Basic Mechanics

Engineering mechanics is the science which considers the effects of forces on rigid bodies.
It is divided into 2 parts – Statics and Dynamics.
In Statics, we study the effects and distribution of forces on rigid bodies which are at rest.
In Dynamics, we study the motion of rigid bodies caused by forces acting on the body.
In statics, we study force systems – concurrent, parallel and non-concurrent forces and
their applications on rigid structures such as trusses and frames. It also includes friction
and centroids of the body.
In dynamics, we study kinematics of a body – pure motion (translation, rotation plane
motion) and kinetics – motion due to applied forces.
Fundamental Concepts and Definitions
Rigid body – a definite amount of matter fixed in position. Examples are steel, cast iron,
wood
Force – changes or tends to change the state of motion of a body (external force). It tends
to produce external effect on the body.
Internal force tends to produce internal effects such as stress, deformation where the
force acts.
External effects of forces are studied in Mechanics while internal effects are studied in
Strength of Materials or Deformable Bodies.
A force has magnitude, position of line of action and direction (or sense for moment).
The principle of Transmissibility of a force states that the external effect of a force on a
body is the same for all points of application along its line of action, i.e. it is independent
of the point of application.

Fundamental Concepts and Definitions

Unit of Force – kilograms, grams, pounds, kilo-pound (1000 pounds)
In this course, we will use the kg-meter-second system (metric) or pound-foot-second
system (english). Force = mass x acceleration.
1 Newton=1 kg −m/sec 2
1000 N=1 KN

Force system – any arrangement of two or more forces acting on a body or group of
bodies.
Coplanar force system – when the lines of action of all forces lie in one plane, otherwise
they are Non-coplanar.
Concurrent force system – when the lines of action of all forces pass through a common
point.
Parallel force system – when lines of action of all forces are parallel
Non-concurrent force system – the lines of action of the forces are neither parallel nor
intersect in a common point

Axioms (facts or principles) of Mechanics

The Parallelogram law – the resultant of 2 forces is the diagonal of the parallelogram
formed on the vectors of the forces
Two forces are in equilibrium only when equal in magnitude, opposite in direction and
collinear in action
A set of forces in equilibrium may be added to any system of forces without changing the
effect of the original system
Action and reaction forces are equal but opposite in direction

Free-body diagram – a sketch of a body which shows the forces acting upon the body
Applied forces – forces acting on the free body
Reaction forces – those exerted by the free body upon other bodies
A free-body diagram may consist of the entire structure or any isolated part of it.
Resultant of Force System

Resultant force – is a single force which will produce the same effect as the original forces
From the figure below, forces P and Q produce a resultant force R. The sum of forces P and
Q is force R.
The Resultant of a force system is the sum of all forces in the system. To obtain its
magnitude, we resolve the forces components Fx and Fy, then add all x-components (Rx).
We also add all y-components (Ry).

The magnitude of the Resultant R, use the formula,

R=√ (Σ Fx) 2+(Σ Fy)2=√ ( Rx)2+(Ry)2
To get its direction,
θ=tan −1( Ry /Rx )

Example:
Determine the resultant of the 3 forces F, P and T in the figure. Assume units in Newton.

y
F=390

12 13
5 x

40 ° 30 °

T =400 P=300

Solution:

Px=+300 cos 30=+ 260 N (Q4)

Py=−300 sin 30=−150 N (Q4)

Rx=Fx+ Px+ Tx=(−150)+(260)+(−307)

¿ −197 N ¿ tℎe ¿
Ry=Fy+ Py+ Ty=360+(− 150)+(−257)
¿ − 47 N downward
R=√ (−197)2+(− 47)2=203 N
θ=arctan( −47)/(−197)=13.42 ° Down , ¿ (Q3)

Principles of Moment

The moment of a force about an axis or line is the measure of its ability to produce turning
or twisting about the axis.

The magnitude of the moment of a force about an axis which is perpendicular to a plane
containing the line of action of the force is defined as the product of the force and the
perpendicular distance from the axis to the line of action of the force. M =F x dp

The Varignon’s Theorem states that the moment of a force F is equivalent to the sum of
the moments of its components Fx and Fy .
Let us assume that counter-clockwise Moment is positive about an axis O. We read as
Moment at O is F times perpendicular distance dp. Or Moment at O is Fx times distance y
to x-axis + Fy times distance x to y-axis.
Ccw Mo=+ F x dp
Ccw Mo=+ F x ( y)++ F y ( x)

Example:
Two forces acts at points A and B. Ax=−20 kN and Ay=+10 kN . Bx=−30 kN and
By=− 4 kN . Determine the magnitude and location of resultant R with respect to the
origin O.

Solution:
Two forces acting at A and B. It is required to determine the location of its resultant
from point O.
R=√ ¿
ΣFx=20+30
ΣFx=50 kN ¿
ΣFy=10 − 4
ΣFy=6 kN upward
R=√ ¿
R=50.36 kN upward ,¿
M O=Rd

M o=50.36 (d)

M o=20 ( 6 )+ 30 ( 2 ) +10 ( 4 ) −4 ( 8 )

M o=188 CCW

188=50.36(d )
d=3.73m ¿ O
Couples
A couple is a set of 2 parallel forces equal in magnitude but opposite direction and
separated by a distance dp.
The moment of a couple C is equal to the product of one of the forces composing the
couple multiplied by the perpendicular distance dp.

C=F x dp

The sense (direction) of a couple is counter-clockwise positive and clockwise negative.

Example :
 The three step pulley shown in the figure is subjected to the given couples. Compute
the value of the resultant couple. Also determine the forces acting at the rim of the middle
pulley that are required to balance the given system. In KN-m units. Assume + CCW
Couple.

Solution:
Mo=+60 ( 8 ) – 30 ( 12 ) +40 ( 16 )
¿ 480 – 360+640
Mo=+760 KN − m( CCW )
+760=F(12)
F=63.3 kN
(two 63.3 kN forces acting on a clockwise direction to balance the 760 kN-m CCW couple)
Exercise Problems:
1. The horizontal and vertical components of forces F, Pand T are: Fx=300 N , Fy=−200 N ,
Px=−200 N, Py=100 N, Tx=−50 N and Ty=− 90 N . Determine the resultant force R and
its direction.

Solution:
Rx=Fx+ Px+ Tx=300 – 200 – 50=+ 50 N ¿ tℎe rigℎt
Ry=Fy+ Py+ Ty=−200+100 – 90=−190 N downward
R is directed down ,rigℎt (¿ tℎe 4 tℎ quadrant )
 For the resultant:
R=√ 502+(− 190)2=197 N Down , Rigℎt
θ=arctan Ry / Rx=arctan (−190)/50=− 75.26°

2. Determine the resultant of the concurrent forces shown.

Solution:
Fx :
Fx=300 cos 45 ° −200 cos 30 ° − 400 cos 60 °
Fx=212− 173.20− 200
Fx=−161.2 kN
Fy :
Fy=300 sin 45 ° +400 sin 60 ° − 200 sin 30°
Fy=212+346.40 −100
 Fy=458.4 kN
R:
R=√ ¿
R=√ ¿
R=√236116
R=486 kN

R=486 KN ,upward , ¿
tanθ=45 ¿
θ=arctan ¿=−70.6 ° up ,¿

3. Find the resultant of the concurrent force system shown in figure.

Solution:
Fx :
Fx=400+300 cos 60° −200 cos 30 ° −300 cos 60 °
Fx=400+150 −173.20 − 150
Fx=227.8 kN
Fy :
Fy=200 sin 30° −300 sin 60 ° − 300 sin 60°
 Fy=100 −259.80 −259.80
Fy=− 419.60 kN
R:
R=√ ¿
R=√ ¿
R=√228000
R=477 kN

Fy
tanθ=
Fx
419.60
tanθ=
227.8
θ=61.6 °
4. In the figure below, assume counter-clockwise moment as positive, compute the moment of
F=450 kN and P=361 kN about point A, B, C and D.
For F∧P:assume each block is 1 m x 1 m.
 Solution:

M A =– Fx( 3 m)+ Fy(1 m)

¿ – F (cosθ )( 3 m)+ F( sinθ )¿

¿ – 450( 4/5)(3)+ 450(3 /5)(1)
¿ – 810 kN −m(since it is negative),
M D =810 kN − mclockwise

M A =450( 4 /5)(3)+450 (3/5)(1)

M A =1350 N − mCCW

M B =– 450(4 /5)(3) – 450(3 /5)(4)

M B =– 2160 kN − m(2160 kN −mCW )

M C =450(4 /5)(0)– 450(3 /5)(5)

M C =– 1350=1350 kN − mCW

M D =– Fx (3 m) – Fy (2 m)

¿ – F (cosθ )( 3 m)– F( sinθ)(2 m)

¿ – 361(2 /√ 13)(3) – 361( 3/ √ 13)(2)
¿ – 1202 kN − m¿
M D =1202 kN −m clockwise ¿

M A =361(2/√ 13)(3)– 361(3/ √ 13)(2)

M A =0

M B =– 361(2/ √ 13)(3)+361(3 /√ 13)(3)

M B =+300 kN −m CCW

M C =– 361(2/√ 13)(0)+361(3/√ 13)( 4)

M C =+1202 kN − mCCW

5. Replace the system of forces acting on the frame in the figure shown by a resultant R at A
and a couple acting horizontally through B and C.
Solution:

R A =30 – 60 – 20=−50 kN

Mc=+ 20 ( 5 ) – 30 ( 4 ) =−20 Clockwise couple

Mc=+50 (4) – R B (2)
−20=200 – 2 RB

2 RB =200+20=220

R B=110 kN ¿tℎe rigℎt

ΣFx=0
R B – RC =0

RC =R B =110 kN ¿ tℎe ¿
6. A barge is pulled by two small boats. To move the barge along in the water, the two small
boats must put a resultant force of 2500 lb. along the direction of the barge’s motion.
Determine the tension in each rope if the position of the boat B isβ=45°.

Free Body Diagram:

Solution:

Using the law of sine we will have:

TB 2500 lb TA 2500 lb
= =
sin 30° sin 105 ° sin 45 ° sin 105 °

2500lb 2500lb
T B= ( sin30 ° ) T A= (sin 45° )
sin 105 ° sin 105 °
T B=1294.10lb T A=1830.13 lb

7. Determine the resultant moment of the four forces acting on the rod as shown in the figure
below about point ‘O’.

Free Body Diagram:

 Solution:

Σ M O =− ( 100 N∗2m ) + ( 40 N∗6 m(sin 30) ) −[80 N∗ ( 8 m+ 6 m( cos 30) ) ]

Σ M O =( −200 Nm ) + ( 120 Nm ) − ( 1055.69 Nm )

Σ M O =−1375.69 Nm

8. Two forces P and Q pass through a point A which is 6 m to the right of and 3 m above a
moment center O. Force P is 500 N directed up to the right at 30° with the horizontal and
force Q is 200 N directed up to the left at 60° with the horizontal. Determine the moment
of the resultant of these two forces with respect to O.

Solution:

R x =Px −Q x

R x =500 cos 30 ° − 200 cos 60 °

R x =333.01 N ( ¿ tℎe rigℎt )

R y =P y −Q y

R y =500sin 30 ° +200 sin 60 °

R y =423.21 N ( upward )

M O=6 R y − 3 R x

M O=6 ( 423.21 N ) −3 ( 333.01 N )

M O=1540.23 Nm( counterclockwise)

Friction

There are two types of friction: dry or Coulomb friction and fluid friction. Fluid friction
applies to lubricated mechanisms. The present discussion is limited to dry friction
between non-lubricated surfaces.
The Laws of Dry Friction. Coefficients of Friction
• Block of weight W placed on horizontal surface. Forces acting on block are its weight
and reaction of surface N.

• Small horizontal force P applied to block. For block to remain stationary, in equilibrium,
a horizontal component F of the surface reaction is required. F is a static-friction force.

• Small horizontal force P applied to block. For block to remain stationary, in equilibrium,
a horizontal component F of the surface reaction is required. F is a static-friction force.

• As P increases, the static-friction force F increases as well until it reaches a maximum

value Fm.
Fm=μs N

• Further increase in P causes the block to begin to move as F drops to a smaller kinetic-
friction force Fk.
Fk=μk N

Maximum static-friction force:

Fm=μs N
 • Kinetic-friction force:
F k =μk N

μk ≅ 0.75 μS

• Maximum static-friction force and kinetic friction force are:

 proportional to normal force
 dependent on type and condition of contact surfaces
 independent of contact area

Four situations can occur when a rigid body is in contact with a horizontal surface:

• No friction, • No motion, • Motion impending, • Motion,

(Px = 0) (Px < Fm) (Px = Fm) (Px > Fm)
Angles of Friction
• It is sometimes convenient to replace normal force N and friction force F by their
resultant R:
 • No friction • No motion • Motion impending • Motion

Consider block of weight W resting on board with variable inclination angle θ.

• No friction • No motion • Motion impending • Motion

Problems Involving Dry Friction

• All applied forces known or

known
• Motion is impending direction of one of the
• Coefficient of static
• Determine value of applied forces
friction
coefficient
is known
of static friction
• Determine whether
body
•Coefficient of static
will remain at rest or friction is known
slide
• Motion is impending
• All applied forces
• Determine magnitude
 Example:

1. Determine the minimum force P that should be applied to the follower in order
to hold the cam in the position shown if the cam is subjected to a couple
moment of 10 N ∙ m. Given that the coefficient of static friction between the cam
and the follower is μS =0.6 . The guide at A is smooth.

Solution:
Σ M O =0

10 −0.6 N B ( 0.08 ) − 0.03 N B=0

10− 0.03 N B 0.6 N B (0.08)

=
0.08 0.08
125 −0.375 N B =0.6 N B

125=0.6 N B +0.375 N B

125 0.975 N B
=
0.975 0.975
N B =128.21 N

Σ F y =0

128.21− P=0
P=128.21 N

2. A force of 500 lb is applied to the pulley shown. The pulley is prevented from
rotating by a force P applied to the end of the brake lever. If the coefficient of
friction at the brake surface is µ = 0.4, determine the value of P.

SOLUTION:
∑MO = 0
30 in f = 15 in (500 lb)
30∈f
30∈¿=7500 lb −∈ ¿ ¿ ¿
30∈¿ ¿
f =250 lb
 f =μN
250lb 0.4 N
=
250lb 250 lb
N = 625 lb

∑MA = 0
54 in P + 10 in f = 19 in N
54 in P + (10 in)(250 lb) = (19 in)(625 lb)
54 in P = 11875 lb-in – 2500 lb-in
54 ∈P
54∈¿=9375lb −∈ ¿ ¿ ¿
54∈¿ ¿
P = 173.6111 lb

3. The 18 ft. ladder has a uniform weight of 87 lb. and rests against the smooth wall
at B. if the coefficient of static friction at A is µA = 0.5, determine if the ladder
will slip. Take θ = 60°

SOLUTION:
∑MA = 0
NB [18 ft. sin (60°)] – (87 lb.)(9 ft.) cos (60°) = 0
NB [18 ft. sin (60°)] = (87 lb.)(9 ft.) cos (60°)
 N B ( 9 √ 13 ft . ) =(783 lb. − ft .)(0.5)
( 9 √ 13 ft . ) N B 391.5 lb. − ft .
=
( 9 √13 ft . ) ( 9 √ 13 ft . )
NB = 25.1147 lb.

∑FX = 0
FA = 25.1147 lb.

∑FY = 0
NA = 87 lb.

FA = (0.5)(87 lb.)
FA = 43.5 lb. > 25.1147 lb.
∴ The ladder will not slip.

Problems and Solutions:

1. The wood block dresser has a weight of 180N and rests on a tile floor for which
μs =0.35 .If the man pushes on it in the horizontal direction θ=30° , determine
the smallest magnitude of force F needed to move the dresser. Then, determine
the smallest coefficient of static friction between his shoes and the floor so that
he does not slip f the man has a weight of 270N.

Solution:
For Dresser:
Σ F y =0

N D −180=0

N D=180 N

Σ F x =0
 F − 0.35 (180 )=0
F=63 N
For Man:
Σ F y =0

N M − 270=0

N M =270 N

Σ F x =0

−63+ μ M ( 270 )=0

μ M ( 270 )=63

μ M =0.23

2. Determine the largest dimension d which will support any applied force F
without causing the board to slip downward. The board can be adjusted
vertically by tilting it up and sliding the smooth pin A along the vertical guide G.
When placed horizontally, the bottom C then bears along the edge of the guide,
where μs =0.6 .

Solution:
Σ F y =0

0.6 N C − F=0

Σ M A =0

− F ( 8 ) +d ( N C ) −0.6 N C ( 0.80 )=0

 − 0.6 N C ( 8 )+ d ( N C ) − 0.6 N C ( 0.80 )=0

d ( N ¿¿ C)=0.6 N C ( 0.80 ) +0.6 N C (8)¿

d ( N C )=0.48 N C + 4.8 N C

d ( N C ) 5.28 N C
=
NC NC

d=5.28 ft

3. When a spring is compressed 80 mm and the coefficient of static friction

between the tapered stub S and the slider A is μSA =0.7 , determine the
horizontal force P needed to move the slider forward. The stub is free to move
without friction within the fixed collar C. The coefficient of static friction
between A and surface B is μ AB=0.6 .Neglect the weights of the slider and stub.

Solution:

Stub:

Σ F y =0
N A cos 35 ° −0.7 N A sin 35 ° −400 ( 0.08 )=0
0.8192 N A −0.4015 N A −32=0
N A =76.61 N

Slider:
Σ F y =0
N B − 76.61cos 35 ° +0.7 (76.61) sin 35° =0
N B =62.76 −30.76
N B =32 N
 Σ F x =0
P −0.6 ( 32 ) −76.61 sin35 ° −0.7 (76.61) cos 35 °=0
P=19.2+ 43.94+ 43.93
P=107.07 N

4. Determine the smallest coefficient of static friction which will prevent the
semicylinder from slipping.The semicylinder of mass m and radius r lies on the
rough inclined plane and the inclination θ=20° .

Solution:

Σ F x =0
F − 9.81sin 20 °=0
F=3.36 m

Σ F y =0
N −9.81 cos 20 °=0
N=9.22 m

Hence,

F=μS N
3.36 μ S (9.22)
=
9.22 9.22
μS =0.36
5. Below is a beam AB and has a negligible mass and thickness and is subjected to a
triangular distributed loading. It is supported at one end by a pin and at the
other end by a post having a mass of 60 kg and negligible thickness. Determine
the two coefficients of static friction at B and at C so that when the magnitude of
the applied force is increased to P=180 N ,the post slips at both B and C
simultaneously.

Solution :

Membe AB:

Σ M A =0
4
−700 ()5
+ N B ( 3 )=0

N B ( 3 )=560
N B =186.67 N

Post:

Σ F y =0

N C −186.67+150 ( √541 )− 60(9.81)=0

N C =186.67 − 117.13+588.6
N C =658.14 N

Σ M C =0
 4
− ( 180 )( 0.4 )+ F B ( 0.9 )=0
√ 41
F B ( 0.9 )=44.98
F B=49.98 N

Σ F x =0
4
( 180 ) − F C − 89.96=0
√ 41
F C =112.45 − 89.96
F C =22.49 N
FC
μC =
NC

22.49 N
μC =
658.14 N

μC =0.0342

FB
μ B=
NB

49.98 N
μ B=
186.76 N

μ B=0.2678

6. If a torque of M = 400 N-m is applied to the flywheel, determine the force that
must be developed in the hydraulic cylinder CD to prevent the flywheel from
rotating. The coefficient of static friction between the friction pad at B and the
flywheel is µS = 0.4.

SOLUTION:

FB = µSNB
FB = 0.4 NB

∑MO = 0
0.4 NB (0.5 m) – 400 N-m = 0
0.2 m NB - 400 N-m = 0
0.2 m N B 400 N − m
=
0.2 m 0.2 m
NB = 2000 N

∑MA = 0
FCD sin (30°) (4.2 m) + (0.4)(2000 N)(0.1 m) – (2000 N)
(2.2 m) = 0
FCD sin (30°) (4.2 m) = (2000 N)(2.2 m) – (0.4)(2000 N)
(0.1 m)
FCD (2.1 m) = 4400 N-m – 80 N-m
2.1 m F CD 4320 N − m
=
2.1 m 2.1 m
FCD = 2057.1429 N

7. If the coefficient of static friction between the man’s shoes

and the pole is µS = 0.7, determine the minimum
coefficient of static friction required between the belt and the pole at A in
order to support the man. The man has a weight of 190 lb and a center of
gravity at G.

SOLUTION:
FC = (µS)C NC
FC = 0.7 NC

∑MA = 0
NC (5 ft) + 0.7 NC (0.85 ft) – 190 lb (4.45 ft) = 0
NC (5 ft) + 0.7 NC (0.85 ft) = 190 lb (4.45 ft)
5 ft NC + 0.595 NC = 845.5 lb-ft
5.595 ft N C 845.5 lb − ft
=
5.595 ft 5.595 ft
NC = 151.1171 lb

∑Fx = 0
151.1171 lb – NA = 0
NA = 151.1171 lb

∑Fy = 0
FA + 0.7(151.1171 lb) – 190 lb = 0
FA = 190 lb – 105.78197 lb
FA = 84.21803 lb
 FA
( μS )A=
NA
84.21803lb
( μ S ) A = 151.1171 lb
(µS)A = 0.5573

8. The coefficient of static friction between the 180-kg crate and the ground is µS
= 0.4, while the coefficient of static friction between the 88-kg man’s shoes
and the ground is µ’S = 0.5. determine if the man can move the crate.

SOLUTION:
FC = µSNC
FC = 0.4 NC

∑Fx = 0
P cos (30°) – 0.4 NC = 0
P cos (30°) = 0.4 NC
4 3
P= √ N C
15

∑Fy = 0
NC + P sin (30°) – (180 kg)(9.81 m/s2) = 0

NC+ ( 415√ 3 N )sin (30 °) −( 180 kg)(9.81 m/s )=0

C
2

2 √3
NC+ N =1765.8 N
15 C
15+2 √ 3
NC
15 1765.8 N
=
15+2 √ 3 15+2 √ 3
15 15
NC = 1434.5133 N

4 √3
P= ( 1434.5133 N )
15
P = 662.5733 N

∑Fy = 0
Nm – 662.5733 N sin (30°) – (88 kg)(9.81 m/s2) = 0
Nm = 662.5733 N sin (30°) + (88 kg)(9.81 m/s2)
Nm = 331.2867 N + 863.28 N
Nm = 1194.5667 N
∑Fx = 0
Fm – 662.5733 N cos (30°) = 0
Fm = 662.5733 N cos (30°)
Fm = 573.8053 N

Fmax = µ’S Nm
Fmax = (0.5)( 1194.5667 N)
Fmax = 597.2834 N ; Fm < Fmax ∴ The man can move the crate.
 Wedges
A wedge is a thin wedge-shaped object that is used to force two objects apart or to force one object
away from a close surface. Wedges have the effect of allowing users to create very large normal forces to
move objects with relatively small input forces. The friction forces in wedge systems also tend to be very
large though, and can reduce the effectiveness of wedges.

ANALYZING WEDGE SYSTEM:

If the force P is large enough to push the wedge forward, then the block will rise and the following
is an appropriate free-body diagram. Note that for the wedge to move one needs to have slip on all three
surfaces. The direction of the friction force on each surface will oppose the slipping.
If the force P is not large enough to hold the top block from coming down, then the wedge will be
pushed to the left and the appropriate free-body diagram is the following. Note that the only change is the
direction of the frictional forces.
 PROBLEM 1
Pedro received the package that he ordered on Lazada. He then uses the wedge to safely move out
the package from the wall.
FIND: Force P that is required to start the wedge.
FIGURE:

R2

R3
R2
R1
ANALYSIS:
From the FBD of the box to the right
Σ F v =0
R1 cos 20 °=R2 sin 20° +300
R1=0.3640 R2 +319.2533

Σ F H =0
R2 cos 20 °=R1 sin 20° +75
R2 cos 20 °=( 0.3640 R2 +319.2533 ) sin 20 °+ 75
0.8152 R2=184.1911
R2=225.9460 kN

From the FBD of the wedge to the left

Σ F H =0
R3 cos 40 ° =R 2 cos 20°
R3 cos 40 ° =225.9460cos 20°
R3=277.1638 kN

Σ F v =0
P=R 2 sin 20 ° + R3 sin 40 °
P=225.9460 sin 20 ° +227.1638 sin 40 °
P=223.2962 kN
 PROBLEM 2
Pedro received another heavy package, but this time, it’s from Shoppee. He wants to push it away
from the wall using a wedge. Assume that the wedge has a 9 degree angle, the coefficient of friction (static
and kinetic) between the wedge and the safe is .20 and the coefficients of friction (static and kinetic)
between the wedge and the wall and the package and the floor are both .30.
FIND: Pushing force
FIGURE:

μS =.20 F2

μS =.30 .20F2
. .20F2

F1 F2
.30F3
μS =.30 F3

ANALYSIS:
From the FBD of the package
Σ F X =F2 cos 9 ° −.20 F2 sin 9 ° − .30 F 3=0
0.9564 F 2=.30 F3
F 2=0.3137 F3

Σ F Y =F 3 − F 2 sin 9° −.20 F 2 cos 9° − 98.0665=0

F 3 − 0.1153 ( 0.3137 F3 ) =98.0665
0.9638 F3 =98.0665
F 3=97.1027 N

F 2=0.3137 ( 97.1027 ) =30.4611 N

From the FBD of the wedge

Σ F X =F1 − F 2 cos 9°+.20 F 2 sin 9 °=0
F 1=29.1330 N

Σ F Y =.30 F1 +.20 F 2 cos 9 ° + F 2 sin 9 ° − F pusℎ=0

F pusℎ=19.5223 N
 PROBLEM 3
Canor uses a wedge to split the logs. The ϕ represents the angle of friction between the wedge and
the log.
FIND: Maximum angle α of the wedge
FIGURE: Σ F H =0
1
P=2 R sin(ϕ+ ¿ α ) ¿
2
ϕ α /2
∂P 1 1
= R cos (ϕ+ ¿ α )=0 ¿
∂α 2 2
α /2 1
α cos (ϕ+ ¿ α )=0 ¿
α /2 2
1
ϕ+ α=90°
ϕ 2
α /2 2 ϕ+α=180 °
α =180 ° − 2 ϕ
sin α =sin ( 180 ° − 2 ϕ )
sin α =sin 180 ° cos 2 ϕ− cos 180 ° sin 2 ϕ
sin α =( 0 )( cos 2 ϕ ) − ( − 1 )( sin 2 ϕ )
sin α =sin 2 ϕ
α =2 ϕ
ANALYSIS:

PROBLEM 4
A cake weighing 10.2 kg or 0.1kN on the wedding day is to be cut in half by a big serrated knife. The
angle friction is 5° for all the contact surfaces.
FIND: Value of force P
FIGURE:

R2 R2

R2 R2

R1 R1
ANALYSIS:
From the FBD of 20-kN block
Σ F H =0
R1 sin 5° =R2 cos 10°
R1=11.2994 R2

Σ F V =0
R1 cos 5 °=R2 sin 10° +0.05
( 11.2994 R 2 ) cos 5° =R2 sin10 ° +0.05
10.0828 R2=0.05
R2=0.0050 kN

From the FBD of the upper block

Σ F V =0
P=2 R2 sin 10°
P=2 ( 0.0050 ) sin 10 °
P=0.017 kN

PROBLEM 5
Jen stacked two slices of cakes in the oven and now she wants to remove the bottom slice of the
cake. What is the minimum force P required to pull the bottom slice out?
μ AB=0.2
μ AC =0.3
μ BD=0.3

FIND: Force P
FIGURE:
 FR BD

FS AB

FS
FR AB
BD

FR AB

FS AB

FS AC

FR AC

ANALYSIS:
Σ F X =− F S cos 12° + F R sin 12° − F R =0
AB AB BD

− μ AB F R cos 12°+ F R sin 12° =F R

AB AB BD

Σ F Y =− 20lb+ F S + F S sin12 ° + F R cos 12°=0

BD AB AB

μ BD ¿
3000 lb
FR = =19.5424 lb
− μ AB μ BD cos 12 ° + μBD sin 12 ° + μ AB sin 12° + cos 12°
AB

F S =3.9086 lb
AB

Σ F Y =− F S sin 12° − F R cos 12 °+ F R =0

AB AB AC

F R =19.9280 lb
AC

F S =6.0136 lb
AC

Σ F X =− P+ F S + F S cos 12 ° − F R sin 12 °=0

AC AB AB
P=5.7737
PROBLEM 6
You put two wedges under the block. The angle of friction for all contact
surfaces is 15°.
FIND: Force P to be applied
FIGURE:

R1 R1

R1 R1 R2 R2

ANALYSIS:
From the FBD of 900 lb block
Σ F V =0
2¿
R1=549.3486 lb

From the FBD of any of the wedges

Σ F V =0
R2 cos 20 °=R1 cos 35 °
R2 cos 20 °=549.3486 cos 35 °
R2=478.8800 lb

Σ F H =0
P=R 1 sin 35 °+ R2 sin 20 °
P=549.3486 sin 35 ° +478.8800 sin 20 °
P=315.0934 +163.7866
P=478.8800 lb
 PROBLEM 7
John wants to determine the minimum weight of block B that will keep it
at rest while a force P starts blocks A up the incline surface of B. The weight of
block A is 90 lb and the angle of friction for all surfaces in contact is 10°.
FIGURE:
R1

R1 R2

ANALYSIS:
From the FBD of block A
Σ F V =0
R1 cos 30 °=90
R1=103.9230 lb

From the FBD of block B

Σ F H =0
R2 sin 10° =R1 sin 30 °
R2 sin 10° =103.9230sin 30 °
R2=299.2344 lb

Σ F V =0
W B + R1 cos 30° =R2 cos 10°
W B +103.9230 cos 30 °=299.2344 cos 10 °
W B=204.6884 lb

PROBLEM 8
You want to pull the wedge out from under a 50-kN block. Determine the
value of P acting to the left.
FIGURE:
 R2

R1
R3
R2

ANALYSIS:
From the FBD of a 50-kN block
Σ F H =0
R1 cos °=R2 sin 15 °
R2 sin 15°
R 1=
cos 30 °
R1=0.2988 R2

Σ F V =0
R1 sin 30°+ R2 cos 15 °=50
(0.2988 R2 )sin 30 ° + R2 cos 15° =50
1.1153 R2=50
R2=44.8310 kN

From the FBD of the lower block

Σ F V =0
R3 cos 30 °=R2 cos 15 °
R3 cos 30 °=44.8310cos 15°
R3=50.0025 kN

Σ F H =0
P=R 2 sin 15 °+ R3 sin 30 °
P=44.8310 sin 15° +50.0025 sin 30 °
P=36.6044 kN
 . Theorem of Pappus

The theorems of Pappus are named after a 3 rd to 4th century AD Greek

mathematician, Pappus of Alexandria. The name of Guldinus was also associated
in honor of the Swiss mathematician, Paul Guldin, after he claimed the theorems
authorship.
Pappus’s theorem (also known as Pappus’s centroid theorem, Pappus-
Guldinus theorem or the Guldinus theorem) deals with the areas of surfaces of
revolution and with the volumes of solids of revolution if the position of the
centroid of a plane area or curve is determined, and vice versa. The two
theorems are:

First Theorem of Pappus

 It states that the surface area A of a

surface of revolution obtained by
rotating a plane curve C about a non-
intersecting axis which lies in the
same plane is equal to the product of
the curve length L and the distance d
traveled by the centroid of C:

 A=Ld.

The first theorem of pappus is that the surface area of an object formed by
rotating a curve about an axis is equal to the length of the curve multiplie d by the
distance travelled by the centroid about the axis during the rotation.
A = L (2π) r or A = L (2π) x̄ or A = L (2π) ȳ
(x̄ or ȳ depending on which axis of revolution)
L: arc length of the generating curve
2π (x̄ or ȳ): distance travelled by centroid around the axis.
Second Theorem of Pappus
  It states that the volume of a solid of
revolution obtained by rotating a
lamina F about a non-intersecting
axis lying in the same plane is equal
to the product of the area A of the
lamina F and the distance d traveled
by the centroid of F:

 V=Ad.

The second theorem of pappus states that the volume of a body formed by
rotating an area about an axis is equal to the area multiplies by the distance
travelled by the centroid about the axis during the rotation.
V = A (2π) r or V = A (2π) x̄ or V = A (2π) ȳ
(x̄ or ȳ depending on which axis of revolution)
A : area of the figure
2π (x̄ or ȳ) : distance travelled by centroid around the axis

First Theorem of Pappus:

The
following table summarizes the surface areas calculated using Pappus's centroid
theorem for various surfaces of revolution (cone, cylinder, and sphere).

SOLID GENERATING CURVE L (length) (centroid) A (area)

cone inclined line segment

 cylinder parallel line segment
sphere semicircle
(Kern and Bland 1948, pp. 110-111)

Second Theorem of Pappus:

The following table summarizes the surface areas and volumes calculated using
Pappus's centroid theorem for various solids and surfaces of revolution.

SOLID GENERATING FIGURE A (area) (centroid) V (volume)

cone right triangle

cylinder rectangle

sphere semicircle
(Kern and Bland 1948, pp. 110-111)

SAMPLE PROBLEM
EXERCISES
1.A regular hexagon of side length a is rotated about one of the sides. Find the
volume of the solid of revolution.
2. Solve for the area of the rotating circle around x-axis if R is equal to 3 cm and ȳ
is equal to 7 cm.
3. Use the Theorem of Pappus to find the volume of a right circular cone with
radius r=6 and height h=10.
4. Solve for the volume of the rotating circle around x-axis if R is equal to 5 cm
and ȳ is equal to 10 cm.
5. Find the centroid of a uniform semicircle of radius (r).
6. An ellipse with the semimajor axis a and semi minor axis b is rotated about a
straight line parallel to the axis a and spaced from it at a distance m>b. Find the
volume of the solid of revolution.
7. A square of side a is rotated about an axis lying in its plane and passing
through one of the vertices. The angle between the square side and positive
direction of the axis of rotation is α. What is the volume of the obtained solid of
revolution?
8. A circular arc of radius R subtending the central angle 2α is rotated about the
x−axis as shown in Figure. Determine the centroid of the arc.

ANSWER KEYS
1. A regular hexagon of side length a is rotated about one of the sides. Find the
volume of the solid of revolution.
Given the side of the hexagon a, we can easily find the apothem length m:

a
m= cot 30°
2
a√3
¿
2
Hence, the distance d traveled by the centroid C when rotating the hexagon is
written in the form

d=2πm
a√3
=2π⋅
2
=πa√3.

The area A of the hexagon is equal to

2 3√3
A=a
2

Using the 2nd theorem of Pappus, we obtain the volume of the solid of

revolution:

V=Ad

2 3√3
=a ⋅ πa√3
2

9 π a3
¿
2

2. Solve for the area of the rotating circle around x-axis if R is equal to 3 cm and ȳ
is equal to 7 cm.
Area = L (2π) ȳ
A = length of the circle (2πR) * (2π) * ȳ

*Note that the length travelled by the circle is equal to its circumference which
where the 2πR came from

A = 2πR * (2π) * ȳ
A = 2π (3 cm) * 2π * 7 cm
A = 6π cm * 2π * 7 cm
A = 84 π ² cm²
A = 829 cm²

3. Use the Theorem of Pappus to find the volume of a right circular cone with
radius r=6 and height h=10.

The Theorem of Pappus defines volume as V=Ad.

Before we can solve for volume, we need to find the
area of the triangle we’re revolving. Our shape, the
right circular cone, can be described as a triangle
rotated around an axis. The formula for area of a
triangle is A= ½bh.
The base of the triangle will be the radius r=b=6, and the height of the triangle
will be h=10.
A = ½bh
A = ½ (6)(10)
A =30

Next, we need to solve for distance, d. Distance will involve the relationship of
the triangle’s centroid and the rotation it experiences. In other words, d=2 πx̄
where is x̄ is the x-coordinate of the centroid and 2π refers to the fact that the
object is being rotated around an axis. The equation for x̄ is

b
1
x̄ = ∫ xf ( x ) dx
A a

Looking at this equation we realize we’re still missing f(x), which is the third side
of the triangle, H. There are different ways to do this, but we’ll use the
Pythagorean theorem and say that

H 2=ℎ 2+ b2

where H is the hypotenuse, b is the base and h are the height.

We’ll solve for HH and then plug in the values we know.

H= √ ℎ 2+ b2

H= √ (10)2 +(6)2

H= √ 136
Remember that H = f (x), so

f (x)= √ 136

Now we can solve for x̄ .

6
1
x̄ = ∫ x √ 136 dx
30 0
6
136
x̄ = √ ∫ xdx
30 0

6
136
x̄ = √ ∫ xdx
30 0
6
136 x
x̄ = √ ( )∫ ❑
30 2 0

136 (0)2
x̄ = √ ¿- ¿
30 2
6 √34
x̄ =
5

Now we can solve for distance d=2 πx̄

6 √34
d=2 π
5
12 π √ 34
d=
5

Finally, we can solve for volume using

V= Ad
 12 π √34
V = (30) ( ¿
5

V = 72 π √34

Using the Theorem of Pappus, we know that the volume of a right circular cone
with base radius r=6 and height h=10 is V = 72 π √ 34 .

4. Solve for the volume of the rotating circle around x-axis if R is equal to 5 cm and ȳ
is equal to 10 cm.

Volume = A (2π) ȳ

V = Area of circle (πr ²) * (2π) * ȳ

V = (πR ²) * (2π) * ȳ
V = 2 π² R² ȳ
V = 2 (π²) (5cm) ² (10 cm)

V = 4935 cm ³ 

5. Find the centroid of a uniform semicircle of radius (r).

Let  (2 π ) x̄ be the total distance travelled by centroid around the axis (full turn)

The solid of rotation is equal to the volume of the ball

(sphere)

4 π r3
V=
3

By using the Second Theorem of Pappus, we have the

relationship:

V = A (2 π ) x̄

π r2
where A=  (the area of the semicircle)
2

Hence,

4 π r3
V 3 4r
x̄ (centroid)= = = ≈ 0.42 r
2 πA πr 2 3 π
2π
2 ( )
If the radius is equal to 12 (r = 12)

Thus, the centroid will be:

4 π ( 12 )3
V 3 4 (12 )
x̄ ( centroid )= = = ≈ 0.42 ( 12 ) ≈ 5.04
2 πA π ( 12 ) 2 3π
2π ( 2 )
x̄ ≈ 5

6. An ellipse with the semimajor axis a and semi minor axis b is rotated about a
straight line parallel to the axis a and spaced from it at a distance m>b. Find the
volume of the solid of revolution.
The volume of the solid of revolution can be determined using the 2nd theorem
of Pappus:

V=Ad.

The path d traversed in one turn by the centroid of the ellipse is equal to

d=2πm.

The area of the ellipse is given by the formula

A=πab.

Hence, the volume of the solid is

V=Ad
=πab⋅2πm
=2 π 2mab

In particular, when m=2b, the volume is equal to 

V=4 π 22ab 2.

7. A square of side a is rotated about an axis lying in its plane and passing
through one of the vertices. The angle between the square side and positive
direction of the axis of rotation is α. What is the volume of the obtained solid of
revolution?
The half of the diagonal of the square AG has the length
a 2
AG= √
2

The angle β=∠KGA is expressed in terms of α as follows:

β = 45∘ − α.

Hence, the distance m from the centroid G to the axis of revolution is given by

m = KG = AG cos β
a √2
= cos (45∘−α)
2

Using the cosine subtraction identity

cos (A−B)
= cosA cosB +sinA sinB,

we write the distance m in the form

a √2
m= cos(45∘−α)
2
a √2
= (cos45∘ cos α + sin45∘ sin α)
2
a √2 √2
= ¿cos α + sin α)
2 2
 a
= (cos α + sin α)
2

so, the path d traversed by the centroid G of the square is given by

d=2πm
=πa (cos α + sin α).

Applying the 2nd theorem of Pappus, we find the volume of the solid of

revolution:

V=Ad
=a 2⋅πa (cos α + sin α)
=πa 2(cos α + sin α).

Considering the volume as a function of angle α we can determine its largest

value:

V(α)= πa 3 (cos α + sin α),

V′(α)= πa 3 (cos α + sin α) ′= πa 3 (−sin α + cos α).
V′(α)=0,
⇒ πa 3 (cos α−sin α) =0,
⇒tan α = 1,
π
⇒a=
4

By the second derivative test,

V′′(α)= πa 3 (−sin α + cos α) ′= − πa 3 (cos α + sin α),

and, consequently,

π π π
V′′ ( ) = − πa 3 (cos ( ) + sin ( ) )= − πa 3√2<0
4 4 4

So, the volume has the maximum at

π
 a = ( ):
4

π
Vmax = V ( )
4
π π
= πa 3 (cos ( ) + sin ( ))
4 4
= πa 3√2
8. A circular arc of radius R subtending the central angle 2α is rotated about the
x−axis as shown in Figure. Determine the centroid of the arc.
By symmetry, the centroid G is located on the y−axis, so its coordinates are

G( ¯x,¯y) = G (0,m),

where m=¯y is the distance from the centroid to the axis of rotation that we’re
going to find.
When the arc is rotated it forms a spherical segment. The surface area A of the
spherical segment is given by

A=2πRh,

where h is the distance between the parallel planes cutting the sphere.

Since h = 2R sin α, we can write

A = 2πR⋅2Rsinα = 4π R2 sinα.

From the other side, by the 1st theorem of Pappus, we have

A=dL
=2πmL,

where d=2πm is the path traversed by the centroid in one turn and L=2αR is the
length of the arc.

From here it follows that

 A
m =¯y =
2π l

4 π R2 sinα
¿
2 π ⋅ 2αR

R 2 sinα
¿
α

We can highlight some particular cases:

❑
R2 sinα
1. If α=0, then m(α=0) = lim
a→ 0
( α ) =R

❑
sin α
lim
a→ 0
( )α
=R

2. If α=π, then m(α=π) = ( R sinπ π )=¿0;

π
π π 2 R sin 2R
3. If α= , then m (α= ) = 2 =
2 2 π
π
MOMENT OF INERTIA
 Moment of Inertia is a measure of an object’s resistance to changes
to its rotation.
 Also defined as the capacity of a cross-section to resist bending.
 It must be specified with respect to a chosen axis of rotation.
 Are called second moments of the area
 It is usually quantified in m 4 .

For an area A that lies in the x-y plane, the area moments of inertia
about the x and y axes are:

I x =∫ y 2 dA
A

I y =∫ x 2 dA
A

Moments of inertia that are calculated about the centroid of the

area are denoted

I x ' ∧Iy '

Polar Moment of Inertia

Aside from x and y-axis, the moment of inertia for an area that lies
in the x-y plane can also be calculated about the z-axis where it is
called as the polar moment of inertia. The polar moment of inertia
of the area A is given as:

J z=∫ r 2 dA=I x + I y
A

When the polar moment of inertia is calculated at the centroid of

the area, it is denoted

Jz ' =Ix' + Iy '

This is commonly used when calculating the torsion of shafts.

Radius of Gyration
This moment of inertia of a body about an axis can also be
represented using the known radius of gyration where it can be
defined as the imaginary distance from the centroid at which the
area of cross-section is imagined to be focused at a point in order
to obtain the same moment of inertia.This is typically denoted as k
and by relationship,

I
k=
A
Where:
k = radius of gyration about an axis
I = rectangular moment of inertia
A = total area

Knowing the value of radius of gyration, one can find the moment
of inertia of any complex body equation easily. Also, it is being
used to compare how various structural shapes will behave under
compression along an axis and to predict buckling in a
compression beam or member.

Transfer Formula

Meanwhile, there are many built-up sections in which the

component parts are not symmetrically distributed about the
centroidal axis. Resolving this, the easiest way to determine the
moment of inertia of such a section is to find the moment of inertia
of the component parts about their own centroidal axis and then
apply the transfer formula. The transfer formula transfers the
moment of inertia of a section or area from its own centroidal axis
to another parallel axis. Transfer formula is denoted as:

I =Io+ A d 2

Where:

I = transferred moment of Inertia

Io = moment of inertia about the centroidal axis
A = area of the section or component shape
d = distance from the centroid of the shape to the axis or centroid
of the composite shape where it is to be transferred

Sample Problems:
1. You are playing a 500-grams basketball with a length of 75 cm. If there is an
axis of rotation located at the center of the basketball, find the moment of inertia.

Solution:
Given:
Mass=500 grams or 0.5 kg
Length=75 cm or 0.75m

2
I = m r2
5
2
I = ( 0.5 kg)¿
5
2 9
I=
5 32 (kg ∙ m2 )
I =0.1125 kg ∙m2

2. A quadrilateral paper whose size was 5 in. by 5 in. which is subtracted a

concentrically placed square 2 in. by 2 in. Find the polar moment of inertia and
the polar radius of gyration with respect to a z axis passing through one of the
outside corners.

Solution:
Centroidal moment of inertia
1
Í = ( B H 3 −b ℎ3 )
12
1
Í = ¿
12
1
Í = ( 625∈.4 −16∈. 4 )
12
1
Í = (609∈.4 )
12
Í =50.75∈.4

Area
A=(5∈.)2 −(2∈.)2
A=25∈.2 − 4∈.2
A=21∈.2
 By transfer formula for moment of inertia

I = Í + A d 2

I =50.75 ¿ .4 +(21¿ .2 )¿ ¿

I =50.75 ¿ .4 +52.5 ¿4

I =103.25 ¿ .4

Polar moment of inertia

J=I x + I y

J=103.25 ¿ .4 + 103.25¿ . 4
J=¿206.5¿ .4

Radius of gyration

J
k z=
√ A

206.5 ¿ .4
k z=
√ 21∈.2

59 2
k z=
√ 6
¿

k z=3.1358∈.

3. Solve for the moment of inertia of the given figure below.

Solution:

b ℎ3 b ℎ3
I x − x=( ) ( )
12 LR
−2
12 SR

¿¿

¿ 365866666.7 ¿4 −106666666.7 ¿ 4

¿ 259200000 ¿4

Exercises Problems:
1. Determine the value of the polar moment of inertia as well as the radius of
gyration with respect to a polar axis through one corner of a rectangle
which measures 6mm by 9mm.

Solution:
Moment of Inertia about x-axis

b ℎ3
I x=
3
¿ 9 mm ¿ ¿

¿ 648 mm4
Moment of Inertia about y-axis

ℎ b3
I y=
3
¿ 6 mm ¿ ¿
¿ 1458 mm4
Polar Moment of Inertia
J o =I x + I y

¿ 648 mm4 + 1458mm 4

¿ 2106 mm 4
Radius of Gyration about the corner

J
k z=
√ A

2106 mm4
¿
√6 mm(9 mm)
¿ 6.2450 mm

2. Compute the polar moment of inertia and the polar radius of gyration
with respect to a z-axis passing through one of the outside corners of a A
hollow square cross section consists of a 10mm by 10mm square from
which is subtracted a concentrically placed square 5mm by 5mm. Find the
polar moment of inertia and the polar radius of gyration with respect to a
z axis passing through one of the outside corners.

Solution:
Centroidal Moment of Inertia
1
Ī O = ( B H 3 −b ℎ 3 )
12
 1
¿ ¿
12

¿ 781.25 mm4

Ī x =Ī y =Ī o

Ī x =Ī y =781.25m m 4

Area
A=¿

A=75 mm 2

Using Transfer Formula for Moment of Inertia

2
I N =Ī O + A d

¿ 781.25 mm4 +75 mm 2 ¿

1946.25 mm4

I x =I y =I N

I x =I y =1946.25 mm 4

Polar Moment of Inertia

J o =I x + I y

¿ 1946.25 mm4 +1946.25 m m 4

¿ 3892.50 mm4

Radius of Gyration
J
k z= o
A √
3892.50 mm 4
¿
√
75 mm2

¿ 7.2042 mm

3. Solve for the value of the moment of inertia of the shaded area about the x
 axis of the given figure below.

Solution:

I x =∫ y 2 dA
A

¿ ∫ y 2 ( 250 − x ) dy
A

350
y2
¿ ∫ y 2 250−
0
( 550 )
dy

350 350
2 1
¿ 250 ∫ y dy − ∫ y 4 dy
0 550 0

¿ 1663030303 ¿4

4. Given the figure below, determine the moment of inertia of the shaded
area with respect to the x axis.
 Solution:

4 r 4 (60 m )
a= = =25.4648 m
3π 3π
b=90 m− a=90 m− 25.4648m=64.5352m
1 1
A= π r 2= π ¿
2 2
Rectangle:

b ℎ3
I x=
3
¿( 210m)¿ ¿

¿ 51030000 m 4

Half-circle:
Moment of Inertia with respect to AA’,

1
I A A = π r4
'
8
 1
¿ π¿
8

¿ 5089380.099 m4
Moment of Inertia with respect to x’,

I x =I A A − A a2
' '

¿ 5089380.099 m 4 − 5654.8668 m2 ¿

¿ 1422447.573 m4
Moment of Inertia with respect to x,

I x =I x + A b2
'

¿ 1422447.573 m4 +(5654.8668 m2)¿

¿ 24973791.8 m 4

I x =I rectangle − I ℎalf − ˚¿¿

I x =51030000 m 4 −24973791.8 m 4

I x =26056208.2 m 4

5. A 30-kg child stands at a distance r=1.5m from the axis of a rotating

merry-go-round. The merry-go-round can be approximated as a uniform
solid disk with a mass of 500 kg and a radius of 4.0 m. Find the moment of
inertia of this system.

Solution:

1 2
For the child, I c =m c r c 2, and for the merry-go-round, I m= m m r m ,where:
2
m c =mass of cℎild m m=mass of merry − go − round
I c =Inertia of tℎe cℎild I m=Inertia of merry − go − round
r =radius
Given:
m c =30 kg r c =1.5 m
m m=500 kg r m =4.0 m
 1
I total=m c r 2 + m m r 2
2
1
I total=(30 kg) ( 1.5 m )2+ (500 kg)(4.0 m)2
2
I total=67.5 kg ∙ m 2+ 4000 kg ∙ m2

6. You are playing basketball on the park. Upon wondering, you decided to
get the polar moment of inertia and the radius of gyration with respect to
a polar axis through one corner of the court. What answer will you get
after solving it? (Note: Basketball court was 28m X 15m)
Solution:
Moment of inertia about the x-axis:
3
bℎ3 28 m( 15m)
I x= = =31500 m4
3 3
Moment of inertia about the y-axis
ℎb3
I y= =15 m¿ ¿
3
Polar moment of inertia
J=I x + I y

J=31500m4 +109760 m4
J=141260 m 4
Radius of gyration about the corner
J
k z=
√ A

141260 m 4
k z=
√ 28 m(15 m)

1009 2
k z=
√ 3
m

k z=18.3394 m

7. Calculate the moment of inertia and radius of gyration with respect to a

polar centroidal axis of the cross section of the donut that you are eating
 whose outside diameter is 14 inches and inside diameter is 8 inches.
Solution:
Polar moment of inertia:
1
J́= π (R 4 − r 4 )
2
1
J́= π ¿
2
1
J́= π ( 38416∈.4 − 4096∈.4 )
2
1
J́= π ( 34320∈.4 )
2
J́=53909.7299 ¿ 4

8. Determine the moment of inertia for the shaded area about the x axis.

I x =∫ y 2 dA
A

1m
¿ ∫ y 2 [ 2 ( 1 − y 2 ) dy ]
0

1m
¿ 2 ∫ ( y 2 − y 4 ) dy
0

y3 y5 1 m
¿2 ( 3
− ¿
5 0 )
4 4
¿ m ∨0.267 m 4
15
MOMENT OF INERTIA OF BUILD-UP SECTIONS
Under Moment of Inertia, there are standard structural sections are welded
together to form a built-up section that also needed to know the value of moment
of inertia. Meanwhile, before calculating for the moment of inertia (or second
moment of area) of a built-up section, its centroid (or center of mass) must be
known first. For instance, if the moment of inertia of the section about its
horizontal axis (x) was required then the vertical (y) centroid would be needed
first.
To calculate the moment of inertia, here are some step-by-step guide:
Step 1: Divide the built-up sections into parts.
In the process of solving the area moment of inertia, calculate and know the
values of the moment of inertia of smaller segments. Also, analyze and break
them into simple rectangular sections to easily solve.
Step 2: Calculate the Neutral Axis (NA)
Find the value of the Neutral Axis (NA) or the horizontal axis (x) which is located
at the centroid or center of mass.
Step 3: Calculate Moment of Inertia
Proceeding to the last step, calculate the total moment of inertia of the section we
need to use the “Parallel Axis Theorem”:

I TOTAL=Σ( Í i + A i d 2i )

Í i=Tℎe moment of inertia of tℎeindividual segment about its own centroid axis
Ai=Tℎe area of tℎe individual segment

d i=Tℎe vertical distance ¿ tℎe centroid of tℎe segment ¿ tℎe Neutral Axis ( NA )

Based on the number of segments created, calculate the moment of inertia of

each of these sections. It is widely known that the moment of inertia equation of
a rectangle about its centroid axis is given as:
1
Ī= b ℎ3
12
b=Tℎe base∨widtℎof tℎe rectangle
ℎ=Tℎe ℎeigℎt of tℎerectangle
The formula to be used varies based on the shape of the section or segment to be
solved. However the rectangular shape is very common for beam sections, so it is
probably worth memorizing.
After having all the information needed to proceed in using the “Parallel Axis
Theorem” ,calculate now the total moment of inertia of the given built-up section.

Exercises Problems:

1. Given the T-section below, determine its moment of inertia with respect
to its centroidal Xo axis.

Solution:

A1=16 mm ( 4 mm ) A2=16 mm(4 mm)

A1=64 mm2 A2=64 mm2

Ī 1=16 mm ¿¿ Ī 2=4 mm ¿ ¿

256 4096
Ī 1= mm4 Ī 2= mm 4
3 3

y 1=2 mm y 2=4 mm+8 mm=12 mm

A=A 1 + A 2 A ý= A 1 y 1 + A 2 y 2

A=64 mm2 +64 mm2 ¿

A=128 mm2 32 ý=896 mm 2

ý=28mm

Í =¿
Í =¿

Í =61098.67 mm 4

2. Determine the moments and product of inertia for the shaded area with
respect to the u and v axes

Solution:
I xy =0

1 1
I x= ( 20 ) ( 120 )3 + (120 )( 20 )3
12 12

I x =2.96 × 106 mm4

1 1
I y=
12 [
( 120 )( 20 )3+
12
(20 )( 120 )3 +20(120)(70)2 ]
I y =14.72× 106 mm4

I x+ I y I x − I y
I u= + cos 2 θ − I xy sin 2θ
2 2

(2.96 ×10 6)+(14.72×10 6) ( 2.96× 106 ) − ( 14.72 ×106 )

¿ + cos 2(60)− 0
2 2

I u=11.8 ×10 6 mm 4
I x+ I y I x − I y
I v= − cos 2 θ+ I xy sin 2θ
2 2

(2.96 ×10 6)+(14.72×10 6) ( 2.96× 106 ) − ( 14.72 ×106 )

¿ − cos 2 ( 60 ) +0
2 2

I v =5.90 ×106 mm 4

Ix − I y
I uv= sin 2θ+ I xy cos 2θ
2

( 2.96 ×106 ) − ( 14.72 ×106 )

¿ sin 2 ( 60 )+ 0
2

I uv=−5.09 ×106 mm4

3. Determine the moments of inertia I uand I v for the beam’s cross sectional
area. Wherein θ=45 °

Solution:
I xy =0
 1 1
I x= ( 20 ) ( 2 )3+ 20 ( 2 )( 1 )2 + ( 4 )( 16 )3 + 4(16)(8)2
12 12

I x =5.515 ×103 ¿ 4
1 1
I y= ( 2 )( 20 )3 + ( 16 ) ( 4 )3
12 12

I y =1.419 ×103 ¿4

I x+ I y I x − I y
I u= + cos 2 θ − I xy sin 2θ
2 2

( 5.515× 103 ) +(1.419 × 103) ( 5.515 ×10 3 ) − ( 1.419 ×103 )

I u= + cos 2(45)−0
2 2

I u=3.47 ×103 ¿ 4

I v =3.47 ×10 3 ¿ 4

4. A built up section is made by needing too stable and two channel sections
as shown in the figure. Determine moment of inertia of a built up section
about X-X axis passing through center of gravity of the section.

FIGURE:

SOLUTION:
I G 1=90 ׿ ¿
ℎ1 =65− 5=60mm
¿ I G 1+ a ℎ2=2 ¿
¿ 6.5 ×106 m m4

I G 2=30 ׿ ¿
ℎ2 =55− 5=50 mm ¿ I G 2+ a ℎ2=4 ¿
¿ 3.0 ×106 m m4

I G 3=2 ¿
I XX =( 6.5× 10 6 ) + ( 3.0 ×106 ) + ( 0.6 ×106 ) =10.1× 106 mm4

5. Find the moment of inertia of the figure at point C.

SOLUTION:
Solve:
1
I xx =I A + I B + I N … … .; I = b ℎ 3+( A x d2 )
12
I xx =I A + ( A 1+ d 12 ) + I B + ( A 2+ d 22 )

I xx = ( 121 x (10 x 2 ))+(20 x 2.7273 )¿ +( 121 x ( 3 x 8 ))+(24 x 2.− 7273 )

3 2 3 2

I xx = ( 6.67 ) + ( 148.76 ) + ( 128 ) + ( 123.97 )

I xx =407.40 incℎes4
S xx =64.95 incℎes3

Interpretation:
The moment of inertia of the figure is S xx =64.95 incℎes3.

6. Find the moment of inertia of the figure at point C.

 1
I xx =I A + I B + I N … … .; I = b ℎ 3+( A x d2 )
12
I xx =I A + ( A 1+ d 12 ) + I B + ( A 2+ d 22 ) + I c + ( A 3+ d 3 2) + I d + ( A 4+ d 4 2)

I xx = ( 121 x (10 x 2 ))+(20 x 5 )¿+( 121 x (2 x 8 ))+(16 x 0 )¿+( 121 x (10 x 2 ))+(20 x 5 ) ¿+( 121 x (2 x 8 ))+(16 x
3 2 3 2 3 2 3

I xx =1184 incℎes4
S xx =197.333 incℎes3
Interpretation:
The moment of inertia of the figure is S xx =197.333 incℎes3

7. Find the moment of inertia of the figure using a table.

SOLUTION:
Given:
Base1 = 40mm height1 = 5mm
Base2 = 5mm height2 = 50mm
Base3 = 20 mm height3 = 5mm

Solve:
Element Aform b(mm) h(mm) A(mm2 ¿
1 bh 40 5 200
2 bh 5 50 250
3 bh 20 5 100
550

ybar (mm) A ybar (mm3 ¿ I xo form I xo (mm 4 ¿

57.5 11500 b ℎ3 417
3
30 7500 b ℎ3 52083
3
2.5 250 b ℎ3 208
3
19 250

y’=Y-ybar (mm) Ay’2 (m m 4 ) I xo + Ay’2 (m m 4 )

-22.5 101250 101667
5.0 6250 58333
32.5 105625 105833
265833-lx

Interpretation:
The area of moment of inertia of the figure will be 265833 m m4.

8. Determine the distance x to the centroid C of the beam’s cross-sectional

area and then compute the

moment of inertia I y ' about the y’

axis.
SOLUTION:

x́=
∑ x́ A
∑A
( 180 mm ) ( 40 mm ) ( 130 mm )+ ( 180 mm )( 40 mm ) (20 mm )+(120 mm)(40 mm)(60 mm)
x́=
(180 mm )( 40 mm )+ ( 180 mm )( 40 mm ) +(120 mm)(40 mm)
936 000 m m3 +144 000 m m 3+288 000 m m 3
x́=
7200 mm2 +7200 mm 2 +4800 m m2
1368 000 m m3
x́= 2
19200 m m
x́=71.25 mm

1 1
[
Í y ' =
12
( 180 mm )3 ( 40 mm ) +180 mm(40 mm)(130 mm −71.25 mm)2 + ][
12
( 40 mm )3 ( 180 mm ) + 40 mm(180 m

Í y ' =( 19 440 000 mm 4 +24 851250 m m 4 ) + ( 960 000 m m 4 +18 911 250 mm4 )+ ( 5 760000 m m 4 +607 500 mm 4 )
Í y ' =44 291 250 mm4 +19 871 250 mm 4 + 6367 500 m m4
Í y ' =70530 000 m m 4
 Method of Joints

The method of joints is a method for determining the force acting on the
individual members of a truss as it only involves two force equilibrium
equations. Remember that only two equilibrium equations can be written:
ΣFx=0 and ΣFy=0. Also, this method shows the free-body diagram of forces
in a given joint of a truss. To easily solve the force members of a truss:
1. Start by calculating reactions at supports using free-body diagram of the given
truss.
2. Select a joint with no more than two unknown forces involved which can be
started by selecting a joint acted on by only two members in the truss. We can
assume any unknown member to be either tension or compression. If negative
value is obtained, this means that the force is in compression meaning opposite
in action to that of the assumed direction otherwise tension.
3. Locate and select a joint where the forces are still unknown in only two of the
connected members.
4. Repeat steps 2-3 to solve for the other force members of the truss.
5. Keep in mind that selecting the first joint to compute has no order so either of
two joints can be chosen as a starting point for your analysis of the truss.

In an analysis of a truss, it is somehow significant to know whether a truss

member is in tension or in compression because some building materials have
different strengths in compression versus tension. And it is said to be that when
a force points toward the joint, the member is said to be in compression
(negative) . If the force points away from the joint, the member is said to be in
tension (positive).

Tension
Compression

Example:
1. Determine the forces in the members of the roof truss shown below.
Solution:
At joint B:
Σ Fx=0
100 cos 30 – AB cos 30+ BD cos 30=0
100 – AB+BD =0
At joint C:
Σ Fy=0
BC – 100=0
BC=100 kN ,Tension

At joint B:
Σ Fy=0
– 100 sin 30 – 100 – ABsin 30 – BDsin 30=0
150+0.5 AB+ 0.5 BD=0
300+ AB+BD =0
+100 – AB+ BD=0
400+ 2 BD=0
BD=200 kN , Compression

At joint B:
Σ Fx=0
100 cos 30 – AB cos 30 – 200 cos 30=0
100 – AB – 200=0
AB=100 kN , Compression

At joint A:
Σ Fx=0
AC – ABcos30=0
AC=100 cos 30
AC=87 kN , Tension
 At joint C:
Σ Fx=0
AC=CD
CD=87 kN ,Tension

At joint A:
Σ Fy=0
R A = ABsin 30

R A =100(0.5)
R A =50 kN , Upward

At joint D:
Σ Fy=0
R D – BDsin30=0

R D=200 (0.5)
R D=100 kN ,Upward

At joint D:
Σ Fx=0
BDcos30 – 87 – R Dx=0

R Dx =200 cos 30 – 87

R Dx =86 kN

2. With the use of method of joints, solve for the force members of the given truss
shown below then include whether it is a tension or compression.
Solution:
Support Reactions
Σ F x =0

I x =0

Σ M H =0

( 2.25 N ) (2 m ) + I y ( 3.5 m )=0

4.5 N ∙ m=− I y ( 3.5 m )

I y =1.29 N downward

Σ F y =0

H −2.25 N − 1.29 N =0
H=3.54 N upward

At joint H:
 GH HI 3.54 N
= =
√ 13 2 3
GH =4.26 N , Compression
HI =2.36 N ,Compression

At joint I:

Σ F x =0

5.5
− GI +2.36 N=0
6.27
GI =2.69 N , Tension

3. Compute the force members of the given truss below. Also, state if the computed
force is a tension or compression.

Solution:
For entire truss:

My

Mx
Σ F x =0

M x =0
Σ M M =0

P ( 27 m ) − (12 kN )( 27 m ) − ( 12 kN ) ( 67 m )=0
P ( 27 m )=1128 kN ∙ m
P=41.78 kN , upward

Σ F y =0

M y =17.78 kN , downward

At Joint M:

MN MP 17.78 kN
= =
27 30.89 15
MN =32.004 kN , Tension
MP=36.62 kN ,Compression

At Joint N:
 Σ F x =0

NO=32.004 kN , Tension

Σ F y =0

NP=12 kN , Compression

At Joint O:

OP NO 12 kN
= =
41.76 40 15
OP=33.41 kN , Compression

Problems and Solutions:

1. The cantilever truss shown is hinged at D and E. Find the forces in each member.
Solution:

At joint A:
Σ Fy=0
ABsin 30=1000
AB=2000 kN , Tension
Σ Fx=0
AC=2000 cos 30
AC=1732 kN , Compression
At joint B:
Σ Fy=0
BC – 1000 sin 60=0
BC=866 kN , Compression

At joint C:
Σ Fy=0
CDsin 60 – BCsin 60 – 1000=0
1750
CD= =2021 kN , Tension
sin 60

At joint C:
Σ Fx=0
EC – AC – CDcos 60 – BCcos60=0
EC=AC +BDcos 60+ BCcos60
 EC=1732+ 2021cos 60+866 cos 60
EC=1732+ 1011+433
EC=3176 kN , Compression

At joint B:
Σ Fx=0
− BD + AB+1000 cos 60=0
BD=2000+500
BD=2500 kN , Tension

2. In the cantilever truss, compute the force in members AB, BE and DE.

At joint A:
Σ Fy=0
ABsin 30 – 1000 sin 60=0
AB=1732 kN , Tension

Σ Fx=0
AC + ABcos30+1000 cos 60=0
AC=– 2000 kN , Compression

At joint C:
 Σ Fx=0
CE= AC
CE=2000 kN ,Compression

BC=0

At joint B:
Σ Fy=0
−1000+ BEcos 30=0
BE=1155 kN ,Compression

At joint F:

DF =0

At joint D:

Σ Fy=0
DEsin 60 – 1000=0
DE=1155 kN ,Compression

3. Find the force in each member of the truss shown below.

Solution:

At joint C:

Σ F y =0
4
CD=70
5
CD=87.5 kN , Tension
 Σ F x =0
3
BC= CD
5
3
BC= ( 87.5 )
5
BC=52.5 kN ,Compression

At joint D:

Σ F y =0
4 4
BD = CD
5 5
BD=CD
BD=87.5 kN , Compression

Σ F x =0
3 3
DE= CD + BD
5 5
3 3
DE= ( 87.5 )+ ( 87.5 )
5 5
DE=105 kN , Tension

At joint B:

Σ F y =0
4 4
BE = BD +80
5 5
4 4
BE = ( 87.5 ) +80
5 5
4
BE=150
5
BE=187.5 kN , Tensiom

Σ F x =0
3 3
AB=BC + BD+ BE
5 5
3 3
AB=52.5+ ( 87.5 ) + ( 187.5 )
5 5
AB=217.5 kN , Compression

At joint E:

Σ F y =0
 4 4
AE= BE
5 5
AE=BE
AE=187.5 kN , Compression

Σ F x =0
3 3
EF=DE+ BE + AE
5 5
3 3
EF=105+ ( 187.5 ) + ( 187.5 )
5 5
EF=330 kN , Tension

At joint A:
Σ F y =0
4
AF= AE
5
4
AF= ( 187.5 )
5
AF=150 kN ,Tension

Σ F x =0
3
R A = AB+ AE
5
3
R A =217.5+ ( 187.5 )
5
R A =330 kN , ¿ tℎe¿

At joint F:

Σ F x =0
F x =EF
F x =330 kN ¿ tℎe rigℎt

Σ F y =0
F y = AF
F y =150 kN upward

4. The truss pinned to the floor at D, and supported by a roller at point A is loaded
as shown in the figure. Determine the force in member CG.
Solution:
Σ M D=0

12 R A=8 (200 )+ 4 ( 150 )

12 R A=2200

R A =183.33 kN

At joint F:

FG=0

At joint A:

Σ F y =0

5
AG =R A
√ 41
5
AG=183.33
√ 41
AG=234.78 kN , Compression

Σ F x =0
 4
AB= AG
√ 41
4
AB= ( 234.78 )
√ 41
AB=146.67 kN , Tension
At joint B:

Σ F x =0

BC= AB
BC=146.67 kN ,Tension

Σ F y =0

BG=0
At joint G:

Σ F y =0

5 5
CG+200= AG
√ 41 √ 41
5 5
CG+ 200= ( 234.78 )
√ 41 √ 41
5
CG=183.33 −200
√ 41
5
CG=−16.67
√ 41
CG=21.35 kN , Compression

5. Determine the force in each member of the crane shown in the figure below.
Solution:

3
tanθ=¿ ¿
5
θ=30.96 °

35 ° +θ=35 ° +30.96 °
35 ° +θ=65.96 °
Using Cosine Law to triangle ABC.

b 2=32 +4 2 − 2(3 ∙ 4)cos(35 ° +90 ° )

b=6.23 m

b 3
=
sin(35+90) sin α
 3 sin(125)
sin α =
6.23
α =23.24 °

At joint A:
Σ F y =0

AC sin α =60
AC sin ( 23.24 )=60
AC=152.06 kN ,Tension

Σ F x =0

AB= AC cos α
AB=152.06 cos (23.24)
AB=139.72 kN , Compression

At joint B:

Σ F y =0

BC=139.72 sin 35 °
BC=80.14 kN , Compression

Σ F x =0

BD=139.72 cos 35°

BD=114.45 kN , Compression

At joint C:
 Σ F y =0

CD sin ( 35 ° +θ ) +80.14 cos 35° =152.06 sin α

CD sin ( 65.96 ° ) +80.14 cos 35° =152.06 sin(23.24 ° )
CD=6.18 kN , Compression

Σ F x =0

CE+80.14 sin 35 °=152.06 cos α

CE+80.14 sin 35 °=152.06 cos (23.24)
CE=93.76 kN , Tension

6. With the given truss below, use method of joints to determine the force of each
member as well as if it is a tension or compression.

Solution:

Σ M T =0

U =2700 kipsupward
Σ F x =0

T x +1200 kips+1200 kips=0

T x =2400 kips ¿ tℎe ¿

Σ F y =0

T y + 2700 kips=0

T y =2700 kips downward

PQ=QS=0
At Joint P:

PR PS 1200 kips
= =
3 5 4
PR=900 kips ,Tesnsion
PS=1500 kips, Compression
At Joint S:

RS SU 1500 kips
= =
4 3 5
RS=1200 kips, Tension
SU=900 kips, Compression
At Joint T:
 Σ F x =0

TU −2400 kips=0
TU=2400 kips, Tension

Σ F y =0

RT −2700 kips=0
RT =2700 kips ,Tension
At Joint U:

Σ F y =0

3
RU +2700 kips −900 kips=0
5
3
RU =− 1800 kips
5
RU =− 3000 kips ,Compression

7. A Howe roof truss is being shown below, solve for the force of each member then
state whether it is a tension or compression.
Solution:

Σ F x =0

Q x =0

1
A=Q y = of Total Load
2
A=Q y =1450 lb, upward

At Joint J:
JK JL 1100 lb
= =
√ 41 5 4
JK=1760.86 lb ,Compression
JL=1375 lb, Tension
At Joint L:

KL=0
ln =1375 lb, Tension
At Joint K:

Σ F x =0

5 5 5
KM + KL+ ( 1760.86 lb ) =0
√ 41 √ 41 √ 41
KM + KL=− 1760.86lb (1)

Σ F y =0
 4 4 4
KM − KN + ( 1760.86 lb ) −700 lb=0
√ 41 √ 41 √ 41
KM − KN =−400 lb (2)

Add equations 1 and 2.

2 KM=− 2160.96 lb
KM =1030.48 lb , Compression
Subtract equation 2 from 1.
2 KN =−1360.86 lb
KN =680.43 lb ,Compression
At Joint M:

Σ F x =0

5 5
( 1030.48 lb ) + MO=0
√ 41 √ 41
5
MO=−804.67 lb
√ 41
MO=1030.48lb ,Compression

Σ F y =0

4 4
( 1030.48 lb ) − ( − 1030.48lb ) − 700 lb− MN =0
√ 41 √ 41
MN =587.47 lb , Tension
As the truss is symmetrical so,
NO=KN =680.43 lb, Compression
NP=ln=1375 lb, Tension
OP=KL=0
OQ=JK =1760.86 lb, Compression
PQ=JL=1375 lb, Tension
8. Using method of joints, calculate the force in each of the members of the
scissors roof truss below which are located to the left of FG then indicate
whether each member is in tension or compression.

Solution:

Σ F x =0

A x =0

Σ M L =0

( 2 N )( 24 m) + ( 3 N ) ( 20 m )+ (3 N ) ( 16 m )+ ( 2 N ) ( 12 m) − A y ( 24 m )=0

180 N ∙ m= A y ( 24 m)

A y =7.5 N , upward
Zero members:
BC=0
DG=0

CE= AC (1)
At Joint A:

Σ F x =0

2 4
AB+ AC=0 (2)
2.83 4.47

Σ F y =0

2 2
AB+ AC +5.5 N=0 (3)
2.83 4.47

2
− AB −11 N=0
2.83
2
−11 N = AB
2.83
AB=15.57 N ,Compression

2
AC − 5.5 N =0
4.47
2
AC=5.5 N
4.47
AC=12.29 N , Tension
CE= AC =12.29 N , Tension
At Joint B:

Σ F y =0

2 2
BD+ ( 15.57 N ) −3 N =0
2.83 2.83
2
BD=−8 N
2.83
BD=11.32 N ,Compression
Σ F x =0

2
BE+ ( 15.57 N − 11.32 N )=0
2.83
BE=3 N ,Compression

At Joint E:

Σ F x =0

4
( EG −12.29 N ) +3 N=0
4.47
4
EG −11 N =−3 N
4.47
EG=8.94 N , Tension

Σ F y =0

2
DE − ( 12.29 N −8.94 N )=0
4.47
DE=1.50 N , Tension

At Joint D:

Σ F x =0

4 2
( DF + DG ) + ( 11.32 N )=0
4.47 2.83
DF + DG=− 8.94 N (1)

Σ F y =0

2 2
( DF − DG ) + ( 11.32 N ) −3 N − 1 N =0
4.47 2.83
DF − DG=− 8.94 N (2)

Add equations 1 and 2 to get force on DF:

2 DF=− 17.88 N
DF =8.94 N ,Compression
METHOD OF SECTIONS
Method of Sections shows the free-body diagram of a cutted part of truss
members that are axially loaded also in tension or in compression.

This method of sections is a method used to compute for the unknown

forces acting on members of a specific truss. The process includes breaking or
cutting the truss down into individual sections and analyzing each section as a
separate rigid body. Aside from method of joints, the method of sections is also
used to determine the force members in a truss but usually the fastest and
easiest way when being asked to solve for a specific force member of the truss.

Steps involve in Method of Sections::

1. To start with, it is usually useful to put labels on the members of the truss you
are going to resolve for the data to be organized and consistent for later use
during the truss analysis.

2. Draw free-body diagrams of the entire truss then compute for the reaction
forces acting on the truss using equilibrium equations.

3. Then, proceed in cutting the truss into two separate sections and the cut must
pass through the member being asked to solve.

4. Draw a free body diagram for either one, or both sections that you made and
make sure to include all the forces acting on each section.

 Any external reaction or load forces that may be acting at the section.
 An internal force in each member that was cut when splitting the truss
into sections. Remember that for a two force member, the force will be
acting along the line between the two connections points on the member.
We will also need to guess if it will be a tensile or a compressive force. An
incorrect guess now though will simply lead to a negative solution later
on. A common strategy then is to assume all forces are tensile, then later
in the solution any positive forces will be tensile forces and any negative
forces will be compressive forces.
 Label each force in the diagram. Include any known magnitudes and
directions and provide variable names for each unknown.

5. Put down all the equilibrium equations for the free-body diagrams of the
sections you created from previous step as well as the moment equations.

6. Lastly, compute the equilibrium equations for the unknowns and do not forget
to identify if the force members are in tension or compression.
Sample Problems:
(1).Using the given figure below. Determine the force members AC, BC, and BD.

Create a section by cutting through AC, BC, and BD. (Shown in free body
diagram)
Free Body Diagram:

Since F BC is the only force that has a vertical component, it must point down to
balance the 10 N force.
Taking moments about point B has both forces at A giving clockwise moments.
Therefore, F AC must point to the right to provide a counter-clockwise moment.
Taking moments about point C has the 10 N force acting at A and the 100 N
acting at B giving clockwise moments. Therefore, F BD must point to the left to
provide a counter-clockwise moment.

Solution:
Σ F y =10 N − F BC =0

F BC =10 N (T )

↺ Σ M B=− (100 N ) ( 2 m ) − ( 10 N ) ( 3 m) + F AC ( 2 m )=0

 ( 200+ 30 ) Nm
F AC =
2m
F AC =115 N (T )

↺ Σ M C =− ( 10 N )( 3 m ) − ( 100 N )( 2 m ) + F BD (2 m )=0

( 30+200 ) Nm
F BD=
2m
F BD=115 N (C)

(2).Using the same figure shown from the previous problem, determine the force
members CD and CE.
Free Body Diagram:

Since we already know the direction of F BD we draw that in first. We could also
reason this direction by taking moments about point C.
Since F CD is the only force that has a vertical component, it must point down to
balance the 10 N force.
Taking moments about point D has the 100 N force and 10 N force acting at A
giving clockwise moments. Therefore F CE must point to the right to give a
counter-clockwise moment to balance this out.

Solution:
2
Σ F y =10 N − FCD =0
√ 13
 2
F CD = (10 N )
√ 13
F CD =5.55 N ( C)

↺ Σ M D=− ( 100 N )( 2 m ) − ( 10 N )( 6 m ) + FCE ( 2m )=0

( 200+60 ) Nm
F CE=
2m
F CE=130 N (T )

(3).Determine the force in members DG and EG of the truss shown and state
whether it is tension or compression.

SOLUTION:

Member DG:
∑FX = 0
20
109 kN +109 kN + 109 kN + F DG=0
√ 569
20
F DG=− 109 kN −109 kN −109 kN
√ 569
20
F DG=− 327 kN
√ 569
20
F DG
√ 569 =
−327 kN
20 20
√ 569 √ 569
FDG = −390.0083 kN
FDG = 390.0083 kN Compression

Member EG:
∑MD = 0
(109 kN)(8 m) + (109 kN)(4 m) + FEG
(6 m) = 0
FEG (6 m) = −(109 kN)(8 m) − (109
kN)(4 m)
6 m FEG = −872 kN-m – 436 kN-m
6 m F EG −1308 kN − m
=
6m 6m
FEG = −218 kN
FEG = 218 kN Compression

Example Problems:

(1). A Warren Bridge Truss is loaded as shown. Determine the force members
CE, DE, and DF.

Free Body Diagram:

Solution:
Σ F x =0; k x =0

↺ Σ M A =0

k y ( 70 ft ) − ( 5000 lb )( 14 ft ) − ( 5000 lb ) ( 28 ft ) =0

k y =3000 lb

Σ F y =0

A+3000 lb− 5000lb −5000 lb=0

 A=( −3000 lb )+10000 lb
A=7000lb

Using the Free Body Diagram above, we can now compute for the unknown force
member of the truss.
For CE:
↺ Σ M D=0

F CE ( 20 ft ) − ( 7000 lb )( 19 ft ) + ( 5000 lb )( 5 ft )=0

F CE=5400 lb(T )

For DE:
Σ F y =0

20
( 7000 lb ) − ( 5000 lb ) − F DE ( 5 √17)=0

F DE =97.01lb(T )

For DF:
↺ Σ M E=0

5000 lb ( 14 ft ) − ( 7000lb ) ( 28 ft ) − F DE ( 20 ft ) =0

F DE ( 20 ft ) =−126000 lb∗ft
F DE =−63000 lb

F DE =63000lb(C)

(2).Find the internal loading members BC, BG, & CG.

Free Body Diagram:

Solution:
↺ Σ M G =0

( −10 kN )( 12 m )+ N BC =0

N BC =20 kN (T )

( √12 ) − N ( √15 ) −20 kN −10 kN=0

Σ F y =0= N BG GH

1 2
Σ F =0= − N ( ) − N ( ) − N =0 ; Since N =20 kN
x BG GH BC BC
√2 √5
1 2
− N ( ) − N ( ) −20 kN=0
BG GH
√2 √5
Σ F y + Σ F x =0

( √12 ) − N ( √15 ) −20 kN −10 kN=0

N BG GH

1 2
− N ( ) − N ( ) −20 kN=0
BG GH
√2 √5
3
− N ( ) −50 kN =0
GH
√5
N GH =− 37.27 kN

N GH =37.27 kN (C)

Computing for BG

− N BG ( √12 )− N ( √25 ) −20 kN=0

GH

Substitute the value of N GH

− N BG ( √12 )− ( −37.27 kN ) ( √25 ) −20 kN=0

N BG =37.27 kN ( 2√√52 )− 20 kN (√ 2)
N BG =18.86 kN (T )

Method of Sections

Σ F x =0

N FG ( √25 )− N ( √25 ) − N ( √12 )=0

GH BG

2 2 1
N FG ( √5 ) − ( −37.27 kN ) ( √5 ) − ( 18.86 kN ) ( √2 )=0
N FG=−22.36 kN

N FG=22.36 kN (C)
Σ F y =0

N BG( √12 ) − N ( √15 )+ N + N ( √15 ) −20 kN =0

GH CG FG

1 1 1
18.86 kN ( ) − ( − 37.27 kN ) ( ) + N + ( 22.36 kN ) ( ) −20 kN =0
CG
√2 √5 √5
N CG =0

(3). Determine the force members FG, and BG if L=2m

Free Body Diagram:

N FG
N BG

Solution:
↑ Σ F y =0 ↺ Σ M G =0

N BG −100 N =0 N FG ( 6 ) − 100 ( 4 ) =0

N BG =100 N (T ) N FG=66.67 N (T )

(4). A Pratt roof truss is loaded as shown. Determine the force members CE, DE,
and DF.

Free Body Diagram:

Solution:
Σ F x =0 ; A x =0
TOTAL LOAD= 2 ( 2 kN ) +5(4 kN )
¿ 4 kN +20 kN
= 24kN
Σ F y = A y =L=0

1
A y =L= (TOTAL LOAD)
2
1
A y =L= ( 24 kN )
2
A y =L=12 kN

Free Body Diagram:

A=12kN

Slope of ABDF:
9m 3
=
12m 4

Force in CE:
↺ Σ M D=0

F CE ( 23∗9 m )− ( 12 kN ) ( 8 m) +( 2 kN )( 8 m ) +( 4 kN ) ( 4 m )=0
F CE ( 6 m )=128 kN∗m

F CE=21.33 kN (T)

Force in DE:
↻ Σ M A =0

F DE ( 8 m )+ ( 4 kN ) ( 8 m ) + ( 4 kN )( 4 m )=0
F DE =−6 kN

F DE =6 kN (C )

Force in DF:
↺ Σ M E=0

4 2
( )
( 12 kN ) ( 8 m ) − (12 kN )( 8 m ) + ( 4 kN ) ( 4 m ) + F DF ∗9 m =0
5 3
4
F ( 6 m )=64 kN∗m
5 DF
F DF =13.33 kN (T )

(5).The Warren truss loaded as shown is supported by a roller at C and a hinge at

G. by the method of sections, compute the force in the members BC, DF and CE.

SOLUTION:
∑MG = 0
18 m Rc +(9 m)(95 kN) = (9
m)(120 kN) + (13.5 m)(115
kN) + (27 m)(60 kN)
18 m Rc +855 kN-m = 1080 kN-
m + 1552.5 kN-m + 1620 kN-m
18 m Rc = 4252.5 kN-m – 855
kN-m
18 m R c 3397.5 kN − m
=
18 m 18 m
RC = 188.75 N

At Section through M-M:

∑FV = 0
3
F BC =60 kN − m
√ 13
60 kN −m
F BC =
3
√13
FBC = 72.1110 kN Compression

At Section through N-N:

∑MD = 0
9 m FCE + (13.5 m)(60 kN) = (4.5 m)(188.75 kN)
9 m FCE + 810 kN-m = 849.375 kN-m
9 m FCE = 849.375 kN-m – 810 kN-m
9 m F CE 39.375 kN −m
=
9m 9m
FCE = 4.375 kN Tension

∑ME = 0
9 m FDF + (4.5 m)(115 kN) + (18 m)(60 kN) = (9 m)
(188.75 kN) + (9 m)(95 kN)
9 m FDF + 517.5 kN-m + 1080 kN-m = 1698.75 kN-m
+ 855 kN-m
9 m FDF = 2553.75 kN-m – 1597.5 kN-m
9 m F DF 956.25 kN − m
=
9m 9m
FDF = 106.25 kN Compression

(6).Find the forces acting on members AC, BC and BD of the truss. Be sure to
indicate if the forces are tension or compression.

SOLUTION:
11
θ=tan − 1( )
15
=36.2538 °

Section FBC:
∑Fx = 90 kN sin (15) + 100 kN sin
(15) + FBC cos (36.2538) = 0
∑Fy = −90 kN cos (15) – 100 kN
cos (15)
– FAC – FBC sin (36.2538) – FBD = 0

∑MC = 0
[90 kN cos (15)](15 m) – [90 kN sin (15)](22 m) –
[100 kN cos (15)](30 m) – [100 kN sin (15)](22 m) –
(FBD)(15) = 0
15 m FBD = 1303.9999 kN-m – 512.4617 kN-m – 2897.7775 kN-m
15 m F BD − 2675.6412 kN −m
=
15 m 15 m
FBD = −178.3761 kN
FBD = 178.3761 kN Compression

FBC cos (36.2538) = −90 kN sin (15) – 100 kN sin (15)

F BC cos (36.2538) − 49.1756 kN
=
cos(36.2538) cos (36.2538)
FBC = −60.9813 kN
FBC = 60.9813 kN Compression

FAC = −90 kN cos (15) – 100 kN cos (15) –(−60.9813 kN) sin (36.2538) –
(−178.3761 kN)
FAC = 30.9123 kN Tension

(7).Determine the forces in members EF, FC, BC and CE of the truss and state if
these members are in tension or compression.

SOLUTION:
∑MA = 0
−(8 kN)(6 m) – (12 kN)(6 m) –
(16 kN)(12 m) + Dy (18 m) = 0
−48 kN-m – 72 kN-m – 192 kN-

m + 18 m Dy = 0
18 m Dy = 48 kN-m + 72 kN-m + 192 kN-m
18 m D y 312 kN − m
=
18 m 18 m
Dy = 17.3333 kN

Section ECD:
∑MC = 0
FEF (6 m) + (17.3333 kN)(6 m) = 0
6 m F EF −103.9998 kN − m
=
6m 6m
FEF = −17.3333 kN
FEF = 17.3333 kN Compression

∑Fy = 0
2
( ) F +17.3333 kN =16 kN
2 √ 2 CF

( √12 ) F CF +17.3333 kN =16 kN

( √12 ) F CF =16 kN −17.3333 kN

( √12 ) F CF
−1.3333 kN
=
1 1
√2 √2
FCF = −1.8856 kN
FCF = 1.8856 kN Compression

∑Fx = 0
1
F EF + F + F =0
√ 2 CF BC
1
−17.3333 kN +
√2 ( )
(−1.8856 kN )+ F BC =0

F BC =17.3333 kN +1.3333 kN
FBC = 18.6666 kN Tension

∑Fy = 0
1
F CF + FCE =12 kN
√2
1
( )
√2
( − 1.8856 kN ) + F CE =12kN

FCE = 12 kN + 1.3333 kN
FCE = 13.3333 kN Tension

(8).A stadium roof is loaded as shown. Determine the force in members AE, EF
and FJ, and state whether it is tension or compression.
SOLUTION:
∑MF = 0

8
(√ (8 m) +(10 m)2
2
)
F AE (10 m)−(25 N )(13 m)−(25 N )(28 m) −(20 N )(43 m)=0

40 √ 41
m F AE −325 N −m −700 N − m− 860 N − m=0
41
40 √ 41
m F AE =325 N − m+700 N −m+860 N −m
41
40 √ 41
m F AE
41 1885 N −m
=
40 √ 41 40 √ 41
m m
41 41
FAE = 301.7472 N Tension

∑MA = 0
−FEF (10 m) – (25 N)(13 m) – (25 N)(28 m) – (20 N)(43 m) = 0
10 m FEF = −325 N-m – 700 N-m – 860 N-m
10 m F EF −1885 N −m
=
10 m 10 m
FEF = −18.85 N
FEF = 18.85 N Compression

∑ME = 0
−FFJ (8 m) – (20 N)(8 m) – (25 N)(21 m) – (25 N)(36 m) – (20 N)(51 m) = 0
8 m FFJ = −160 N-m – 525 N-m – 900 N-m – 1020 N-m
8 m F FJ −2605 N − m
=
8m 8m
FFJ = −325.625 N
FFJ = 325.625 N Compression
Wedges
REFERENCES:

[1] Problem 541 ǀ Friction on Wedges. MATHalino Engineering Mechanics.

Retrieved from https://mathalino.com/reviewer/engineering-
mechanics/problem-541-firction-wedges

[2] Wedges. Mechanics Map. Retrieved from

http://mechanicsmap.psu.edu/websites/6_friction/wedges/wedges.html

[3] Problem 535 ǀ Friction on Wedges. MATHalino Engineering Mechanics.

Retrieved from https://mathalino.com/reviewer/engineering-
mechanics/problem-535-firction-wedges

[4] Problem 540 ǀ Friction on Wedges. MATHalino Engineering Mechanics.

Retrieved from https://mathalino.com/reviewer/engineering-
mechanics/problem-540-firction-wedges

[5] 23.3.1 Wedges. eNotes: Mechanical Engineering. Retrieved from

http://engineeronadisk.com/notes_mechanic/frictiona4.html

[6] Problem 542 ǀ Friction on Wedges. MATHalino Engineering Mechanics.

Retrieved from https://mathalino.com/reviewer/engineering-
mechanics/problem-542-firction-wedges

[7] Problem 536 ǀ Friction on Wedges. MATHalino Engineering Mechanics.

Retrieved from https://mathalino.com/reviewer/engineering-
mechanics/problem-536-firction-wedges

[8] Problem 538 ǀ Friction on Wedges. MATHalino Engineering Mechanics.

Retrieved from https://mathalino.com/reviewer/engineering-
mechanics/problem-538-firction-wedges

Theorem of Pappus
REFERENCES:
Beyer, W. H. CRC Standard Mathematical Tables, 28th ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, p.
132, 1987.

Harris, J. W. and Stocker, H. "Guldin's Rules." §4.1.3 in Handbook of Mathematics and

Computational Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, p. 96, 1998.

Kern, W. F. and Bland, J. R. "Theorem of Pappus." §40 in Solid Mensuration with Proofs,
2nd ed. New York: Wiley, pp. 110-115, 1948.

https://www.kristakingmath.com/blog/theorem-of-pappus?
fbclid=IwAR3cojSe2LBg40L01Oo7eW0bnCAxOK_kyWNilnZv3kOfzQmaPYHiN3GgE58

https://mathworld.wolfram.com/PappussCentroidTheorem.html?
fbclid=IwAR2So2wM1E8S7_-xrfuefSJHjiQzkIuLf29RkTsJ-QHWfLT6YXv7N577baU