACTI lead
ONIST people to crime
THEORY   Government programs
with funding to
alleviate poverty
 Association with other
criminals is the factor
most contributing to
criminal behavior among
individuals.
 Failure of self-direction
and inadequate social
roles are the root causes
of behavior
 Individuals are looking
 no ity and create a sense
ospring) of belonging,
competence, and
 empowerment
Resea
rch to  Social programs that
nd change the cultural and
genes social conditions that
that lead people to
encou
rage Gocvreimrnement
crimin programs with
al funding to alleviate
behavi poverty
or

Rese
arch
into
medi
cines
(tran
quiliz
ers,
anti-
psyc
hotic
drug
s and
other
moo
d  Oenders have
alteri the responsibility
ng and ability to
drug change their own
s to behaviors
contr Opportunities for positive
ol interaction with society will
beha enable the criminal to
vior) choose productive and
lawful behaviors to meet
needs


Posit
ive
alter
nativ
es
diver
t
peo
ple’s
actio
ns
away
from
crimi
nal
activ
change their own behaviors
Opportunities for positive interaction with society will enable the criminal to choose productive

THREE (3) THEORIES OF CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR

Historically, there are THREE (3) broad theoretical models of criminal
behavior: A) PSYCHOLOGICAL
B) SOCIOLOGICAL
C) BIOLOGICAL
All infer dierent methods of control, but it is dicult to completely separate
the three categories as it is generally accepted that all three of the factors play a
role in the expression of behavior. Moreover, psychological science consists of
several disciplines including biological psychology and social psychology, so
psychological principles could be applied across all three domains.
However, there are some general principles associated with each of these
paradigms that would be associated with some specic crime control policies. This
results in admittedly narrow denition for each of the categories, but it does
simplify the discussion herein.
A. PSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACHES
 There a many dierent psychological models of criminal behavior ranging
from early Freudian notions to later cognitive and social psychological models. I
cannot review them all here. Instead, I will list the several fundamental
assumptions of psychological theories of criminality (and human behavior in
general). THESE ARE:
1.  The individual is the primary unit of analysis in psychological theories.
2.  Personality is the major motivational element that drives behavior
within individuals.
3.  Normality is generally dened by social consensus.
4.  Crimes then would result from abnormal, dysfunctional, or inappropriate
mental processes within the personality of the individual.
5.  Criminal behavior may be purposeful for the individual insofar as it
addresses certain felt needs.
6.
 Defective,
diseased mind,orinappropriate
abnormal, mental processes
learning mayconditioning,
or improper have a variety
theofemulation
causes, of
inappropriate role models, and adjustment to inner conicts. (Mischel, 1968.)
 The last assumption of the psychological model would suggest that a
variety of dierent causes or reasons exist for criminal behavior and that general
principles targeted at the individual would be eective for crime control.
However, the model also assumes that there is a subset of a psychological
criminal type, dened currently as antisocial personality disorder in the DSM-IV and
previously dened as the sociopath or psychopath (APA, 2002). This type of
criminal exhibits deviant behavior early in life and is associated with self-
centeredness, a lack of empathy, and a tendency to see others as tools for their
ends. Controls for these individuals would be more extreme and general public
policies may not be stringent enough to curb the behavior in this small subset of
criminals.
Given these six principles to establish psychological explanations of criminal
behavior, we can suggest rst that traditional imprisonment, nes, and other court
sanctions are based on operant learning models of behavior for crime control.
Operant learning models are based on the utilitarian concepts that all people
wish to maximize pleasure and minimize pain or discomfort. Skinnerian based
social psychological theories of reinforcement and punishment are inuential in this
model of criminal control although the idea of punishment for crime has a much
longer history (Jeery, 1990). Technically speaking, punishments are any sanctions
designed to decrease a specic behavior; thus, nes, jail sentences, etc., are all
forms of punishment. However, Skinner himself recognized that punishment was
generally ineective in behavior modication and that reinforcement worked better
(e.g., Skinner, 1966).
A caveat should be applied here: Punishment is eective if applied properly,
but unfortunately it rarely is applied properly. Punishment needs to be immediate
(or as close to the time the oense as possible), inescapable, and suciently
unpleasant (in fact, the more it is subjectively perceived as harsh, the better).
Given the judicial system in the U.S., it would be hard to apply punishment to its
maximal eectiveness, thus it is not an eective deterrent, as reected in the

s t a bl e ho m ic i d e r a t e s o f s t a t e s th a t c a r r y
pt u en di s eham the pnt es n a nlt dy . s Na no cn ti
e ot hn se l ef o
s rs c, psychological
ri m i n a l b
e ha v io r a re b a s e d o n b e h a v i o r a l
principles.
Because harsh forms of punishment do not appear to signicantly decrease
recidivism rates, other psychological principles have been applied. In terms of
cognitive behavioral psychological principles, rehabilitation and relearning,
retraining, or educational programs for oenders are forms of psychologically
based methods to control crime. These methods are based on the cognitive
behavioral methods of teaching an alternative functional response in place of a
formally dysfunctional one as opposed to simple punishment. These programs
can take place in prisons or outside of the prison and have long been
demonstrated to be successful (e.g., Mathias, 1995). So any form of retraining,
reeducation, or reentry guidance is based on psychological principles of
criminality and reform.
However, rehabilitation programs are often rarely implemented in jail or prison.
M a ny o f th e s e pr o g r m s a p p e a r to b e e s
o e d e r s . Li k w i se , a ny f o r m e d u c a t io n
p e ia lly b en e  c ia l fo r d u g a lco h o l
s u ch a s t h D A R E p ro g ra m and re e n t eorts to
curb bullying in schools are based on these methods. In line with this,
changing the environment of the oender such as providing more
opportunities would be a psychological behavioral principle designed to cut
crime.
In line with other psychological methods are policies aimed at maintaining a
visible presence of law enforcement and methods to maintain self-awareness in
tempting situations. Such methods are preventative. For instance, it has been a
well-known social psychological principle that situations that diminish self-
consciousness and self-awareness lead individuals to being less restrained, less
self-regulated, and more likely to act without considering the consequences of
their actions (e.g., Diener, 1979). The simple act of placing mirrors in stores can
increase self-awareness and decrease shoplifting. Likewise, the presence of visible
law enforcement can cut down on crime. Making sanctions and the consequences

fmore tchroimd et ow ceolln-ptruobl lcicrizmeed ian tdh iasv vaeilianb. le to the

public is another psychological Various forms of criminal proling are based
heavily on psychological
principles and represent an eort to either apprehend existing criminals or to
identify persons at risk for certain behavior (Holmes & Holmes, 2008). More
recently there have been eorts to develop methods to identify individuals at risk
for certain forms of deviant behavior including criminal activities based on
personality and social variables. These psychological variables can be identied in
the school or at the home at an early age and include such disorders as learning
disabilities, ADHD, depression, and others. Since many individuals with these
problems often go on to demonstrate criminal behavior or have legal problems
later eorts to identify and treat these issues are forms of psychological crime
control policies (APA, 2002).
 Thus, methods of crime control policies based on psychological principles
target the individual and attempt to reform or prevent criminal behavior from that
BY: MPC RC MSCRIM 38
p er s p e c t iv e . A n y p o l ic ie s r e q u i r in g t he r a p e
ed u c a t io n a r e p sy c h o lo g i c a l i n n a tu r . A n y
u t ic in t e rv e nti o n , r e t a in i g , o r
p o li c y d e s ig e d a t p re v e nt i n g crime by targeting
individuals such as raising consciousness, promoting self-awareness, or identifying
individuals at risk are also psychological. Likewise, psychologists have long
recognized that the best predictor of future behavior is the individual’s past

BY: MPC RC MSCRIM 39

behavior (Mischel, 1968). So policies that are specically designed to deal with repeat
oenders are also based on psychological principles of criminality.
B. SOCIOLOGICAL APPROACHES
Sociological and psychological principles of criminality are intertwined and
technically not independent. As with psychological theories, there are numerous
sociological formulations of the cause and control of criminality. We will dene
sociological notions of CRIMINALITY AS:
A. Attempting to connect the issues of the individual’s criminality with the
broader social structures and cultural values of society, familial, or peer group.
B. How the contradictions of all of these interacting groups contribute to
cCr.i mThinea wlitay. s these structures cultures and contradictions have
historically developed.
D. The current processes of change that these groups are undergoing.
E. Criminality is viewed from the point of view of the social construction of
criminality and its social causes.
 Traditional sociological theories proposed that crimes was a result of
anomie, a term meaning “normlessness” or a feeling of a lack of social norms, a
lack of being connected to society. The term was made popular by Émile
Durkheim (1897) who originally used the term to explain suicide. Later sociologists
used the term to describe the dissociation of the individual from the collective
conscience or the criminality resulting from a lack of opportunity to achieve
aspirations or by the learning of criminal values and behaviors. Therefore
criminality results from the failure to properly socialize individuals and by unequal
opportunities between groups. Durkheim believed that crime was an inescapable
fact of society and advocated maintaining crime within reasonable boundaries.
A feature of sociological theories is that society “constructs” criminality.
 Thus, certain types of human activity are harmful and are judged so by society as
a whole. But it is also true that there are other behaviors recognized by society as
“criminal” that do not result in harm to others and are therefore criminalized
without sucient ground, these are the so-called “victimless” crimes. These
include drug use, prostitution, etc. Therefore, according to this view (if carried to
its extreme), 100% of the members of a society are lawbreakers at some point.
One of the sociological policy methods of crime control would be to advocate for
decriminalization of these victimless crimes or at least a vast reduction in their
penalties (Schur, 1965).
An important sociological control would be to increase legitimate
opportunities for advancement and obtainment of goods and wealth in areas
where these do not exist. Sociological controls targeted at this goal could
originate

igno hveigrhnemr eSnta taen da nwdo Fueld einracl uledvee plsr ogfr gaomvse
rdnemsiegnte ads t ow eglul arsa nlotceael eleqvuealsl of opportunities to all
individuals. Thus, social programs ranging from soup kitchens,
 job training, educational funding, urban renewal projects and so forth would be
in line with sociological policies to control crime (Merton, 1968). Other related
sociological controls for crime would consist of organizing and empowering
neighborhood residents with projects like neighborhood crime watches,
providing law-abiding role models for children in schools and in other venues,
providing parental support for working parents, and establishing community
centers in downtrodden areas to allow people to learn and engage in positive
activities.
Social programs aimed at socializing children properly and providing support for
single family homes are also examples of sociological methods to control crime.
 There are a number of these programs including career academies (small learning
communities in low-income high schools, oering academic and career/technical
courses as well as workplace opportunities).
F i n a l ly , s o c i o lo g i ca l p o l i e s t o c o n tr o l
harshe r p e n a l ti e s fo r s e ri o u s cri m e s s u c h a s
c ri m e w o u ld a d v o c at e st ro n g e r a n d
m u rd e r, r a p e , a r e m o r e e  e c ti v e l aw
enforcement. Again, sociologists accept the realities that crime is a social
phenomenon that will not disappear no matter how many interventions are
enacted to control it. Sociologists note that of every 100 felonies committed
within the United States, only one is sent to prison. A vast number are unreported
and of
 BY: MPC, RC, 39
MSCRIM

those that are reported only a small portion goes to trial. If a justice system is to
work properly it must be able to rely on its law enforcement system and judicial
system to bring to justice and prosecute serious oenders. The purposes of
imprisonment include punishment, rehabilitation, deterrence, and selective
connement. All of these should be utilized where appropriate for the individual
(Hester & Eglin, 1992).
C. BIOLOGICAL APPROACHES
Biological theories of criminality basically purport that criminal behavior
is the result of some aw in the biological makeup of the individual. THIS
PHYSICAL FLAW COULD BE DUE TO...
1.Heredity
2.Neurotransmitter dysfunction
3.Brain abnormalities that were caused by either of the above, improper
development, or trauma (Raine, 2002)
Biological theorists would also endorse stricter penalties and better law
enforcement techniques for crime control, but there are several methods of crime
control that are specic to the biological theories of criminality. I will discuss these
briey here.
PSYCHOSURGERY - Brain surgery to control behavior has rarely been applied to
criminal behavior. Certainly much more common between the 1930’s to the late
1970’s there were over 40,000 frontal lobotomies performed. Lobotomies were
used to treat a wide range of problems from depression, to schizophrenia.
However, while widely discussed as a potential treatment for criminal behavior a
perusal of the literature could not nd a court ordered case for a lobotomy as a
sentence for a convicted criminal Lobotomies were also used for people who were
considered an annoyance because the demonstrated behaviors characterized as
moody or they were children who were deant with authority gures such as
teachers. The lobotomy involves separating the prefrontal cortex from the rest of
the brain either surgically or in the case of the transorbital lobotomy with a sharp
icepick like instrument that was inserted in the eye socket between the upper
eyelid and the eye. In this method the patient was not anesthetized, not even
children. The psychiatrists hit the end of the instrument with a hammer to
disconnect the nerves in the frontal lobe of the brain. Afterwards behaviors were
changed, but at a high price as you can imagine. Today the lobotomy has fallen
out of favor due medications used to control behavior, although some view the
use of medications as equivalent to a lobotomy (e.g., see Breggin, 2008).
Psychosurgery appears to be an option that will most likely not be put into use
due to the stigma associated with it.
CHEMICAL METHODS OF CONTROL - The use of pharmacological treatments to
try to control crime has been ongoing in two major areas: chemical castration for
sex oenders and pharmacological interventions for drug or alcohol addicts.
However, addicts can stop the medication and return to use. Sex oenders are
closely monitored and there is some evidence that this policy has been ecacious.
Sometimes mentally ill people in the criminal justice system been ordered to take
medications to treat their mental illness. Other pharmacological interventions to
control crime seem plausible and are being investigated, but do not appear to
have been widely used.
OTHERS - Deep brain stimulation is used for some disorders such as
Parkinson’s disease, but has yet been investigated for criminal behavior.
Biological theorists have advocated changes in diet to deal with criminality
(Burton, 2002) and better relations between parents. There is also the
famous genetic XYY combination that was once thought to be a marker for
a criminal type, but as it turned out these individuals were found to be
less intelligent or more likely to have learning
diculties as opposed to being criminal types. While there are many studies
indicating a connection between antisocial personality disorder or criminal
behavioral and heredity, there are no policies being implemented to advocate
for selective breeding, genetic testing etc. for criminals. I do not yet envision a
policy of genetic testing for criminals as the variables are not stable enough in
order to
 BY: MPC, RC, 40
MSCRIM

predict with set of gene combinations are predictive of a biological criminal type
(Rutter, 2006) although this is certainly a possibility.
If the biological model of criminality has any signicant eect on policy
outside the use of chemical castration for sex oenders, it would be the policy that
certain forms of criminal behavior or certain individuals may not be rehabilitated
and the advocacy for harsher and stricter imprisonments or even executions are
viable methods of control in these instances. The issue for the community is how
to recognize a signicant biological contribution to criminal behavior since genetic
testing is unreliable and there are no other physical markers of criminality. It
seems that currently in the absence of very harsh crimes like murder and rape one
must be recognized as a repeat oender before we can acknowledge a possible
n n a t e te n d e n c y t o w a r d s c ri m i n a l it y . B y
i rr e p a r a b le , i s d o n e . P e r h a p s t h e a n s w e r
t h a t t im e t h e d a m a g e , w h i c h is o ft n
l ie s i n s tr i c t e r p r ob a t i o n a n d p a ro le practices
for rst-time oenders. However, this policy is expensive and tax payers may not
support it. The policy mandating convicted sex oenders to be monitored over
their lifetime and certain restrictions placed on them is a result of the
acknowledgment of a biological predisposition to engage in this crime and
therefore traditional forms of treatment or remediation do not appear to be
eective. Similar policies might follow with habitual criminal oenders based on the
biological theories of criminality.
SOME THEORIES TO THE CAUSATION OF
CRIME OPPORTUNITY THEORY 
Like COHEN, CLOWARD AND OHLIN was former students of MERTON
AND SUTHERLAND, respectively, and thus incorporated and expanded on both
dierential association theory and strain theory. CLOWARD AND OHLIN (1960) built
on the work of Merton and Cohen by advancing the idea that youths in slum
areas lacked the legitimate means and opportunities to be successful and acquire
status. They also expanded on Sutherland’s work on cultural transmission and
concluded that criminal behavior depended upon access to requisite illegitimate
means. However, unlike Cohen who stated that delinquent subcultures take on
values that are oppositional to those of the main culture, Cloward and Ohlin
suggested that lower-class delinquents are proactive and goal-oriented by seizing
available opportunities even though most of them are illegitimate. According to
Cloward and Ohlin’s(1960) opportunity theory, delinquent subcultures emerge
and persist in lower-class areas where there are enough youths to band together
and support one another against their remoteness and estrangement from
conventional values, in pursuit of illegitimate opportunities that exceed the
number of legitimate opportunities for success. As illegitimate opportunities for
success are distributed through society as unevenly as the legitimate
opportunities for success, the types of delinquent subcultures are determined by
the type of neighborhood and illegitimate opportunities available (Shoemaker,
1996).
Shoemaker states that neighborhoods that are stable and share conventional and
unconventional systems are marked by criminal/theft gangs; neighborhoods
characterized by transience, instability, and an absence of criminal organizations
are marked by conict/violent gangs; and neighborhoods that could be either type
but wherein members have not been successful in both the legitimate and
illegitimate worlds are marked by retreatist/drug-user gangs.

DEVELOPMENTAL LIFE COURSE THEORIES

Developmental life course theories are concerned with the development of
oending and antisocial behavior, risk factors at dierent ages, and the
Sociological Theories of Crime and Delinquency eects of life events on the
course of development (Adler et al., 2001). As opposed to the crime paradigms
detailed earlier, developmental life course theories are especially concerned with
 BY: MPC, RC, 41
understanding individual changes in criminal behavior throughout the life span,
MSCRIM
especially the ways in which risk factors and life events interact with one another
 BY: MPC, RC, 41
MSCRIM

to inuence the onset, continuation, and desistance of crime (Farrington, 2002).

 There are at least ve prevailing developmental life course theories: integrated
cognitive antisocial potential theory (Farrington, 2002); social development model
(Hawkins, 1996); two qualitatively distinct categories of antisocial people (life
course persistent and adolescence-limited oenders; Mott, 1993); integrative
control theory (LeBlanc, 1997); and interactional theory (Thornberry & Krohns,
2001). Although each theory varies in relationship to personal, environmental, and
social constructs.

SOME FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS REGARDING LAW AND CRIME

1. Every society is based on the coercion of some of its members by others.
2. Law is a function of political power. It is used by the more powerful to maintain
control over the less powerful. The more threatened a ruling group feels, the
more rigorously it tends to enforce the law.
3.  Laws are the codication of ruling class interests. Laws become legitimate
simply because the ruling class has the power to enforce them and the ability
to create the ideology by which they are made to appear justied.
4.  The police, the courts and the correctional systems are all instruments
utilized by the ruling class to insure adherence to their laws.
5.  People who are socio-economically close to the power group tend to develop
normative behavioral systems that are similar to members of the power group.
The further away a person is from the power group, the more likely they will
possess dierent normative behavioral systems and the greater the likelihood that
those
di  e e n t b e h a v i o rs w i ll b e d e  n e d a s c r im
66 .  C ri m e is n o t a n i n h e r e n t q u a l it y o f a n y
in a l.
a c t. All behavior patterns in fact have the potential to be dened as criminal.
Criminality is merely a label given to certain behaviors by the ruling authorities.
7.  The ability to confer criminal status is a privilege enjoyed by the powerful
classes, to the broad detriment of the less powerful. Generally, criminal behavior
is merely behavior that threatens the interests of the powerful.
8.  Law and denitions of crime may be modied from time to time, but never to the
extent that existing political and economic relationships are jeopardized. As a
rule, law changes are a reection of changes in the needs and interests of the
powerful.
9.  The freedoms that laws confer grant a great deal more freedom to some
groups than to others. The freedoms allegedly protected by law, are only
protected for
t h os e w o ca n a o r d it . In t h , l eg l
1 0 .  R a the r t h a n b e in g a n in d ep end e n t ar
e  c a c y r e ig s s u p r e m e , n o t t h e l w .
b i tra t o r o f c on  i c t, t h e s t a te i s in f ac t the prize for
which dierent groups compete in order to gain control.

RADICAL CRIMINOLOGICAL THEORY 

1. Capitalism is the root of all crime and needs to be abandoned as
an economic system.
2.  Restructure society, moving toward a classless, utopian, socialistic state.
3. The restructuring may require a revolution.
4.  Tear down the prisons.
5.  Abolish police forces.
6.  Adopt a non-interventionist
strategy RADICAL CRIMINOLOGY PROBLEMS
1.  Ignores Durkheim (after the revolution there will still be deviance, just
new denitions)
 BY: MPC, RC, 42
2.  There is a value to deviance MSCRIM
3.  High cost of the revolution, and it would ironically be borne by the
very people it is supposed to help.
4.  Capitalism is the root of much crime, but not the root of all crime.
 BY: MPC, RC, 42
MSCRIM

5.  Give no insight into how deviances arise initially.

A. ACCESS TO SERVICES/CORE COMPONENTS OF VICTIM SERVICES/SOCIAL

NETWORKS
DOMESTIC VIOLENCE
CORE COMPONENTS OF VICTIM SERVICES/SOCIAL

GOVERNMENT SUPPORT
A.  Substitute home care
B.  Creating Women Friendly Environments in
Hospitals A FEMINISTS APPROACH TO COUNSELLING
NON-GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATION
1.Provides support systems, including a service and referral centre, to
help survivors deal with their physical trauma (BCCF)
2.Provides a supportive and arming environment (WCC)
3.Provides psycho-social support and referrals to female survivors of domestic
and intimate-relationship violence (and their children), and spreads awareness
about the realities and prevalence of domestic and intimate-relationship violence
(save our women)

A. RAPE CASES
CORE COMPONENTS OF VICTIM
SERVICES/SOCIAL RAPE CRISIS CENTER
1. Psychological counseling, medical and health services, including their medico-
legal examination
2323. SAessciusrte i nfr evei dlegnacle a gssaitshtearnicneg oarn sde irnv itche
investigation to hasten the arrest of oenders and ling of cases in court
4.  Ensure the privacy and safety of victims
5.  Provide psychological counseling and medical services whenever necessary
for the family of victims
6.  Adopt and implement programs that are survivor
7. Assist the government in raising public awareness
8. Develop a referral system

ACCESS TO SERVICES
1.  Call your Local Police
2.  Don’t be afraid to tell exactly the incident
happened 3. Trust the agency whom you reported the
incident.
4. Approach the right person or agencies to avoid further harm

B. CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM ROLES AND

RESPONSIBILITIES A. POLICE OFFICER:
1.  Refer the case to the women’s desk of the precinct, or any other
concerned agency such as local DSWD, DOJ, and NGO handling the cases;
2.  Refer the case to a prosecutor for inquest, if the accused is detained of
for preliminary investigation, if the accused is at large;
3.  Provide security to the survivors of rape, witnesses and service providers; and
4. Ensure that the evidence gathered on the case are safeguarded.

B. PROSECUTOR
1.  Conduct the inquest or preliminary investigation
2.  Present during trial, the admission of evidence of the victim’s past
sexual conduct, opinion thereof, or reputation;
3.  Ensure that the inquest of preliminary investigation and trial shall be conducted
in a language or dialect that is known or familiar to the victim;
4.  Exert utmost eorts to prevent delay in the preliminary investigation and trial
of the rape case; and
5.  Not to divulge to the public the name, address and any other information or
circumstances tending to establish the identity of the victim. Moreover, the
 BY: MPC, RC, 43
public MSCRIM
 BY: MPC, RC, 43
MSCRIM

shall be barred during the conduct of the inquest or preliminary investigation if it

will serve the best interests of the victim
C. COURT
1.  Ensure the eciency of legal services supporting the free legal assistance to
victims of rape.
2.  All hearings in rape cases shall be made condential and shall not be open to
the public unless ordered by the court.
D. CORRECTIONS
1. Restoring a good behavior on the oender to prevent him from re-victimizing
the oended party or other people around him.

E . COMMUNITY 
1.  Concerned agencies especially members of the Rape crisis Center should be
responsible enough in helping the victim. The physician who is in charge of
medical treatment or examination of the victim should treat her with due care
and condentiality. She should appear and testify in court as an expert witness on
the case.
2.  DSWD should adhere on its role in ensuring social reintegration of rape
survivors in their family and community. Network with the ve pillars of the justice
system to link the survivors to appropriate resources in response to identied
needs.
3.  NGOs should help in advocating community-based programs supporting
for victims of rape and their families; as well as to the elimination of all forms
of violence against women and children.

B. VICTIM IMPACT STATEMENT-PROS AND

CONS WHAT IS A VICTIM IMPACT STATEMENT?
 This is a victim’s written statement which is submitted to the United States
Attorney’s Oce and forwarded to Probation who then submits it to the Judge to
review before sentencing the defendant. It personalizes to the Judge the
emotional, physical, and nancial impact you and others have suered as a direct
result of this crime. Since some victims are uncomfortable with completing a
formal statement for review, the Judge will also consider a personal letter. Victim
Impact Statements may be seen by the defendant and the defense attorney.
 
PRO’S - ADVANTAGES
FOR YOURSELF:
  - The Victim Impact Statement provides you with an opportunity to
describe how you have been aected by the crime. It can be a powerful “part of
the healing
process” for the victim.
FOR THE COURT:
If a charge is laid and the accused person is found guilty, your Victim Impact
Statement will be considered by the Judge at the time of sentencing. Your Victim
Impact Statement will help the Court understand how the crime has aected you
emotionally and physically, and the eect the crime has had on your life.
Helpful to the judge when he or she decides what sentence the defendant should
receive. Although the Judge will decide the defendant’s sentence based upon the
presentence report and certain sentencing guidelines, the Judge may consider your
opinion before making a decision.
Finally it includes a nancial loss statement which is used to verify and
assess the nancial impact of the crime upon you. This information is used by the
 Judge to determine any money the defendant may have to pay you for expenses
you have paid or owe because of this crime.
CON’s – DISADVANTAGES
1.  The judge has the discretion to deny this request and to edit the statement
if there are concerns about its length or content.
 BY: MPC, RC, 44
MSCRIM

2. No professional or universal guidelines exist on how judges should handle

victim impact statements; although victim-witness advocates have developed
their own recommendations for victims on how to prepare an impact statement
and a good many websites exist that oer a template for impact statements.
3. Judges often nd themselves in the dual position of respecting the idea of the
victim impact statement while also understanding that their sentence will be
based perhaps more so on plea agreements and sentencing guidelines than on
victim input.

CONCLUSION
W e h a v e a lo t o f V i c t i m As s i s t a n ce C e n
Gover nm e n t O r g a n i z a t i o n ; h o w e v e r , vi t i m s
t e r b o h in G o v ern m n t a n d N o n -
f a i le d to a v a i l th ir ser v i c e s d u e t o lack of
information about it and inaccessibility of their location. Criminal case may
prosper even without the appearance of victim in court and CJS often focused
their attention to the oenders prompting them not to give much attention to
victims.
RECOMMENDATION

1.  Police Ocers who received the Victim’s complaint should always inform
them about the agencies that could assist them.
2.  Victim Impact Statement may be eective in our CJS if we are going to adopt
it in criminal proceedings particularly for crimes of Domestic Violence.

RELATED LAWS:
PD. 765 - In August 1975 was enacted allowing the integration of Police, Jail
and
Fire into Integrated National Police.
Republic Act 6975 known the DILG act of 1990, paved the way of the
establishment of PNP, BJMP, and BFP as separate entities.
REPUBLIC ACT NO. 9263 - ON MARCH 2004, amending certain provisions of
Republic act no. 6975(DILG) Act of  1990 was enacted to provide for the
professionalism and restructuring of the Bureau of re Protection (BFP), upgrading
the level of qualication, making it a part of the PNP and AFP. The impending
attrition of some BFP uniform personnel for failure to comply with the upgrading
qualication standard was prevented with the passage of Republic act 9592 in
2009, an act extending for ve (5) years the reglementary period for complying
with the minimum educational qualication and appropriate eligibility in the Bureau
of Fire Protection.
 
REPUBLIC ACT NUMBER 8551 OR THE PNP REFORM AND
REORGANIZATION ACT OF 1998, FEBRUARY 25, 1998, UNDER PRESIDENT
FIDEL V. RAMOS –  
Amended some provisions of R.A. 6975 which reorganized the PNP for the
purpose of reforming and professionalizing it.
RANK CLASSIFICATION - For purposes of ecient administration, supervision
and control, the rank classication of the members of PNP shall be as follows:
Under R.A Number 8551

AFP R ANKS
or General Director General (4 star) Lt. General (3-star)
perintendent Superintendent Major G eneral (2-star) Brig, General (1star) Colonel
Lt. Colonel Major
ior Police Ocer IV Senior Police
CLiaeputaeinant
Ocer III Senior
Master
PoliceSergeant
Ocer II Senior Police Ocer I
Technical Sergeant Sta Sergeant Sergeant
 BY: MPC, RC, 45
MSCRIM

Police Ocer III Corporal

Police Ocer II Police O cer I Private First Class Private

REPUBLIC ACT NO. 11200 – An act providing for the Rank classication in the
Philippine National Police (PNP), amending for the purpose section 28 of
Republic Act No. 6975, as amended, Otherwise known as the “Department of
the Interior and Local Government (DILG) Act of 1990”. Approved: February
08, 2019 SECTION 1. SECTION 28 OF REPUBLIC ACT NO. 697 - Otherwise
known as the “Department of the Interior and Local Government (DILG) Act of
1990”, is hereby amended to read as FOLLOWS:
SECTION 28. RANK CLASSIFICATION – For purpose of clarity of command and
responsibility, and for the eective and ecient administration, supervision, and
control, the rank classication of the uniformed personnel of the PNP shall be AS
FOLLOWS:

NEW RANK CLASSIFICATION OF PHILIPPINE NATIONAL

POLICE (PNP) UNDER RA NO. 11200 SEC. 28 OF RA NO. 6975 - 8551

CE M AJOR G ENERAL Chief SuperintendentPOLICE BRIGADIER GENERAL Senior SuperintendentPOLICE COLO

Chief Inspector POLICE MAJOR

POLICE Senior
CAPTAIN
Inspector
POLICE Inspector
L IEUTENANT POLICE EXECUTIVE MASTER SERGEANT
POLICE Senior
CHIEFPolice
MASTER
Ocer
SERGEANT
IV
POLICE
Senior Police SENIOR
Ocer III MASTER SERGEANT
POLICE
Senior Police MASTER
Ocer II SERGEANT POLICE STAFF SERGEANT POLICE CORPORAL PATROLMAN/PATROLWOMA

Senior Police Ocer I Police Ocer III Police Ocer II

Police Ocer I

REPUBLIC ACT NO. 11131 -

profession in the Philippines, anAdn apcpt roepgruialattining f tuhned sp
rtahcetriecefo or,f rcerpimeainlionlgo gfoyr the purpose republic act no. 6506,
otherwise known as “an act creating the board of examiners for criminologists
in the Philippines”. Approved: November 08, 2018.

SECTION 1. TITLE. –  This Act shall be known as “THE PHILIPPINE

CRIMINOLOGY PROFESSION ACT OF 2018”. 

PRIVILEGES OF A REGISTERED CRIMINOLOGIST

RA NO. 11131 SECTION 34 – All registered criminologist shall be exempt from
taking any other entrance or qualifying Government or civil examinations and
shall be considered civil service eligible to the FOLLOWING GOVERNMENT
POSITIONS:
1. Dactylographer 14. T rac peration OOcer
O
2. Ballisticians 15. Associate Graft Investigation Ocer
34. QFouresntsioicn ePhdo Dtogcurampehnetr Examiner 17.6 Sapfeckiaele
Ppoinligce O Ocecrer
5. Polygraph Examiner 18. Sheri  
 BY: MPC, RC, 46
6. P robation cer 19. S ecurity cer
MSCRIM
O O
7. Parole Ocer 20. Criminal Investigator
8. Special Investigator 21. Warden
 BY: MPC, RC, 46
MSCRIM

9. Special Agent 22. Reformation Ocer

10. Investigative Agent 23. Fire Fighter
11. Intelligence Agent 24. Fire Marshall
12. Law Enforcement Evaluation Ocer 25. Jail Ocer up to the rank of
Jail Superintendent
13. NAPOLCOM Inspector 26. Police Ocer up to the rank of
Police Superintendent and other law enforcement
agencies and agencies under the Criminal Justice System.
RA NO. 11131, ARTICLE V (5), SECTION 35 – Registered Criminologist shall
enjoy the priority of appointment and not shall be required to take any
qualifying or entrance examinations in the Armed Forces of the Philippines.

**********************Glossary 01*****************************

1. CRIME - It is an act or omission in violation of a public law

commanding or prohibiting it.
2. CRIMINALITY - A continuously distributed trait composed of a combination of
other continuously distributed traits that signals the willingness to use force,
fraud, or guile to deprive others of their lives, limbs, or property for personal gain.
3. CRIMINOLOGY - An interdisciplinary science that gathers and analyzes data on
crime and criminal behavior.
4. HYPOTHESES - Statements about relationships between and among factors we
expect to nd based on the logic of our theories.
5. IDEOLOGY - A way of looking at the world; a general emotional picture of “how
things should be” that forms, shapes, and colors our concepts of the phenomena
we study.
6. LEVEL OF ANALYSIS - That segment of the phenomenon of interest that is
measured and analyzed, i.e., individuals, families, neighborhoods, states,
etc.
7. POLICY - A course of action designed to solve some problem that has
been selected from among alternative courses of action.
8. THEORY - A set of logically interconnected propositions explaining how
phenomena are related and from which a number of hypotheses can be
derived and tested.
9. UNCONSTRAINED VISION - One of the two so-called ideological visions of
the world. The unconstrained vision denies an innate human nature,
viewing it as formed anew in each dierent culture.
10. FELONY  – acts or omissions punishable by Revised Penal Code.
11. OFFENSE – acts or omissions punishable by special laws.
12. MISDEAMENOR/ INFRACTION – acts or omission in violation of city or
municipal ordinances.
13. CRIMES MALA INSE – are acts that are bad in themselves, forbidden
behaviors for which there is wide scale consensus in the mores for
prohibition (ex.
 To steal, to kill, to rape). Universally condemned crimes that are “inherently
bad.” 14. CRIMES MALA PROHIBITA – are acts that are bad or punishable
because they have been prohibited by law. Acts that are viewed as inherently
bad in themselves but are violations because the law denes them such. (Ex. Trac
laws, carrying of rearms). Crimes those are “bad” simply because they are
prohibited.
15. DEVIANT BEHAVIOR – refers to a behavior which is outside the range
of normal societal toleration.
16. BEHAVIOR – the way a person behaves or acts or conducts.
17. EMPIRICAL VALIDITY - This is the most important factor in evaluating a
theory, and means that the theory has been supported by research
 BY: MPC, RC, 47
evidence. MSCRIM
18. IDEOLOGY - A belief system and a set of core values or philosophy. In a pure
sense, an ideology states or explains how things should be, and a theory
explains how things actually are.
 BY: MPC, RC, 47
MSCRIM

19. INTERNAL LOGICAL CONSISTENCY - A theory needs to be presented in a

logical manner and to have clearly stated propositions that agree with or
do not contradict one another. Restated, does the theory make logical and
consistent sense?
20. MACRO THEORIES- Macro theories of criminal behavior explain the “big
picture” of crime—crime across the world or across a society. They attempt to
answer why there are variations in group rates of crime. Other authors have
used the terms “epidemiology” or social structural theories.
21. MICRO THEORIES - Micro theories of criminal behavior focus on a small
group of oenders or on an individual crime. They attempt to answer why
some
individuals are more likely than others to commit crime. Other authors have used
the terms “individual conduct” or processual theories.
22. NECESSARY CONDITION - This means that X must be present to
produce eect Y. If X is not present, Y will not occur.
23. PARSIMONY - This refers to how many propositions, steps, or statements are
involved. How simple is the theory?
24. POLICY IMPLICATIONS - If the theory is empirically valid, what solutions
are suggested.
25. PROBABILISTIC CAUSALITY - A concept more applicable to the social
sciences. X is more or less likely to cause eect Y. Restated, X tends to cause Y.
26. CAUSALITY - A concept more applicable to the hard sciences. Does the
appearance of X cause eect Y? In a perfect relationship, the appearance of X
would always cause the eect Y each and every time the relationship is seen.
2th7e.o SryC OcoPvEe r-s .Refers to how much or how many types of crime or
deviance the 28. SOFT DETERMINISM - The view that human behavior is not
wholly caused, determined, or predictable by any set of biological,
psychological, or sociological forces but that these interact with exercise of
choice and will by individuals.
 Therefore, explaining or predicting human behavior is dicult.
28. SUFFICIENT CONDITION - Each time X is present, eect Y will always occur.
29. TAUTOLOGY - Circular reasoning. If a theory states that greed causes people
to commit crime, and then says we know Jon is greedy because he committed a
crime, it becomes impossible to subject the theory to the scientic process. In this
case, you would nd that greed has been dened as someone who commits
criminal acts. The circle of the reasoning never stops.
30. TESTABILITY - To be valid and ultimately useful, a theory must be able to be
subjected to scientic research. Theories may be untestable if they are
tautological, propose causes that are not measurable, or are so open-ended that
empirical ndings can always be reinterpreted to support the theory.
31. THEORY - In simple terms, theory is an explanation of something.
32. THEORIES OF CRIMINAL AND DEVIANT BEHAVIOR - Theories in this
category attempt to explain why an individual commits criminal or delinquent
acts. 33. THEORIES OF LAW AND CRIMINAL JUSTICE -  Theories in this category
attempt to explain how laws are made, and how the criminal justice
system operates as a whole.
34. USEFULNESS - This refers to the real-world applications that the theory
proposes or suggests, and the ability to implement those applications.
35. ABSOLUTE DETERRENCE - This refers to the amount of crime that has
been prevented simply due to the fact that a formal system is in place so
that an

3in6d.i vAidCuUaTl Eco CuOldN bFeO leRgMaIllSyT pSu n- iOshned o fo trh

croeme mtyiptetisn go fa i ncdr imvidinual lsa cto. ined by POGARSKY.  These
 BY: MPC, RC, 48
individuals comply with the law because it is theMSCRIM
right thing to do.
 BY: MPC, RC, 48
MSCRIM

37. BOOT CAMPS - Programs used in place of incarceration, and based upon a
military model of discipline and order. These programs are designed to
have a deterrent eect on young oenders, but they have generally failed to
yield long- term reductions in recidivism.
38. CELERITY - One of the three elements of deterrence. Celerity refers to
how quickly an individual is punished after committing a crime.
39. CERTAINTY - One of the three elements of deterrence. Certainty refers to how
likely it is that an individual will be caught and punished for a crime that he or she
has committed. Certainty is the most important of the three elements.
40. CLASSICAL CRIMINOLOGY - A school of thought based upon utilitarian
notions of free will and the greatest good for the greatest number. At its core,
classical criminology refers to a belief that a crime is committed after an individual
weighs the pros and cons. The decision to commit a crime is a rational decision,
and is best countered through a deterrence-based system.
41. CRIME PREVENTION THROUGH ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN (CPTED) - This
refers to a set of practices designed to make potential criminal targets less
attractive. The belief that crime is a rational act is used to make a potential
target less attractive to a criminal, and thus not a “rational” target.
42. DETERRABLE OFFENDERS - One of three types of individuals coined by
POGARSKY.  This is the only group that may be deterred by threat of
sanctions. 43. DETERRENCE THEORY - A core principle of classical school and
rational choice theories. This theory states that crime can be controlled
through the use of punishments that combine the proper degrees of
certainty, severity, and celerity.
Deterrence is a key element in the U.S. justice system.
44. EXPECTED UTILITY PRINCIPLE - Economic theory which states that people
will act in a manner that increases their benets and reduces their losses. This ties
in closely with classical criminology and, by denition, rational choice theory, where
people seek to increase their pleasure and reduce their pain.
45. FREE WILL - The belief that humans are rational, and have the ability to make
decisions according to each individual’s own will and purposes. Under this
perspective, people can understand the dierence between right and wrong, and
can choose to commit criminal acts or to follow the law. In later chapters, this
view will be contrasted with views that claim that crime is a result of biological,
psychological, or social forces beyond an individual’s control.
46. GENERAL DETERRENCE - General deterrence is the doctrine that a
community or a society of people can be deterred from committing a
criminal act
after having witnessed the punishment of an individual or individuals for having
committed that act.
47. INCORRIGIBLE OFFENDERS - One of three types of individuals coined by
POGARSKY.  These people are so committed to criminal activity that they
cannot be deterred.
48. PERCEPTUAL DETERRENCE - This concept applies to an individual oender,
and refers to what he or she believes the likelihood of arrest to be, and how
severe he or she believes the punishment for a crime will be if caught. The
perceptions of the individual are often very dierent from the actual reality
experienced.
49. PROPORTIONALITY - Punishment should t the crime without regard to
individual dierences.
50. RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY - This is the 1980s formulation of classical
criminology. While the beliefs of rational choice theory can be traced
back to
eighteenth-century philosopher Cesare Beccaria, this version adds a new
 BY: MPC, RC, 49
dimension that emphasizes the expanding role of theMSCRIM
economist in criminological
thought. The emphasis is placed on the expected reward for committing a crime,
and other associated costs and benets surrounding criminal activity.
 BY: MPC, RC, 49
MSCRIM

51. RETRIBUTION - Making the punishment t the crime. Also referred to as “an
eye for an eye.”
51. A. ROUTINE ACTIVITIES THEORY - This theory states that for crime to be
committed, three elements must be present: an available target, a
motivated oender, and a lack of guardians.
52. SCARED STRAIGHT - This program began in the 1970s with the belief that
taking young oenders or potential oenders to a prison environment, and
exposing them to the realities of prison life, could prove benecial in reducing
delinquency. Like boot camps, however, Scared Straight did not produce the
expected results.
53. SEVERITY - One of the three elements of deterrence. Severity refers to how
harsh the punishment for a crime will be. In classical criminology, it is important
to
remember that a punishment must t the crime. If a punishment is not severe
enough, it will not deter crime. If it is too severe, it is unjust and can lead to more
crime.
54. SHOCK INCARCERATION - This approach generally uses a combination of a
brief prison sentence followed by probation. The hope is that a brief exposure
to the realities of incarceration will deter the oender from further criminality.
55. SPECIFIC DETERRENCE - This style of deterrence is used with a specic
oender in mind. The belief is that if an individual is punished for a criminal
act, then that individual will be less likely to violate the law in the future.
56. THOUGHTFULLY REFLECTIVE DECISION MAKING (TDRM) - This term
describes a process of good decision making where all the relevant information is
collected and analyzed, and possible solutions and alternative solutions are
thought about. Reection on what went right and wrong is also part of the
process.
57. ADOPTION STUDIES - Studies that have been done with children reared by
biological parents compared to their siblings or twins reared by adoptive parents
in an attempt to demonstrate a genetic link to criminal behavior. Results have
been mixed.
58. ATAVISM - Part of the theory developed by Lombroso in which a person is a
“born criminal.” Atavistic or primitive man is a throwback to an earlier stage of
human evolution, and will commit crimes against society unless specically
restrained from doing so.
59. AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM (ANS) - MEDNICK’S THEORY  that
individuals who inherit a slower than normal autonomic nervous system learn to
control aggressive or antisocial behavior slowly or not at all. This leads to
increased violence and criminal activity.
60. BEHAVIORAL GENETICS - This covers a range of theories in which a
combination of genetics and the environment inuences behavior.
61. BIOLOGICAL SCHOOL - A view of crime also referred to as biological
positivism that claims that criminal behavior is the result of biological or
inborn defects or abnormalities. This view directly conicts with classical
criminology, which claims that criminal activity is the result of free will. Under
a biological perspective, deterrence is of little value.
62. BIOSOCIAL THEORIES - Theories that examine the combined eects of
biology, behavior, and the environment on criminal behavior.
63. BIOSOCIAL AROUSAL THEORY - This theory states that an individual’s level
of arousal works in conjunction with the social environment. Those with low
levels
of arousal are less likely to learn appropriate ways to deal with aggression and
violence and thus are more prone to commit crime.
64. BORN CRIMINAL - One of three criminal types identied by Lombroso. This
type of criminal is the most dangerous, and can be identied through his or her
 BY: MPC, RC, 50
stigmata or identifying characteristics. MSCRIM
 BY: MPC, RC, 50
MSCRIM

65. CONCORDANCE - This examines the degree to which criminal or law-

abiding behavior of siblings, identical twins, or fraternal twins is similar to
one another.
66. CRIMINALOID - One of three criminal types identied by Lombroso. The
CRIMINALOID Is motivated by passion, and will commit criminal acts under
the proper circumstances.
67. DETERMINISM - In considering biological theories, determinism refers to
the view that an individual’s criminal lifestyle or actions is the direct result of
genetic inheritance or biological predisposition. Soft Determinism, as
explained by MATZA, examines the role of determinism, but also
acknowledges that other factors, from environmental to choice, may be
part of the equation. This assumes
that behavior is not completely and strictly determined by the individual’s genetic
or biological makeup.
68. EVOLUTIONARY THEORY - A broad-based view that certain types of
criminal behavior are genetic and passed down from one generation to the
next through evolutionary processes of natural selection and survival.
69. GENE-BASED EVOLUTIONARY THEORY - A general approach that suggests
that the process of natural selection has resulted in criminal genetic
tendencies that are passed down from generation to generation.
70. INSANE CRIMINAL - One of three criminal types identied by Lombroso. The
insane criminal type includes idiots, imbeciles, epileptics, psychotics, and the
mentally unstable. These criminals are unable to control their actions;
however, they do not possess the stigmata or identifying characteristics of the
born criminal. 71. MENTAL FUNCTIONING AND DELINQUENCY - A
neurophysiology approach
that believed that delinquents were feebleminded or had some form of a learning
disability. This approach has also been used to look for a relationship between IQ
and crime. Additionally, aspects of mental functioning, verbal ability, and mental
exibility have been examined.
72. STIGMATA - Characteristics claimed by Lombroso that could be used to
identify the “born criminal.” They include things such as extra ngers or toes, large
lips, receding chins, excessive skin wrinkles, and large monkey-like ears.
73. TESTOSTERONE AND CRIMINAL AGGRESSIVENESS - A biochemistry
approach that looks at the relationship between the male hormone
testosterone and antisocial aggressive behavior.

**********************Glossary 02****************************
 BY: MPC, RC, 51
MSCRIM
RECENT LAWS DURING DUTERTE ADMINISTRATION:

1. PROCLAMATION NO. 124 – January as “National Bible Mont

EXECUTIVE ORDER NO. 25 - Renamed Benham Rise to Philippine Rise.
EXECUTIVE ORDER NO. 26- Ordered a nationwide smoking BAN. Implemented in July 23
REPUBLIC ACT NO. 10913 - Anti-Distracted Driving Act
REPUBLIC ACT NO. 10666 - or the "Children on Motorcycle Safety Act of 2015",
REPUBLIC ACT NO. 10931-Free tuition in state universities 7. R.A. 10932 NO - Enhanced Anti-Hospital D
R.A 10928 - Extending Passport Validity to 10 years
R.A. 10929 - Establishing FREE INTERNET ACCESS in public places 10. R.A.10930- Extending Driver’s
12. REPUBLIC ACT NO. 10969- Or the Free Irrigation Service Act 13. RA 10742- SK REFORM
14. RA 10963 - Tax Reform for Acceleration and Inclusion Act (TRAIN) Law

IMPORTANT EVENTS:
1. JAPANESE ENCEPHALITIS - a mosquito-borne illness endemic to t
 BY: MPC, RC, 51
MSCRIM

2. AVIAN INFLUENZA OUTBREAK- declared in Pampanga

3. PHILIPPINES RANKED 6TH IN THE 29TH SEA GAMES. (Malaysia: host
country) -24golds, 33 silvers, 64 bronze won by the Philippines in the
29thseagames
4. 6.4 BILLION Shipment of drugs from china, nakalusot Sa Customs under
Sec. Nicanor Faeldon
5. 2019- Philippines will host SEA Games
6. NOVEMBER 10–12 – The Philippines hosted the 31st ASEAN Summit Clark
Freeport Zone in Angeles, Pampanga.[32]
7. NOVEMBER 13–14 – The hosted the Twelfth East Asia Summit at the Clark
Freeport Zone in Angeles, Pampanga.[87]
8. DECEMBER 19- President Rodrigo Duterte signed the Tax Reform for
Acceleration and Inclusion Act (TRAIN) Act January 1, 2018 took eect- Tax
Reform for Acceleration and Inclusion Act (TRAIN)
is a legislation which made reforms on taxation in the Philippines.
9. ISNILON HAPILON of Abu Sayyaf and Omar Maute of Maute Group, leaders
of ISIL-linked militants ghting the government in the Battle of Marawi were
reportedly killed on October 16
10. OCTOBER 23 – the Battle of Marawi was declared ocially over by the
military MARTIAL LAW- MAY 23- DEC. 31
11. JANUARY 22 – The Mayon Volcano’s alert status was raised to Alert Level
4 due to intensied volcanic activities.
12. The Oce of the President has ordered a 90-day preventive suspension order
against Overall Deputy Ombudsman Melchor Arthur Carandang for alleged
grave misconduct and grave dishonesty for the unauthorized disclosures of the
alleged bank transactions of President Rodrigo Duterte and his family.
13. FEBRUARY 28 – President Rodrigo Duterte signed the Paris Agreement
on Climate Change
14. MAY 23, 2017 – Martial Law was declared on the islands of
Mindanao – 15. DEC 31. 2017 – Expiration of validity of the martial
law
16. JULY 2, 2017- Pacquiao’s Fight against Je Horn
17. JULY 24, 2017 – 2nd SONA of Duterte
18. AUGUST 8, 2017 - Association of Southeast Asian Nations
(ASEAN) Celebrates 50th Golden Anniversary Celebration in
PICC.
19. SEPT 21- Proclamation No. 319 Duterte declared “National Day of
Protest” September- National Peace Consciousness Month
20. JANUARY 31- A total lunar eclipse coinciding with a super moon and blue
moon phenomenon was witnessed by many astronomers and sky watchers
throughout the country.
21.  DengVaxia scandal vs Aquino and butch Abad
22. 29TH OF MARCH 1969. - 49th anniversary of New People’s Army. (NPA)
23. SEPT 21, 2017- National Day of Protest
24. FEBRUARY 12 - The Philippine Government has signed the
administrative order to completely ban the deployment of all workers
to Kuwait.
25. MARCH 1 – President Rodrigo Duterte has signed Republic Act No. 10973
that restored the power of select ocials of the Philippine National Police (PNP)
to issue subpoenas on cases under investigation.
26. MARCH 14 – President Rodrigo Duterte has announced that the Philippines
is withdrawing from the International Criminal Court (ICC)

IMPORTANT NAMES:
1. MARIA LOURDES SERENO – On March 8, through Votes of 38-2, the
House Committee on Justice has found probable cause in the impeachment
complaint against Chief Justice Maria Lourdes Sereno.
2. HORACIO "ATIO" CASTILLO III – Killed by Aegis Juris fraternity over the fatal
hazing of University of Santo Tomas (UST) law freshman student in September last
year.
3. BONGBONG” MARCOS, JR. AGAINST VICE PRESIDENT LENI ROBREDO -
 BY: MPC, RC, 52
 The Supreme Court (SC), sitting as the Presidential Electoral
MSCRIM Tribunal (PET) has for
the election protest of former Senator Ferdinand “Bongbong” Marcos, Jr
(counting started on Apr. 2 for Camarines Sur, Iloilo, and Negros Oriental)
 BY: MPC, RC, 52
MSCRIM

4. KERWIN ESPINOSA, PETER LIM - The Department of Justice has cleared

alleged drug lords due to lack of evidence
5. MAUTE GROUP – rebel group who seized Marawi City, they are not ISIS,
but only ISIS-aliated
6. OMAR MAUTE-Leader of maute inspired by Isis in Marawi City
7. REYNALDO PAROJINOG SR. – Mayor who was killed in the drug ops in
Ozamiz City.
8. NOVA PAROJINOG- Her daughter
9. KIAN LOYD DELOS SANTOS - A 17-year-old who was kill

IMPORTANTS PERSONALITIES AND EVENTS

1 .
C o nBsRtaIGbu GlaErNy iRn A1F9A17E.L CRAME -  The rst Filipino chief of the
Philippine
2. COL. LAMBERTO JAVALERA -  The rst chief of police of the Manila Police
Department after the Philippine Independence from the united states of America
in 1946.
3. COL. ANTONIO TORRES - The rst Filipino chief of police of the Manila Police
Department in 1935. And he declared Manila as an open city (DEC.8, 1941)
4. GEN. ARTHUR MCARTHUR (FATHER OF DOUGLAS MACARTHUR) - First
District Director of Metropolitan Police Force.
5. P/DIR GEN. CESAR NAZARENO -  The rst chief of the Philippine National
Police.
6. CAPTAIN GEORGE CURRY - First chief of Police in Manila
7. DELILAH - who was able to gain information by using her Beauty and
Charm. 8. SUN TZU - Art of war- The father of Police Intelligence
9. SIR ARTHUR WELLESLY - Greatest military Spymaster at All time.
10. FREDERICK THE GREAT - father of organized military
 "Napoleon's
espionage 11. KARL SCHULMEISTER -
12. JOSEPH PETROSINO - Pioneer in the ght against organized crime.
13. HERBERT YARDLEY - The American black chamber.
14. AKBAR - 'the great Mogul'
15. ALFRED REDL - A Homosexual double spy who while working as
intelligence direct proof Austria and Hungary, spied the Russian.
16. NATIONAL IN SCOPE - Means that the PNP is a nationwide government
org. whose jurisdiction covers the entire breadth of the Philippine
archipelago.
17. CIVILIAN IN CHARACTER - Means membership in the PNP is by virtue of
one's qualication as set by the law.
CRIMINOLOGY LICENSURE EXAM
1. COINED IN THE WORD "CRIMINOLOGY" - RAFAELLE DE GAROFALO.
2. FATHER OF CLASSICAL CRIMINOLOGY- CESARE BECCARIA.
3. FATHER OF CRIMINALISTICS- DR. HANS GROSS
4. FATHER OF BEHAVIORAL GENETICS- FRANCIS GALTON
5. FATHER OF TRADITIONAL/OLD CRIMINOLOGY - CESARE BECCARIA
FATHER OF MODERN CRIMINOLOGY- CESARE LOMBROSO
6. FATHER OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION- ALBERT OSBORNE
7. FATHER OF FORENSIC/ MODERN BALLISTICS - COL. CALVIN HENRY
GODDARD
8. FATHER OF PROBATION- JOHN AUGUSTUS
9. FATHER OF ORGANIZED MILITARY ESPIONAGE- FREDERICK THE GREAT.
10. MOTHER OF ALL CRIMINALS- ADA JUKE/ MARGARET.
11. FIRST PROBATION OFFICER IN THE WHOLE WORLD- EDWARD SAVAGE
12. COINED IN THE WORD "PHOTOGRAPHY" - WILLIAM HERSCHEL
13. FATHER OF POLICE PROFESSIONALIZATION- AUGUST VOLLMER
14. FATHER OF POLICE ORGANIZATION- HENRY VAYOL.
15. FATHER OF UTILITARIANISM- JEREMY BENTHAM
16. FATHER OF PHILIPPINE PROBATION- TEODULO NATIVIDAD.
17. FATHER OF ENGLISH PROBATION- MATTHEW DAVEN PORTHILL.
18. FATHER OF PAROLE/MODERN PENOLOGY- ALEXANDER MACANOCHIE
19. FIRST PRISON CHAPLAIN- REV. JARRED CURTIS
 BY: MPC, RC, 53
MSCRIM
20. FIRST PROBATION OFFICER- EDWARD SAVAGE
21. FATHER OF MODERN POLICING- SIR ROBERT PEEL.
22. FATHER OF TRADITIONAL POLYGRAPHY- JOHN A. LARSON.
 BY: MPC, RC, 53
MSCRIM

23. FATHER OF MODERN LAW ENFORCEMENT- AUGUST VOLLMER.

24. FATHER OF PSYCHO ANALYSIS- SIGMUND FREUD
25. FATHER OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATION- DR. EDMON LOCARD
26. FATHER OF PODOSCOPY- DR. EDMON LOCARD
27. FATHER OF PERSONAL IDENTI- ALPHONSE BERTILLION
28. FATHER OF FINGERPRINT- SIR RICHARD HENRY
29. FATHER OF CRIMINALISTICS IN AUSTRIA- DR. HANS GROSS
30. FATHER OF CRIMINALISTICS IN AMERICA- DR. PAUL KIRK
31. FATHER OF AMERICAN PRISON- ZEBULON REED BROCKWAY.
32. FATHER OF VICTIMOLOGY- BENJAMIN MENDELSON VON HENTEG
32. "CRIMINOLOGY" - EDWIN SUTHERLAND "CRIMINOLOGIE" -ITALIAN
WORD BY PAUL TOPINARD" "CRIMINOLOGIA"-LATIN WORD BY RAFAELLE
DE GAROFALO
33. BENJAMIN ROBINS – FATHER OF MODERN GANNERY/FATHER OF
BALLISTICS PENDIULUM
34. FATHER OF EUGENICS- GALTON FIRST LETHAL INJECTION-
LEO ECHAGARAY./RAPE
35. JOHN AUGUSTUS-FATHER OF PROBATION
36. EDWARD SAVAGE-FIRST PROBATION OFFICER IN THE WORLD
37. TEODULO C. NATIVIDAD-FATHER OF PHILIPPINE PROBATION
38. MATHEW DAVENFORT HILL-FATHER OF ENGLISH PROBATION
39. ZEBULON R. BROCKWAY-HE WAS THE FIRST SUPERINTENDENT
OF ELMIRA REFORMATORY 
40. SIR EVELYN RUGGLES BRISE-DIRECTOR OF ENGLISH PRISONS
WHO OPENED THE BORSTAL INSTITUTION
41. JOHN HOWARD-KNOWN AS THE FATHER OF PENITENTIARY 

ANLDTER MCRAOCFATNONC-H
423.SAILRE XWA HIE -WF ATSH TEHRE O DFI
RMEOCDTOER RN O PFE TNHOEL OIRGISYH A PNRDISON FATHER OF PAROLE

REPUBLIC ACTS - Are laws made by congress, the latter referring to House of
Representatives and senate of the Philippines duly signed by the president
PRESIDENTIAL DECREES- Are laws made and approved by then former president
Marcos; here are some of them;

1. P.D. 1414 - CREATED THE LAW ON INDIGENOUS PERSON, OR THE

KATUTUBO
2. P.D. 1619 - SOLVENT AND VOLATILE
3. P.D. 968 - PROBATION LAW
4. P.D. 603 - THE CHILD AND YOUTH WELFARE ACT CODE.EFFECTIVE JUNE
8 1975
5. P.D. 1069 - PHIL EXTERNAL/EXTRADITION LAW
6. P.D. 532 - ANTI PIRACY AND ANTI HIGHWAY LAW OF 1974
7. P.D. 533 - ANTI-CATTLE RUSTLING LAW OF 1974
8. P.D. 1602 - ILLEGAL GAMBLING
9. P.D. 1866 - AS AMENDED BY R.A. 8294, ILLEGAL POSSESSION OF
FIREARM AND EXPLOSIVES
10. P.D. 1612 -ANTI FENCING LAW
11. P.D. 684 - CREATED SK 
12. P.D. 1184 - CREATED THE PPSC
13. P.D.229 -DECLARING BGY CHAIRMAN AS PERSON IN AUTHORITY 
14. P.D. 557 - DECLARING ALL BARRIOS AS BARANGAY 
15. P.D. 1508 - CREATION OF BARANGAY COURT
16. P.D.1829 - PENALIZING OBSTRUCTION OF APPREHENSION AND
PROSECUTION OF CRIMINAL OFFENDER
17. P.D. 46 - ACT PUNISHING THE RECEIVING AND GIVING OF GIFTS OF
PUBLIC OFFICIAL AND EMPLOYEES
18. P.D 1689 - INCREASED THE PENALTY FOR CERTAIN FORMS OF ESTAFA
19. P.D.2018 - MAKES THE ILLEGAL RECRUITMENT A CRIME OF
ECONOMIC SABOTAGE PUNISHABLE BY LIFE IMPRISONMENT
20. P.D 133 - PRESCRIBED HEAVY PENALTY FOR EMPLOYEES THEFT AND
LABORERS
 BY: MPC, RC, 54
MSCRIM

21. P.D.1185 - FIRE CODE OF THE PHILS

22. P.D.1731 - PROVIDES FOR REWARDS AND INCENTIVES TO GOVT
WITNESS AND INFORMANTS
23. P.D 1732 - PROVIDES IMMUNITY FOR GOVT WITNESSES
24. P.D., 1869 - PROHIBITION OF GOVT OFFICIALS TO ENTER IN
GAMBLING HOUSE AND CASINOS
25. R.A 7160 - LOCAL GOVT CODE OF 1991
26. R.A. 4103 - INDETERMINATE SENTENCE LAW
27. R.A. 4200 - ANTI-WIRE TAPPING LAW
28. R.A. 1524 - PROVIDES FOR THE ENFORCEMENT OF THE CONDITIONS
FOR PARDON
29. R.A. 7610 - SPECIAL PROTECTION OF CHILDREN AGAINST CHILD
ABUSED EXPLOITATION AND DISCRIMINATION ACT AS AMENDED
30. R.A. 9344 - JUVENILE JUSTICE AND WELFARE SYSTEM MY 4 2006
31. R.A. 9231 - CHILD LABORING ACT
32. R.A. 6809 - LOWERING THE AGE OF MINORITY FROM 21 TO 18 YEARS
OF AGE,TOTALLY EMANCIPATED
33. R.A 7659 - DEATH PENALTY 
34. R.A. 8177 - ACT DESIGNATING DEATH BY LETHAL INJECTION LAW
35. R.A. 3019 - AS AMENDED BY ANTI-GRAFT AND CORRUPTION
PRACTICES
36. R.A. 6713 - CODE OF CONDUCT AND ETHICAL STANDARDS FOR
PUBLIC OFFICIAL AND EMPLOYEES
37. R.A. 7080 - ANTI-PLUNDER ACT
38. R.A. 7877 - ANTI-SEXUAL HARASSMENT ACT OF 1995
39. R.A. 8049 - ANTI-HAZING LAW

401. PRD.A.. 5 63523 -9 A- NATNI TPII-RCACRYN APNPDINAGNTI-

HIGHWAY  ROBBERY LAW
42. PD. 533 - ANTI CATTLE RUSTLING LAW
43. RA. 6235 - AN ACT PROHIBITING CERTAIN ACTS INIMICAL TO CIVIL
AVIATION
44. RA.6539 - ANTI CARNAPPING LAW
45. PD. 1612 - ANTI FENCING LAW
46. PD. 1613 - ANTI ARSON LAW (SIMPLE ARSON)
47. RA. 7832 - ANTI ELECTRICITY AND ELECTRIC TRANSMISSION LINES
48. RA. 8484 - ACCESS DEVICES REGULATION ACT OF 1998
49. RA. 9160 - ANTI MONEY LAUNDERING ACT OF (2001)
50. RA. 9372 - HUMAN SECURITY ACT OF (2007)
51. RA. 9745 - ANTI TORTURE ACT (2009)

2 7 7 5 A N T I C H I LD P OR N O G R
5 3. RA. 9 2 0 8 - A N T I T R A F FI C K I N G I N
A P H Y ( 20 0 9 )
P E R S O N (2 0 0 3)
54. RA.8049 - AN ACCOUNT REGULATING HAZING AND OTHER FORMS OF
INITIATION RITES IN FRATERNITIES SORORITIES AND OTHER
ORGANIZATION
55. RA. 7610- SPECIAL PROTECTION OF CHILDREN AGAINST CHILD ABUSE
56. RA.9262- ANTI VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND THEIR CHILDREN ACT
57. RA.9165- COMPREHENSIVE DANGEROUS DRUG ACT OF JULY 4 2002
58. RA.9346 - AN ACT PROHIBITING THE IMPOSITION OF DEATH PENALTY
AND AMENDING OR SUCH PURPOSE RA. 7659
59. RA. 3019- ANTI GRAFT AND CORRUPTION ACT
60. RA. 1379- FORFEITURE OF QUESTIONABLE OR OTHERWISE III-GOTTEN
WEALTH
61. RA.7080- ANTI PLUNDER ACT
62. RA. 10193- ANTI DISTRACTED DRIVING ACT
63. RA. 4200- ANTI WIRETAPPING LAW
 BY: MPC, RC, 55
MSCRIM
64. PD. 1829- LAW ON OBSTRUCTION OF JUSTICE
65. BP. 22- BOUNCING CHECK LAW
 BY: MPC, RC, 55
MSCRIM

66. RA.10591- COMPREHENSIVE FIRE ARM LAW

67. RA.10175- ANTI CYBER-CRIME LAW
68. RA.9344- JUVENILE JUSTICE WELFARE ACT OF 2006

STANDARD OPERATION PROCEDURES

(SOP) SOP 1 - POLICE BEAT PATROL
PROCEDURES SOP 2 - BANTAY KALYE
SOP 3 - SIYASAT
SOP 4 - REACT 166
SOP 5 - LIGTAS (ANTI-KIDNAPPING)
SOP 6 - ANTI CARNAPPING
SOP 7 - ANTI TERRORISM
SOP 8 - JOINT ANTI BANK ROBBERY
SOP 9 - ANTI HIGHJACKING/HIGHWAY
ROBBERY SOP 12 - ANTI ILLEGAL GAMBLING
SOP 16 - ANTI PORNOHRAPHY
SOP 19 - ANTI ILLEGAL LOGGING
SOP 20 - ANTI ILLEGAL FISHING
SOP 21 - ANTI ILLEGAL DRUGS
10.0 - CAUTION
10.1 - UNABLE TO COPY/CHANGE LOC
10-4 - ACKNOWLEDGMENT
10-12 - STAND BY 
10-50 - ACCIDENT
10-52 - AMBULANCE NEEDED

10-74 – NEGATIVE
INTRODUCTION TO CRIMINOLOGY 
1. WITNESS----- man of the hour in court.
2. VICTIM------ the forgotten one.
3. OFFENDER----- the principal character to the CJS
4. SUSPECT------ One who implicated to the commission of a crime (subject of
investigation)
5. RESPONDENT------ person who is a subject of Preliminary investigation or
inquest proceeding.
6. ACCUSED----- person who charged of an oense in court and facing trial.
7. APPELLANT ----- one who led an appeal.
8. CRIMINAL ----- who is found guilty by nal judgment
9. POLICE----- initiator or prime mover of the CJS
10. PARDONEE------ one who is given pardon.
11. PAROLEE----- one who is granted with parole.
12. PROBATIONER------- one whose application for probation was granted.
13. PETITIONER ----- one who les an application for Probation, parole and pardon
14. CRIMINOLOGIA ---- (Italian word) RAFFAELLE GAROFALO 1885
15. CRIMINOLOGIE ---- (French word) PAUL TOPINARD 1887
16. R.A 6506- - - Act creating the Board of Examiners for Criminologists in the
Phil. And other purpose.(approved/eective=July 1,1972)
17. CRIMINAL ECOLOGY---- study of criminality in relation to the spatial
distribution in a community.
18. CRIMINAL EPIDEMIOLOGY----- study of the relationship between
environment and criminality.
19. CRIMINAL PSYCHIATRY---- study of human mind in relation to
criminality.
20. CRIMINAL PSYCHOLOGY----- study of human behavior in relation to
criminality.
21. CRIMINAL DEMOGRAPHY---- criminality and population.
22. CRIMINAL PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY----- study of criminality in relation
to
Physical constitution of men.
23. VICTIMOLOGY------- study of role of victim in the commission of the crime.
 BY: MPC, RC, 56
24. CRIMINAL ETIOLOGY---- study of the cause or the origin of crime.
MSCRIM
 BY: MPC, RC, 56
MSCRIM

25. PENOLOGY-------- control and prevention of crime and the treatment of

youthful
oender.
26. SOCIOLOGY------- study of human society, its origin, structure, functions
and
directions.
27. CRIMINOLOGICAL RESEARCH----- study if crime correlated to with
antecedent variables, state of the crime trend.
28. DELINQUENCY------- act not inconformity with the norms of society.
29. AUGUST COMTE---- Father of sociology
30. EMILE DURKHEIM---- father / modern sociology.
31. MALA PROHIBITUM CRIME----- acts that are outlawed because they clash
with current norms and public opinion, such as tax, trac and drugs law.
32. MALA IN SE CRIME---- acts that outlawed because they violate basic
moral
values such as rape, murder, assault and robbery.
33. MASS MURDER---- killing a large number of persons at one time.
34. HYPOGLYCEMIA------- which the glucose in the blood falls below levels/ecient
brain functioning.
35. HYPERGLYCEMIA------- high blood sugar
36. MARITAL RAPE----- forcible sex between legally married partners.
37. STATUTORY RAPE----- sexual relation between a minor female and an
adult
male. (11yrsold below)
38. JEREMY BETHAM---- pain and pleasure
39. CESARE BECARRIA---- Free will theory
40. EDWIN SUTHERLAND ------ who introduced the following denition of
criminology. "Dean of criminology”
41. GABRIEL TARDE ---- introduced the "Theory of imitation suggestion”
42. ENRICO FERRI- - - -" Theory of imputable and denial of Free Will.
443. AHDENAR JUY KGEO -D--D MAoRtDhe -r o-f  Hcrei mwiansa ltsh.e rst
person to use the term "MORON"
45. ROBERT MERTON----- applied the theory of anomie of Durkheim to
criminology
46. AUGUST AICHORN---- "Latent delinquency”
47. EGO----- "reality principle”
48. ID----- "pleasure principle”
49. SUPEREGO------- resulted from incorporating within the personality the
moral
standards and values of parents, community /others /tells what is right from wrong.
50. OEDIPUS COMPLEX----- Electra complex in man.
51. ELECTRA COMPLEX----- girls begin to have sexual feeling for their
father’s.
52. ERIK ERIKSON- - - - "identity crisis"
53. MONOGAMY------- one marriage (1 man and 1woman)
54. POLYGAMY------ marriage of one man with two or more wife.
55. POLYANDRY------ marriage of one woman with two or more husband.

  A g e f uolfl mreasjpo

orintsyi boirl ilteygal age
18-70 -- -
56.
57. 18
---
**********************Glossary 03*****************************

SAMPLE QUESTION AND ANSWER REVIEWER ON THEORIES OF CRIME

CAUSATION
1.The eld of criminology is a multi-disciplinary science. One of its aspects is the
study of crime focused on the group of people and society which is known
today as:
A. Criminal Psychology B. Criminal Sociology C. Criminal Psychiatry
D. Criminal Etiology
2.Macho means?
 BY: MPC, RC, 57
A. a ssertive B. a ngry C. heroic
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  D. stubborn
3.Bilious means
A. w ealthy B. p ued o ut C. b ad t empered
  D. irritable
4. Hypothetical means
A. T emporary B. E xaggerated C. P rovable
  D. Assumed
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5.The theory in which reformation is based upon, on the ground that the
criminal is a sick person.
A. Positivist Theory B. C lassical T heory C. N
eo Classical School   D. Sociological Theory
6.It is dened as a crime where a person of respectability and high social status in
the course of his or her occupation commits the criminal act.
A. Labor Crimes B. Organized Crimes C. High Collar crimes
  D. White collar crime
7.The strict code of conduct that governs the behavior of the Maa members is
called .
A. Omerta B. Tr iad C. Si
lencer D. Maoso
8.The groups of crimes categorized as violent crimes (Index crimes) and property
crimes (Non Index crimes) are called .
A. Conventional crimes B. Non-conventional Crimes C. Felony
  D. Oense
9. What is the literal meaning of the term Cosa Nostra?
A. This thing of ours B. O merta C. T wo T hings
  D. 5th estate
10.The criminal activity by an enduring structure or organization developed and
devoted primarily to the pursuit of prots through illegal means commonly known
as .
A. Organized
Org crime B. Professional Organization C.
White collar crimeD. Blue collar crime
11.One of the following represents the earliest codication of the Roman law,
which was incorporated into the Justinian Code.
AC.o d1e2 Tables D. Code of
B
Dra c o. Burgundian Code C. Hammurabic
12.The generic term that includes all government agencies, facilities, programs,
procedures, personnel, and techniques concerned with the investigation, intake,
custody, connement, supervision, or treatment of alleged oenders refers to: A.
Correction B. Penology C. Criminal Justice
  D. the base pillar
13.The Italian leader of the positivist school of criminology, who was criticized
for his methodology and his attention to the biological
characteristics of oenders, was:
A. C Lombroso B. C Beccaria C. C Darwin
  D. C Goring
14.The theory in criminology, which maintains that a person commits crime or
behaves criminally mainly because he or she is being possessed by evil spirits
or something of natural force that controls his/her behavior is called:

A . D e v i ne Will Theory B D e m o n o l o gical Theory C. Classical

 15.Criminology
Th e o r y changes as social D . A condition
l l of tchanges.
h e s e This means the progress
of criminology is concordant with the advancement of other sciences that has
been applied to it. This means that criminology is .
A. Dynamic B. E xcellent C. P rogressive D.
None of these
16.In as much as crime is a societal creation and that it exist in a society, its study
must be considered a part of social science.
science This means that criminology is .
A. A pplied s cience B. Social Science C. Natural
Science D. All of these
17.The term white- collar crime was coined by
A. E. Sutherland B. R . uinney C. E . urkheim
Q D
  D. C. Darwin
18.What is means of "R" in the criminal formula?
A. Total Situation B. Criminal Tendency C. Temperament
  D. none of these
19.His key ideas are concentrated on the principle of "Survival of the Fittest" as a
behavioral science. He advocated the "Somatotyping Theory".
 BY: MPC, RC, 58
A. W Sheldon B. R Merton C. E Sutherland
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  D. Ivan Nye
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20.When someone is tagged as criminal, he or she may reject it or accept it and

go on to commit crime.
A. Rational Choice Theory B. Control Theories C. Labelling
 Theory D. Social Disorganization Theory

  FNC S:
1. Unpublished handouts on THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION, 2019, University of the Cordillera
(UC). 2. Unpublished handouts on THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION, 2019, University of
Baguio (UB).

PREPARED BY: MARK P. CIANO, RC,

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