03 IFPTraining - RCM - Sem3 - Booklet

Formation professionnalisante
Reservoir Characterization
& Modeling
Semaine 3
Stratigraphy – Sedimentology
Une formation IFP Training pour Sonatrach / IAP

Stratigraphy/Sedimentology
on Clastic reservoirs
Laurence BOVE
Sonatrach / IAP
Summary
Table of content
 Basin analysis Slides 9
 Clastic depositional environments and facies Slides 49
 Log responses in clastic sequences Slides 165
 Clastic petrography and diagenesis Slides 193
 Fundamentals of sequence stratigraphy Slides 249

© 2013 ‐ IFP Training
Sonatrach / IAP 2
Exploration‐Production: stakes and challenges
1. Where are hydrocarbons? 2. How to produce them?
 In reservoirs (naturals or fractured)  Geological reservoir modeling
 How did they reach reservoirs?  Quantification of reservoir
 Where are they coming from? characteristics
(HC generation)  Heterogeneities prediction
 Why are they trapped in this place?  Reservoir model
Sedimentary basin analysis  Productivity prediction
 Appraisal well
Exploration Strategy
 Elaboration of « exploration Strategy for

guides »: Plays
field development
 Identification of « Prospects »
design
 Uncertainties & risks evaluation
 Exploration well: OOIP calculation
Sonatrach / IAP 3
Basin exploration workflow: step 1
 Petroleum trilogy  Exploration tools (seismic)
 Source rock / Reservoir / Seal  Geodynamics
extension  Risk and uncertainties
 Risk and uncertainties → Deliverables
→ Deliverables
1 • Basin geometry calibration
• Structural basin reconstruction
• HC index maps for each reservoir Structural
• Petroleum system mapping
→ Hypotheses
analysis
• Events chart
• Potential SR and RR maturity
(kitchen)
• Migration episodes and pathways
• Entrapment and timing
4 2
Petroleum
system Basin Stratigraphic
analysis
analysis analysis
 Relationship between tectonic and
sedimentation
 Exploration tools (cores, logs, well
correlation)
3  Biostratigraphy
 Sequence stratigraphy
 Organic indicators (VR, biomarkers, X‐fluo) Geochemical  Risk and uncertainties

 Thermochronology (fission tracks, mineralogy) analysis → Deliverables
 Rock‐Eval (TOC, HI…) • Basin time calibration
 Risk and uncertainties • Chronostratigraphic chart
(Wheeler)
→ Deliverables
• Stratigraphic basin reconstruction
• Organic matter origin (Kerogene type)
• Maturation curve
Sonatrach / IAP 4
Exploration techniques & tools
Sonatrach / IAP 5
Basin exploration workflow: step 2
• Subsidence mechanisms (back‐ Deliverables

stripping) • Basin thermal calibration
Basin modeling • Temperature evolution (maturation) • Kitchen extension maps
Sequence stratigraphy • Pressure evolution (compaction) • Generation timing
framework • HC accumulation • Φ vs. Depth evolution
• Risk and uncertainties
Deliverables
• Maps
• Play definition and mapping (traps) - Play & prospect extension
- Field shows distribution
Play concept & • Prospect definition and evaluation • Volumetrics (OOIP)
definition • Migration pathways for each play
• Risk and uncertainties
• Prospect ranking
• Yet‐to‐find (explored area)
• Economic
Basin evaluation &
Play assessment
strategy
Sonatrach / IAP 6
© 2013 ‐ IFP Training © 2013 ‐ IFP Training
Clastic reservoirs
Basin analysis
Sonatrach / IAP
Basin analysis
 Structural and thermal evolution during burial
• Earth structure
• Extensive context
• Compressive context
• Transform context
• Thermal evolution
Sonatrach / IAP 10
Map of sedimentary basins
Onshore and Offshore basins
Sonatrach / IAP 11
Basin analysis
• Earth structure
Sonatrach / IAP 13
Structure of the Earth
 Crust
• Lithosphere (10 to 70 km)
Basaltic crust Granitic crust
 Mantle Crust
• Upper mantle: Asthenosphere (700km) (LITHOSPHERE)
• Lower mantle: Mesosphere (2 200 km)
Mid Oceanic Upper mantle
 Core Ridge (ASTHENOSPHERE)
< passive margin > Atlantic Ocean
• Outer core (2 200km)
• Inner core (1 271 km)
Lower mantle
Subduction (MESOSPHERE)
> active margin <
Rift
Outer core
Inner core
SiAl NiFe
Sonatrach / IAP 14
Dynamics of the Earth: convection
Core
Sonatrach / IAP 15
Earthquake activity
Lithospheric plate boundaries = seismicity (in red)

Sonatrach / IAP 16
Tectonic plates
Mid oceanic ridge
Earth‐
quakes
 Lithospheric plate boundaries:
Volcanoes
• Divergent (extensional: mid oceanic ridges)
• Convergent (compressional: subduction, collision)
• Sliding/Shearing (transform, strike‐slip)
Sonatrach / IAP 17
Types of margins and related basins
 3 types of crustal stresses
• Extensional basins
• Compressional basins
• Shear basins
 3 types of processes
• Purely thermal
• Lithospheric thickness variation
• Loading and unloading
Sonatrach / IAP 18
Types of sedimentary basins
 Basins associated with plate divergence

Extensional basins
• Rift, passive margin (plate divergence, ocean)
• Intra‐cratonic basin (intra‐continental, intra‐plate)
 Basins associated with plate convergence

Compressional basins
• Island arc‐type margin (two oceanic plates)
• Continental active margin (ocean / continent plates)
• Inter‐plate collision (two continental plates)
 Basins associated with shearing (sliding movement)

Trans‐tensional basins
• Pull‐apart basin (trans‐tension, local distension in convergence)
Sonatrach / IAP 19
Basin analysis
• Earth structure
Sonatrach / IAP 21
Rift basin
 Rift are areas of crustal extension and
thinned continental crust. Regions of
rifting are characterized by lithospheric
stretching, high heat flow and volcanic
activity caused by a thermal anomaly
at depth
 Rift zones general characteristics:
• Heat flow of 90 to 110mW.m‐2
• High levels of earthquake activity
and a dome‐shaped Moho
• Normal faults network
 Current examples in the Red Sea and in
Ethiopia
Sonatrach / IAP 22
Failed rift basin
 Beginning of rifting
mechanisms and stop of
lithospheric stretching caused
by a reducing and cooling of
the thermal anomaly
 Rift zones general
characteristics:
• Heat flow of 80 to 90mW.m‐2
Failed rift basin • A reducing of seismic and
volcanic activity
• A normal faults network
covered a disconformity
 Examples in the North Sea and
in Rhine‐Bresse (France)
Sonatrach / IAP 23
Intra‐cratonic basin
 Intra‐cratonic basins are large
depressions in continental
crust. They have a slow and
homogeneous sedimentary
filling
 Generally, intra‐cratonic
basins:
• Have a heat flow near‐normal
(60 to 80mW.m‐2)
• Are seismically inactive
• Have sediment overlain on
faults and syn‐rift sediments
 Examples in Paris basin and
Middle‐East
Sonatrach / IAP 24
Passive margin basin
 Beginning of rifting
mechanisms and stop of
lithospheric stretching caused
by a reducing and cooling of
the thermal anomaly
 Generally, passive margin
zones:
(60 to 80mW.m‐2)
• Are seismically inactive
• Have sediment overlain on
faults and syn‐rift sediments
 Examples in West Africa and
East South America
Sonatrach / IAP 25
Basin analysis
• Earth structure
Sonatrach / IAP 27
Foreland basin
Foreland basin
 Foreland basins are the result
of the downward flexing of
the lithosphere in response to
the weight of the adjacent
mountain belt, though many
geological and geodynamic
processes combine to control
their subsequent evolution
 Generally, foreland basins:
(60 to 80mW.m‐2)
• Are seismically active
 Examples in Alps, Himalayan
and Appalachian chains
Sonatrach / IAP 28
Forearc basin
 This basin is located between
the volcanic arc and the
subduction complex
 Generally, fore‐arc basins:
• Are highly seismic active
 Example in Andes, Java and
Sumatra islands
Sonatrach / IAP 29
Oceanic trench basin
 Oceanic trenches are the
deeper part of the ocean floor
where lithosphere is in
subduction under another
 The age of the oceanic
lithosphere controls the
trench depth
 Generally, oceanic trench:
• Have a highly seismic activity
• Have an associated
accretionary prism
 Examples in western South
America and eastern Japan
Sonatrach / IAP 30
Basin analysis
• Earth structure
Sonatrach / IAP 31
Strike‐slip basin
 Strike‐slip basins are due to
transform fault movements
Trans‐pression  If the blocks move away from their
initial position, it is a transtensional
movement so there are normal
faults associated to the flower
structure
 Symmetrically, transpressional
movement induces reverse faults
Trans‐tension
Sonatrach / IAP 32
Basin analysis
• Earth structure
Sonatrach / IAP 33
Origin of hydrocarbons
 Transformation of Organic Matter (O.M.) from dead fauna or flora
 Accumulation & preservation of O.M.

• Accumulation in quiet geological environments (lake, delta, sea)
• Preservation depends on sediment type & rate, environment energy
 Modification of depositional conditions

• Burial, compaction, water expulsion
• Temperature & pressure increase
 Transformation of Kerogen into hydrocarbons

• Oil
• Gas (methane)
Kerogen: non soluble part of O.M. (i.e. lipids)

Maturation: chemical transformation, mainly due to temperature (and pressure)

increase during burial
Sonatrach / IAP 34
Origin of Organic Matter
 Lipids
 Cellulose
 Lignine
Type III
Type II Type I
Plankton Bacteria Wood Algae
Animals = maximum 10% of total generated organic biomass

Sonatrach / IAP 35
Transformation of O.M. & Kerogen
 Diagenesis [< 60°C]
Bacterial degradation
Immature stage
 Catagenesis [from 60 to 120°C]
Thermal degradation
→ Weak chemical bonds breaking
Oil window
 Metagenesis [from 120 to 200°C]
Thermal degradation
→ Strong C–C bonds breaking
(cracking)
Gas window
Sonatrach / IAP 36
Van Krevelen diagram
Sonatrach / IAP 37
Generation & Migration of HC
Sonatrach / IAP 38
Hydrocarbon migration
Types of migration: The word “migration” covers all types of displacements of

hydrocarbons, from the source rock where they generated to the reservoir rock where they
accumulate
 Primary migration
• Expulsion of hydrocarbons from source rocks towards adjacent rocks. This migration
takes place over very short distances (few centimetres). It depends on the internal
overpressure conditions, linked to the volume of HC generated
 Secondary migration
• Displacement of hydrocarbons after expulsion from the source‐rock, over distances
ranging from few meters to several hundred kilometres, until they are trapped
• This migration takes place inside permeable conditions (reservoir rocks, open
fractures open unconformities…). Migration pathways are complex and specific to
each basin, they are mainly driven by pressure decrease. Migration can be lateral
and/or vertical
 Dysmigration
• Hydrocarbon displacement from a “leaking” reservoir to the surface (i.e. seepage)
Sonatrach / IAP 39
Origin of hydrocarbons: summary
 Three origins of OM > three different types of Kerogen

• Type I: lacustrine (lake algae, bacteria,…)
• Type II: marine (zoo‐ & phyto‐plankton, micro‐organisms,…)
• Type III: continental (terrestrial vegetation, forests, bacteria…)
 Three steps of OM transformation within source rocks

• Diagenesis (burial, lithification)
• Catagenesis (Kerogen transformation) → ~60°C…
• Metagenesis (cooking, cracking) → ~120°C…
 Three factors for OM maturation

• Temperature (sediments cooking, anoxic conditions, bacterial activity)
• Pressure (sediment compaction, water expulsion)
• Time (molecular evolution, new atomic combinations – compensates for low T°)
Sonatrach / IAP 40
Key Points : The petroleum trilogy
Source rock Reservoir rock Seal rock / Cap rock

• Non‐permeable rocks
Sedimentary rocks rich in • Porous and permeable rocks (prevent hydrocarbons from
Definition OM, mature enough to • Allow displacement and migration)
generate hydrocarbons hydrocarbon accumulation • Plastic rocks (can be
deformed but not fractured)
• Very fine‐grained rocks
(shales, mudstones,
• Shales or salt rocks (plastic
marls,…) with interbedded
• Clastic rocks (e.g. sandstone) rocks)
laminations
Lithology (sediment/OM) • Carbonate rocks (e.g. • Very compact sandstones or
limestone) limestones (without
• Low permeability (internal
porosity, “tight”)
over‐pressure > under‐
compaction)
• OM production, Petrophysical parameters:
Specificity deposition, preservation
• Porosity: Φ Lateral extension and layer
(process, & maturation continuity are more
• Permeability: K important than thickness
parameters,…) • HC generation, expulsion
& migration • Saturation: S
Sonatrach / IAP 41
Timing between elements & processes
The trap must be available before/during migration
Trap
Accumulation and
2. Processes: Generation Migration
Preservation
Migration
1. Elements: Source rock
pathways
Reservoir and Seal
Sonatrach / IAP 42
Pretroleum system events chart
400 300 200 100 Geologic Time

Scale
Paleozoic Mesozoic Cenozoic
Petroleum
D M P P TR J K P N System Events
Rock Units
Source Rock
Elements
Reservoir Rock
Seal Rock
Overburden Rock
Processes
Trap Formation
Gen/Migration/Accum
Preservation
Critical Moment
Critical Moment
Magoon and Dow, 1994
Time of expulsion and migration.

(Trap must already exist)
Sonatrach / IAP 43
Cross‐section of a petroleum system
Sonatrach / IAP 44
Map of a petroleum system
Migration pathway
Sonatrach / IAP 45
Petroleum system: Critical steps
Gas
Cap
Entrapment Oil
Accumulation Seal Rock
Entrapment
Preservation Water
Reservoir
Rock
Migration
120° F
(60°C)
Expulsion Source Rock
350° F
Generation (120°C)
2480
Sonatrach / IAP 46
Petroleum systems: key points
Key points to keep in mind
Conditions for the formation of a hydrocarbon field
Necessary existence of:
 one (or more) mature source rock,
 one (or more) reservoir rock,
 one seal rock,
 a phase of migration (and pathways),
 one (or several) traps,
…and:
• an adequate timing between trap formation, hydrocarbon generation and migration
• sufficient quantities of generated hydrocarbons to feed the trap
• preservation of trap integrity throughout geologic times
47
Clastic reservoirs
Clastic depositional environments and facies
Sonatrach / IAP
Clastic depositional
environments and facies
 Fluid flows and related sedimentary processes

• Reminders
• Bedforms generation
• Bedforms boundaries
 Depositional environments & Clastic reservoirs geometry (from

continental to marine environments)
• Sedimentary fill hierarchy
• Depositional environments
− Fluvial systems & reservoirs geometry – Quality
− Coastal / deltaic systems & reservoirs geometry – Quality

− Marine systems & reservoirs geometry – Quality
Sonatrach / IAP 50
Definition of siliciclastic rocks
 Siliciclastics are detrital sediments that result from the

accumulation of debris from erosion or alteration of existing rocks
 The main mineral components are quartz, feldspars, micas and

clays
 Clastics are classified according to their grain size and shape:

• Conglomerates / Breccias
• Sandstones
• Siltstones
• Shales / Claystones / Clastic muds
(Sandy & shaly sediments family)
Sonatrach / IAP 51
Textural classification
Example of shale structure
(Scanning Eletron Microscope) and composition
Claystones
[Shales]
 The classification of clastic sedimentary rocks is complex because several variables are
involved. Particle size (both average size and range of particles’ sizes), particles
composition, cement and matrix must all be taken into consideration
 Shales (which consist mostly of clay minerals) are generally further classified on the basis
of composition and bedding
Sonatrach / IAP 52
Formation of clastic rocks
 Weathering and erosion (of outcropping rocks )

• Chemical weathering (alteration)
Agent: rain (+ dissolved CO2)
− Solutions
− Grains
• Mechanical weathering (erosion)
Agents: gravity, freeze/thaw, running water, wind, glaciers
 Transport (of debris + solutions and colloidal particles)

• Agents:
− Continental: water (torrents, streams & rivers), wind, ice (glaciers)
− Oceanic: currents, waves, tides, gravity flow deposits
 Deposition
• Progressive decrease of current speed leads to deposition of transported load, with
resulting sorting according to grain weight (and size)
Sonatrach / IAP 53
Bedforms characteristics
 Bedform generation
• Result of interaction of moving fluid on surface sediment
• Undulation on non cohesive surface
• Downstream migration
 Bedform boundaries
• Upper bedding surface: constructional structures
− Unidirectional current
− Oscillatory current
• Lower bedding surface: erosional structures (sole marks)
− Current marks: produced by erosion du to the current flow
» Flute marks
» Crescent marks
− Tool marks: objects removed by the current along the surface
» Groove, Bounce, Brush
• Internal bedding
− Horizontal stratification
− Inclined stratification
Sonatrach / IAP 54

• Reminders

Sonatrach / IAP 55
Sediment transport
 Tractive sediment transport (bedload)
• Particles roll or skip on sediment
surface with a low level of suspension
• Motion: rolling carpets or turbid clouds
• Decreasing of velocity
→ downstream load deposition
Geometry of deposition: oblique laminae
 Suspended sediment transport (suspension)

• Particles in suspension (partial, continuous or intermittent) in the water depth
• Motion: ascending movement due to turbulence
• Decrease of turbulence
→ vertical decantation
Geometry of deposition: horizontal laminae
Agents: Water, wind, ice…
Sonatrach / IAP 56
Clastic depositional processes
Cohesive Non ‐cohesive
Transport in suspension
Hjulstrom’s diagram
Evolution of erosion vs deposition with stream (or current) speed and particle size
Sonatrach / IAP 57
Primary sedimentary structures
 Formed under influence of same hydrodynamic and/or aerodynamic

conditions as entrainment, transport and deposition of sediment particles
 We must answer and resolve the following questions:

• Which way is up?
• Orientation of process that dispersed sediment?
• What process was responsible for transportation and deposition of
sediment?
Sonatrach / IAP 58
Bedforms vs flow regime
 Oscillatory flow: waves
• Circular motion of particle at water
surface
• Flat orbits at bottom  back and
forth motion of particles
• Geometry of deposit: wavy ripples,
plane beds
 Unidirectional flow: rivers, wind
• Unidirectional downstream motion
of particles
• Deposition depends on grain size
vs. flow velocity
• Geometry of deposit: irregular
ripples, plane beds
Sonatrach / IAP 59
Bedforms in unidirectional flow
 Three main factors controlling bedforms in unidirectional currents:

• Average flow velocity
• Grain size
• Water depth
Sonatrach / IAP 60
Bedforms shape vs flow velocity
Constructional bedforms
Intermittent transport
Lower Flow regime
Upper flow regime
Erosional bedforms
Permanent transport
Sonatrach / IAP 61
Bedforms in oscillatory flow
 Bedforms produced by wave action
 Oscillatory flow
• Flattening of wave orbits
• Back and forth motion creating « lateral » motion along the sea bottom
 General characteristics
• Symmetrical shape
− Waves ripples
− Hummocks (Swales)
− Subplane beds
• Peak or round crests
• Straight crests, with bifurcation
Sonatrach / IAP 62
 Waves ripples
• Develop in velocity of waves between 9 to 90 cm/s
• Height: up to 20 cm
• Length: up to 1 m
Sonatrach / IAP 63
 Hummocky/swaley cross‐stratification (HCS)

• Broad undulations, gently dipping
− Hummocks / Swales
• In fine‐grained sandstone, subparallel laminae (lower surface)
• Wave length: 1 to 5 m
• Average set thickness: ~25 cm
• Storm deposits: below fairweather wave base
Sonatrach / IAP 64
Erosional flow features
 Sole marks
Erosional sedimentary structures on sediment surface (preserved by burial)
• Scour marks  erosional turbulence
• Tool marks  object imprints
 Visible as negative moulds on layers base (way‐up criteria)
Sonatrach / IAP 65
Processes velocities
Sonatrach / IAP 66
Sediment maturity
Sonatrach / IAP 67

• Reminders

Sonatrach / IAP 69
Workshop: oscillatory bedforms
 Identify depositional environment
 Name bedforms
 Range dimensions (λ, H, L)
 Indicate flow direction
 Sketch dynamic process
Typical Y‐shaped symmetrical ripples
Sonatrach / IAP 70
Workshop: constructional bedforms
 Name bedforms
Sonatrach / IAP 71
Workshop: beach facies analogues
 Name bedforms
Sonatrach / IAP 72
Workshop: erosional bedforms
Flute marks
Load structures
Sonatrach / IAP 73
Sonatrach / IAP 74
Sonatrach / IAP 75
Crescent
Sonatrach / IAP 76
Workshop: Bioturbation / Way‐up criterium
Sonatrach / IAP 77
Sonatrach / IAP 78
Sonatrach / IAP 79
Sonatrach / IAP 80

• General reminders

continental to marine environments
Sonatrach / IAP 81
Sedimentary fill hierarchy
Jeroen Schokker, Wim Westerhoff & Henk Weerts after Heinz & Aigner, 2003
Sonatrach / IAP 82
How to order the sedimentary pile?
"Facies adjacent to one another in a continuous vertical
sequence also accumulated adjacent to one another laterally"
Sonatrach / IAP 83
Introduction to sedimentary sequences
Depositional sequence in respect to Walther's law


Sonatrach / IAP 85
Sedimentary depositional environments
Continental environments Marine environments
 Glacial  Shoreline (coast/beach)
 Aeolian  Delta
 Lacustrine • Fluvial‐dominated
 Fluvial • Wave‐dominated
• Braided • Tide‐dominated
• Meandering  Continental shelf
• Anastomosed • Siliciclastic
 Coastal plain • Carbonatic
 Slope, canyon
 Basin
• Turbiditic fan
Sea level
• Abyssal plain
Sonatrach / IAP 86
Transfer mechanisms in siliciclastic environments
Sonatrach / IAP 87
Alluvial fan systems
 Fan‐shaped body
• Cone that radiates downslope
• Stream channels emerge from valleys
• Rather coarse detrital sediments
• Poorly sorted
 Built up by mountain stream
• At relief's foot
• Change of slope gradient
• Dip of alluvial fan: <10° (3 to
6°)
• Length: from few 100 m to
100 km
Sonatrach / IAP 88
Typical alluvial fan sequence
 Sedimentation
• Beds more or less parallel to the surface
• Stratification is moderately developed
 Deposition mode
• Debris flow or mud flow dominated
• Extensive masses of mud‐supported coarse‐grained
sediment, moving downward
• Main channel: in upper fan and mid fan
Massive conglomerates
Coarsening‐up sequence
Sonatrach / IAP 89
Alluvial fans
 Alluvial fans are cone‐shaped piles of sediment formed at the foot of highlands where
streams confined by narrow valleys emerge into adjacent lowland. A series of overlapping
alluvial fans generates a clastic wedge
 There are some differences between alluvial fans in arid and humid climates.
Sedimentation on alluvial fans begins where the streams leave their confined valleys and
loose some of their transport efficiency
 Alluvial fans are composed of two types of sediment:
• Stream deposits
• Sediment gravity‐flows
 Current‐transported sediments usually predominate. They are deposited either from
ephemeral or perennial water flow in the channel system or, after extreme rain storms,
from sheet‐floods inundating large parts of the alluvial fan
 Sometimes, gravel is concentrated locally to form sieve deposits (coarse gravel and
boulders devoid of finer‐grained matrix). From time to time, large debris flows with a
muddy‐sandy matrix reach the proximal and mid‐fan area and bury part of the pre‐
existing, radiating channel system
 At their lower end, such debris flows terminate in characteristic lobes, and they often
concentrate large boulders and gravel at their outer margin, forming levees. Later, new
channels cut into the mass flow deposits and rework and redistribute great proportions
of their material
Sonatrach / IAP 90
Fan deltas
 Coastal alluvial fans prograding into a lake or into the sea form fan deltas. As soon as the
streams, carrying a high bed‐load, reach the standing water body, they drop their coarse
material at the shore face and in prodelta foresets
 The intensity of reworking, sorting, and redeposition, as well as the transport of material
along the shoreline, depend on the wave energy and, in marine environments, on the
tidal range
 In the case of lakes and protected embayments, fan progradation is little influenced by
these processes. Gravel and sand accumulate at the mouths of streams until they become
unstable from time to time and move as subaqueous debris flows into deeper water.
There, they alternate with muddy lake or marine deposits
 On high‐energy coasts, some of the coarse material dropped at the river mouth is
transported alongshore adjacent beaches where it forms distinctive beach gravel; some
sand and gravel is swept by storms into deeper water
 Fluctuations in the water level in lakes or the sea affect both the subaerial and
subaqueous facies of fan deltas. They are reflected by fluvial terraces and coarse grained
river mouth deposits at varying elevations. A lowering of the lake or sea level causes the
emergence of delta foresets and the subsequent cutting of fluvial channels into the
foresets. These channels are commonly filled later with fluvial deposits
Sonatrach / IAP 91
Exercise: identify environment and name feature
Sonatrach / IAP 92
Fluvial depositional systems
 Main characteristics
• Unidirectional flow regime
• Transport until flow exists, with decreasing grain size of carried particles
• Three types of sediment bedload:
− Bedload
− Suspended load
− Mixed load
• Sediments start to deposit when river loses energy or/and is progressively
abandoned (progressive decantation)
• Typical depositional sequence: basal erosional surface and fining‐upward sequence
 Three main types of river (fluvial) systems (according to braided parameters

and sinuosity index):
• Braided system
• Meandering system
• Anastomosed system
Sonatrach / IAP 93
Fluvial depositional settings
 Channel pattern is the combination of

• Bedload vs suspended load
• Bank stability
• Slope gradient
• Flow fluctuations © 2013 ‐ IFP Training
Sonatrach / IAP 94
Sonatrach / IAP 95
Braided river systems
 Braided rivers are characterized by
high‐sediment load and high velocity
 Typical succession of lenticular sorted

conglomerates and coarse sandstones
Sonatrach / IAP 96
Typical braided river sequence
Braided rivers and its bars
Several erosional channels
Basal lag deposit
Stacked fining‐up sequences Basal erosional surface
Sonatrach / IAP 97
Examples of basal conglomerates (lag deposit)
Erosional baseline
Erosion in the flood plain
Sonatrach / IAP 98
Log responses – Outcrop analogue
Sonatrach / IAP 99
Typical braided river architecture
 Gravel‐rich braided
system
• Longitudinal bars
• Conglomerates
dominant
 Sand‐rich braided
system
• Transverse bars
• Sandstones dominant
Sonatrach / IAP 100
 Braided streams usually consist of several individual channels separated by bars and
islands and therefore form a wide, shallow stream bed. Braided rivers develop near areas
of high relief, which deliver relatively large amounts of debris, gravel and sand into the
fluvial system
 From all these characteristics, it can be inferred that braided systems are bed load‐
dominated, they carry and deposit chiefly gravel and sands. Therefore, they consist
predominantly of channel and channel‐flank deposits, while silty and muddy floodplain
facies are subordinate
 Downstream, they often display a progressive decrease in grain size, as well as in bed
forms and internal sedimentary structures
 The interstices in the gravel are usually later filled with sand during low water periods,
but in this system sandy beds are relatively rare in the proximal zone, unless there is little
gravel available in the source area. Sandy beds develop best at somewhat higher
topography elevations within the braided system next to the active channel system
Sonatrach / IAP 101
 Many bars are somewhat graded. Interbedded with the gravels are thin lenses of sand
representing deposition in abandoned channels or sand wedges at the edge of bars
 In places, one can observe repeated successions of fining‐upward gravel‐sand sequences 1
to 2 m thick, but in general it is difficult to identify the bottoms of former channels and the
geometry of their fill. The reason is that the underlying and neighboring sediments also
consist largely of gravel
 Downstream, the predominantly gravelly beds grade into beds consisting partly of smaller
pebbles and sand. In the lower, more active channels, bar gravels dominate, whereas
sands and pebbly sands are common at higher topography elevations. In rarely flooded
areas, some silt and mud may be deposited and preserved
 In the total assemblage, the gravel content varies between 10 and 70 %. As a result of
downstream and laterally migrating sand and gravel bars, planar and trough cross‐bedding
are the most important internal sedimentary structures
 Both the lateral migration and sudden abandonment of channels due to avulsion cause
fining‐upward channel fill sequences a few meters thick. Such sequences are considered
the most distinctive characteristic feature of this type of braided river deposit
Sonatrach / IAP 102
Braided river architecture: reservoir potential
 High Net‐to‐Gross Sheet‐like geometry
 Immature sediments; early alteration Thin shaly interval at the top
 Require top‐seal/structural traps
Sonatrach / IAP 103
Sonatrach / IAP 104
Typical meandering river sequence
Crevasse splay
Point Bar
Coal
Fine grained sandstone
Organic shale, roots
medium
coarse to
grained sandstone
Erosion
Meandering river
Fining‐up sequence : point bar
Sonatrach / IAP 105
Generation of meanders
Sonatrach / IAP 106
Meandring river architecture: reservoir potential
 Lower Net‐to‐Gross Shoe‐lace geometry becoming sheet like
 Sediment more mature Shales frequent in sequence
 Stratigraphic trap potential
Sonatrach / IAP 107
Meandering river systems
Sonatrach / IAP 108
 Meandering river systems develop one principal, relatively narrow channel of high sinuosity
(> 1.5) and are dominated by mixed load or predominantly suspended load. Their overall
sand content often averages 20 to 40 %. If meandering rivers are associated with a wide
floodplain, the channel sediments may be restricted to a comparatively narrow zone within
the flood basin where they form a meander belt
 In a sinuous channel segment, one can distinguish the following morphological features and
depositional sub‐environments:
− Channels and channel fills
− Point bars and lateral accretion complexes
− Chute bars
− Channel plugs (oxbow lakes)
− Levee and crevasse splay deposits
− Alluvial floodplain deposits
• The channel floor is usually covered by lag sediments consisting of the coarsest material
transported by the river during peak flood. This channel lag may also contain mud clasts
or blocks eroded from the banks. Lag sands and gravel usually accumulate between
scour pools and form flat, elongate bars displaying either imbrication of gravel or
crudely laminated and planar cross‐bedded gravelly sand
• Point bars accumulate on the inner sides of river bends, while on the outer side
material from the bank is eroded. In this way, the curvature of the meander tends to
become increasingly exaggerated until the river produces short‐cuts, leaving behind
abandoned channel segments (oxbow lakes)
Sonatrach / IAP 109
 Most of the point bar material is eroded from the upstream channel banks. It is
deposited in areas of lower velocity turbulence. Because sediment moves up and out of
the channel onto the bar, cross sections of point bars often show fining‐upward
sequences, with sands on top of channel lags
 Similarly, the internal structures grade from horizontal bedding (upper flow regime) to
large‐scale and small scale trough cross‐bedding (lower flow regime). The most distinctive
feature of point bars is lateral accretion)
 Many meandering channels are accompanied by flat ridges sloping away from the
channel into the floodplain. These levees are built up during moderate floods which just
reach the elevation of the channel ridge. Due to decreasing flow velocity, sand is
deposited along the channel ridges, grading into silt somewhat farther away
 Locally, channel water may spill over the levees into the floodplain, forming crevasse
splays. The fallout of sand and silt usually extends farther into the floodplains than the
levees, but such crevasse splays can also contribute to the buildup of the levees
 The prevailing internal structures of these sand sheets may resemble those of thin sandy
turbidites, showing some grading, horizontal lamination and small‐scale ripple cross‐
bedding. These structures are, however, often mashed or destroyed by the roots of
vegetation. Whereas distal crevasse splays become interbedded with floodplain deposits,
levee sands of ten tend to be reworked by subsequent channel migration
Sonatrach / IAP 110
Crevasse splay deposits
 Deposits formed during flood period, by
break into the channel levees
 Cones composed of sand to silty facies
 Formed by stacked fining upward thin

sequences with small secondary
channels at top during peak of flood
Sonatrach / IAP 111
Channel levees deposits
Mississipi
 Levees deposits, adjacent to the

channel and formed during the
flooding period, are:
• Wedge deposits of alternating fine
sand /silts and mud

• Showing parallel to small current
ripple laminations
Sonatrach / IAP 112
Sonatrach / IAP 113
Anastomosing river systems
 Develop in
• Upstream area or downstream areas
• Low sinuosity (less than braided)
• Several wandering channels
 Particularities of each channel
• Stable banks (not ephemeral)
• Fixed by vegetation
Sonatrach / IAP 114
Anastomosing river architecture: reservoir potential
 Lower Net‐to‐Gross vertical stacked and confined sand bodies encased in mud
 Sediment more mature
Sonatrach / IAP 115
Fluvial architecture and reservoir potential
 River systems
• Main reservoirs located in channels and channels belts
• Associated reservoirs located in
− Levees deposits
− Crevasse splays
− Floodplains sandstones
 Braided system: reservoir bodies
• Vertical and lateral stacking, good connection
• Geometry: Sheetlike or tabular sandbodies (stacked multistorey infill)
 Meandering system: reservoir bodies
• Dominant lateral accretion (point bar – levees – crevasse splays)
• Geometry: “point bar – clay plug” model, isolated sandbodies
Anastomosing system: reservoir bodies

• Dominant vertical aggradation, isolated narrow channels
• Geometry: channel fill
Sonatrach / IAP 116
Depositional environment vs reservoir distribution
Variation of reservoir quality with ELF 1997
depositional environment
and energy (slope)
Sonatrach / IAP 117
River types vs reservoir distribution
Slims Williams Windorah

Sonatrach / IAP 118
River facies: reservoir potential
Fluvial architecture vs reservoir potential
Braided
Meandering
Anastomosed
Courtesy of Pr. M. Lopez (U. of Montpellier)
Sonatrach / IAP 119


Sonatrach / IAP 121
Coastal deposits
 Coastal environment: river outlet, delta
• Continuous quantity of sediments provided by the river
• Deposition driven by energy loss (decreasing flow rate, decantation)

− From coarse‐grained sand (close to coast and beach) to fine‐grained sand and
shales (towards platform and basin)
− Continental environment taking over marine environment with time
• Variable distribution of river sediments according to local dominant

energy factor (river flow, tidal currents, wave action)
Sonatrach / IAP 122
Clastic depositional environments
Sonatrach / IAP 123
Delta shapes & energy
 Morphological classification of deltas based on delta front shape which reflects:

• Relation between the relative importance of rive, tide or wave processes
• Sediment supply
• Duration in time
Birdfoot
Fluvial
Lobate dominated
Wave Tide
dominated dominated
Cuspate Estuarian
Sonatrach / IAP 124
Delta classifications
 Delta morphology reflects the relative importance of fluvial, tidal, and wave processes,
as well as gradient and sediment supply
• River‐dominated deltas occur in microtidal settings with limited wave energy, where
delta‐lobe progradation is significant and redistribution of mouth bars is limited
• Wave‐dominated deltas are characterized by mouth bars reworked into shore‐
parallel sand bodies and beaches
• Tide‐dominated deltas exhibit tidal mudflats and mouth bars that are reworked into
elongate sand bodies perpendicular to the shoreline
Sonatrach / IAP 125
Deltaic environments
Sonatrach / IAP 126
Key points: Fluvial‐dominated deltas
 Fluvial‐dominated deltas are primarily controlled by the water density difference between
the inflowing river water and the standing water on the basin.
 Delta – lobe progradation is significant while mouth bar distribution remains limited
Sonatrach / IAP 127
Fluvial‐dominated deltas
 Different flow types that determine the distribution of

sediment and sedimentary structures formed in the
delta are hyperpycnal flow and hypopycnal flow
• Hyperpycnal flow produced when the density of the river
water entering the basin is greater than the density of the
standing water in the ocean basin. This higher density
river water will flow below the standing water in the basin
because of the difference in density. A zone of mixing
occurs along the outer edge of the flow. As the river water
flows beneath the standing water, it erodes the previously
deposited bottom sediments.
• Hypopycnal flow is associated with a lower river water
density entering a higher density standing water in the
basin. Under these conditions, the river water will flow
out over the standing water, gradually depositing the

suspended clay portion of the sediment load on the
prodelta
Sonatrach / IAP 128
Key points: Wave‐dominated deltas
 Wave‐dominated deltas are primarily

influenced by wave energy and action.
 The common sequence reflects reworked
mouth bar into sandbodies and beaches
parallel to the shoreline
Sonatrach / IAP 129
Coastal depositional environments
Shoreline Shelf
Sonatrach / IAP 130
Identify features and infer depositional environment
Sonatrach / IAP 131
Identify features and infer depositional environment
Sonatrach / IAP 132
Coastal depositional environments
Sonatrach / IAP 133
Coastal sedimentary features
Swash zone
Sonatrach / IAP 134
Sedimentary features: HCS stratifications
Hummocky cross stratification (HCS) forms during storm events
with combined wave and current activity in shallow seas
Sonatrach / IAP 135
Key points: Tide‐dominated deltas
 Tide‐dominated deltas typically occur in locations of large tidal ranges

or high tidal current speeds. The sediment supply is over powered by
strong tidal currents, the delta tends to be very small

 Resulting feature of a tide‐dominated delta is that it has many linear
structures parallel to the tidal flow and perpendicular to the shore
Sonatrach / IAP 136
Tidal environments
 Tide
• Periodic phenomenon on coastal domain
• Results from the gravitational attraction (Earth, Moon, Sun)
• Regular rise and fall of water level in the world’s oceans
• Effective agent of transport of sediment
 Tidal range: vertical amplitude between low tide and high tide
 Foreshore: area horizontally alternately covered and uncovered by the tide
 Characterization
• Particle transport is vigorous and rapid
− Bipolar linear current (alternating tidal currents: Flood/Ebb)
− Cross‐stratification in opposite directions (herringbone) : Flood / Ebb oscillation
• Repeated erosion and creation of tidal channels
• Difficult conditions for living organisms
• Flaser, wavy and lenticular beddings
• Reactivation surface
Sonatrach / IAP 137
Tidal influenced bedforms & sedimentary structures
 Tide‐influenced sedimentary structures:
• Herringbone cross stratification → bipolar flow directions
• Mud‐draped cross strata (quite common): result from alternating bedform migration
during high flow velocities with mud drapes deposition during high/low tide slack
water
• Tidal bundles are characterized by a sand‐mud couplet of varying thickness; tidal
bundle sequences consist of bundles that can be related to neap‐spring cycles
Flood
Flood‐ebb
tidal deposits
Ebb
Sonatrach / IAP 138
Sedimentary structures in tidal range
Sonatrach / IAP 139
Sedimentary structures: tide‐related laminae
Sonatrach / IAP 140
Sedimentary structures: tide‐related laminae
Bundle thickness
vs tide cycles
Sonatrach / IAP 141
Summary table: sedimentary features vs environments
Sedimentary Depositional Water Sediment type

Environment
features energy Zone (GS)
Parallel landward Swash zone
Backshore stratifications
High ℮
Breaking zone
Sand
Lenticular Mud
Foreshore High tide (MHW)
Wavy Low → High ℮ Mud/Sand
(Tidal flat) Low tide (MLW)
Flaser Sand
Sandwaves (trough) Low tide (MLW) Sand (winnowed:

Laminae
Shoreface Megaripples(tabular) High ℮ Fair weather zone clean, rounded &

Ripples (sym/asym) (MFWB) sorted)
Upper Storm HCS Storm weather zone

Low ℮ Silty/Shaly
offshore Wavy bedding (MSWB)
Lower Shaly
Wavy bedding Low ℮ Outer shelf
offshore (burrows)
Deep water Massive (no struct.) Low ℮ Slope Muddy

[Turbidites] [Bouma, Stowe,...] [High ℮ gravity flow] Basin [Sandy/Silty]
Sonatrach / IAP 142
Key points : Coastal systems and reservoir potentials
2. Reservoir bodies:
Mouth bar, and aggradational channels complexes
located along the distributary:
Limited lateral extension
Fluvial‐
dominated
Wave‐ Tide‐
dominated dominated
1. Reservoir bodies: 3. Reservoir bodies:
Beach barrier island, very good lateral Isolated tidal bar, poor continuity and extension.
continuity, well sorted sandbodies and clay‐free: Well sorted sandstone, but lot of clay drapes due
Best reservoir to intertidal processes: Discontinuous reservoir
Sonatrach / IAP 143


Sonatrach / IAP 145
Gravity deposits
 Continental environment: broken blocks or erosional debris falling down by

gravity and/or density–turbulence current
 Aquatic environment (lake, open marine)

• Mass flow (debris flow, mud flow)
− Low amount of water incorporated in sediments
− Sedimentation without any sorting (very fast and sudden, almost instantaneous
event)
• Density‐turbulence flow
− Progressive incorporation of water (turbulent flow or current)
− Sediments start to be deposited when flow velocity and related turbulence
decrease: coarser grains are deposited first and finer last
− One turbidite = one single event
− Very good sorting in layers: fining upward sequence with well organized
geometry evolution
Sonatrach / IAP 146
Marine clastic deposits: turbidites
Fluvial vs turbiditic clastics: similar organization of sediments in deeper environments
Sonatrach / IAP 147
Gravity deposits vs. processes & sediment supply
Step 3‐ geometries & extend of turbidites
Step 1‐ Initiation
of gravity deposits
Step 2 ‐ Processes of
transport &deposition
Sonatrach / IAP 148
Turbidite system general organization
Cross‐sections:
from proximal to distal turbiditic facies
Sonatrach / IAP 149
Turbiditic system organization
Upper fan
Middle fan
Turbidite deposits:
sedimentary
facies and
log responses
Lower fan
General upward tendency:
coarsening and
New lobe
shallowing upward
Abyssal plain
Sonatrach / IAP 150
Turbidites: depositional mechanism
Lab reconstitution of a dynamic gravity flow
(mini turbiditic current = avalanche!)
Sonatrach / IAP 151
Bedforms in unidirectional flow
 Three main factors controlling bedforms in unidirectional currents:

• Average flow velocity
• Grain size
• Water depth
Sonatrach / IAP 152
Typical turbidite depositional sequences
 Main characteristics
• Allochthonous sedimentation
• Highly organized from proximal to
distal part
• Dominantly controlled by
unidirectional flow
• General fining upward sequence
• Facies association from channels
to levees and lobes
Sonatrach / IAP 153
Conventional Bouma sequence & field outcrop
Obara turbidites, Spain
Sonatrach / IAP 154
Conventional Bouma sequence & field outcrop
St Jean de Luz turbidites ‐ France
Sonatrach / IAP 155
Deep sea deposits: turbidites
Turbiditic system with midfan/suprafan lobes
Simple turbiditic system without lobes

Abundant sediments reworked from delta
Sonatrach / IAP 156
Turbidite outcrop
Turbiditic sandstones
(Mid fan ‐ channel)
Courtesy Philippe JOSEPH
Sonatrach / IAP 157
Turbidite outcrop
Stacked
channels
Lower fan ‐ lobes
Turbiditic sandstones
Sonatrach / IAP 158
Turbidite outcrop
Bouma sequence: Tb and Tc
Sonatrach / IAP 159
Sedimentation rate and sea variations
Sonatrach / IAP 160
Fluvial and deltaic sequences
Gamma Ray log responses and depositional deltaic environments
Sonatrach / IAP 161
Sediment maturity
Sonatrach / IAP 162
Clastic reservoirs internal geometry and organization
Sonatrach / IAP 163
Clastics
 Clastic sediments are:
• Allochthonous erosional products (weathering, alteration and transportation)
• Transported by fluvial water, wind, ice
• Deposited in basins
 The main depositional process of clastic sediments is progressive decantation
due to gradual decay of flow velocity (water or density current), i.e. decreasing
transport energy
 Fluvial, deltaic and turbiditic depositional sequences are mostly fining‐upward
 The evolution of a fluvial system (e.g. meander) involves both erosional and
decantation processes
 The development of a delta is mostly due to progradation (if constant sediment
supply and sea level)
 A turbidite results from a single depositional event (intermittent sediment
supply)
 The main source of continental sediments is erosion of existing rock (outcrops)
 The main source of deep sea deposits is reworking of existing sediments (e.g.
delta)
Sonatrach / IAP 164
Clastic reservoirs
Log responses in clastic sequences
Sonatrach / IAP
Log responses
in clastic sequences
 Sedimentological & stratigraphic well log analysis

• Log shapes review
• Depositional environment review & logs characteristics
• Parasequences & logs responses
• Clastic system tracts and logs facies responses
Sonatrach / IAP 166
Sedimentary processes
Sonatrach / IAP 167
Log responses
Sonatrach / IAP 168
169
Log responses
Sonatrach / IAP
Log responses

Sonatrach / IAP 171
Typical braided river sequence
Braided rivers and related bars
Several erosional channels
Basal lag deposit
Stacked fining‐up sequences Basal erosional surface
Sonatrach / IAP 172
Typical meandering river sequence
Crevasse splay
Point bar
Coal
Fine grained sandstone
Organic shale, roots
medium
coarse to
grained sandstone
Erosion
Meandering river
Fining‐up sequence: point bar
Sonatrach / IAP 173
Typical depositional sequences of fluvial sediments
Alluvial fan Braided river Meandering river
Sonatrach / IAP 174
Deltaic depositional sequences
Sonatrach / IAP 175
Turbidites sequences
 Main characteristics:
• Allochthonous sedimentation
• Highly organized from proximal to distal
part
• Dominantly controlled by unidirectional
flow
• General fining‐upward sequence
• Facies association from channels to
levees and lobes
Sonatrach / IAP 176
Clastic sequences
Gamma Ray log responses
and depositional environments
Sonatrach / IAP 177
Log responses

Sonatrach / IAP 179
Accommodation variations and related sequences
PROGRADATIONAL PARASEQUENCE SET
SP RES
Rate of deposition
> 1
Rate of accommodation
RETROGRADATIONAL PARASEQUENCE SET
SP RES
Rate of deposition
< 1
AGGRADATIONAL PARASEQUENCE SET
SP RES
Rate of deposition
= 1
Coastal plain sandstones Shallow marine

And mudstones sandstones Shelf Mudstones
Sonatrach / IAP
MITCHUM and VAN WAGONER 1991 180
Correlations during progradation time
Basinward
Sonatrach / IAP 181
Correlations during progradation time
Sonatrach / IAP 182
Facies distribution wave or fluvial‐dominated environment
Sonatrach / IAP 183
Facies distribution fluvial or wave‐dominated environment
Sonatrach / IAP 184
Facies distribution shoreline‐dominated environment
Sonatrach / IAP 185
Facies distribution in tidal flat‐dominated environment
Sonatrach / IAP 186
Log responses

Sonatrach / IAP 187
Sonatrach / IAP 188
189
190
Sonatrach / IAP
Sonatrach / IAP
Hierarchy of fluvial architectural elements
Sonatrach / IAP 191
Clastic reservoirs
Clastic Petrography & Diagenesis
Sonatrach / IAP
Clastic Petrography &
Diagenesis
 Mineral diagenesis
• Definition and processes
 Diagenetical analysis
• Effect of compaction on primary porosity
• Effect of cementation on primary porosity
• Replacement during diagenesis
• Fluid dynamics and diagenetical regimes
 Heterogeneities
• Introduction: heterogeneities in the reservoir

• Reservoir heterogeneity features
Sonatrach / IAP 194
Mineral diagenesis: Definition
 All physical, chemical or biological processes at relatively low temperatures

(less than 200‐250°C) and pressures (less than 2‐3kbars) that affect a sediment
(or a sedimentary rock) after its deposition.
 Compaction, dissolution, cementation, mineral replacement are major

elementary processes of diagenesis activated by physico‐chemical parameters
(pressure, temperature, fluid composition) and/or biological (bacterial activity,
bioturbation)
Sonatrach / IAP 195
Why study diagenesis?
 To understand:
• Transformation mechanisms from sediment to sedimentary rock
• Sedimentary basin dynamic
• Reservoir quality
• Nature and distribution of porosity and permeability
• Fluid flow evolution
• Extend of oil recovery
• Interaction of secondary recovery fluids with the reservoir
• Movement or binding of pollutants
Sonatrach / IAP 196
Processes
 Physical
• Compaction
• Fluid migration
• Pressure solution
 Chemical
• Mineral reaction
• Mineral replacement
• Cementation
• Dissolution
• Organic matter evolution
 Geological & climatic

• Original depositional environment
• Diagenetic environment
• Tectonic setting and basin evolution
 Etc.
→ All processes are interdependent and cannot be easily separated
Sonatrach / IAP 197
What is lithification?
 Process which leads to the transformation of a non‐consolidated sediment to a

rock.
 It implies grain cementation in the sediment but not necessarily burial and
compaction (e.g. beachrock)
 Lithification is the result of diagenetic processes but diagenesis does not

necessarily lead to sediment lithification.
Sonatrach / IAP 198
What type of diagenesis?
 Early diagenesis
• Changes essentially biochemical
• First meters of burying
• Early in the history of sediments
• Environment in marine, meteoric, salted zone and vadoze zone
 Late diagenesis
• Slower changes (compaction, dissolution and mineralogical
transformations)
• Burying diagenesis (pressure, temperature and fluids effects)
• Type of rock (carbonates, clays, siliciclastics, etc.) controlled by climate,
tectonic and sedimentary contexts
Sonatrach / IAP 199
Diagenesis
 Diagenesical analysis
• Fluid dynamics and diagenetic regimes
 Heterogeneities
Sonatrach / IAP 201
Definition of compaction
 All processes which lead to a decreasing of porosity in sediment or

sedimentary rock and generate pore fluid eviction
Rearrangement Cementation
(with volume losses) (without volume losses)
Sonatrach / IAP 202
Mechanical compaction – 1/2
 Occur at shallow burial depth
 Reworking of sediments (grain repacking and rearrangement, bioturbation)
 « The tightest packing of spheres is rhombohaedral (Φ=25%) while the loosest is

cubic (Φ=50%) » Graton & Fraser, 1935
Sonatrach / IAP 203
Mechanical compaction – 2/2
 Impact of grain size, roundness and sphericity
 Mechanical compaction is generally more effective in mudrocks than

sandstones (high water content in shales, rapidly expelled by compaction)
Water
Minerals
Water Minerals Compaction +

Water
loss
Sonatrach / IAP 204
Rearrangement example in siliciclastics
1 mm
Sonatrach / IAP 205
Rearrangement example in carbonates
Sonatrach / IAP 206
Chemical compaction
 Mainly achieved by reprecipitation of minerals in remaining pore spaces
 Cementation more obvious in coarse clastics than mudrocks
 Main process is pressure‐solution
P1
Where Pw = Pore fluid pressure
P2
And P1 > P2 > Pw
Pw Reprecipitation of overgrowth forms (dark blue) by

diffusion of silica from the grain contact to the pore
spaces
Sonatrach / IAP 207
Pressure‐solution
 Development of sutured contact enhanced by presence of clays

• Enhance transport of ions away from site of pressure solution (diffusion
network)
 Much more difficult to produce pressure‐solution in clean sandstones
 In coarse clastic sediments (gravels)

• High pressure contacts
• Rapid porosity loss early in burial slowing down rapidly
 In fine clastic sediments (sandstones & siltstones)

• Higher surface area in contact = fewer nucleation sites
• Rapid porosity loss at depth
Sonatrach / IAP 208
Pressure‐solution mechanisms
Major constraint σ1
1. DISSOLUTION
2. DIFFUSION
Grain Minor constraint σ3
3. OVERGROWTH
Sonatrach / IAP 209
Pressure‐solution in sandstone
Φ Overgrowth
Φ
Sonatrach / IAP 210
Pressure‐solution in carbonate
Nummulitic limestone (Eocene, Corsica)
Precipitation
Diffusion
Dissolution
Awl
Concept Polarized light Cathodoluminescence
Sonatrach / IAP 211
Pressure‐solution example in sandstone (polarized light)
Ex1 Lum Pola
Ex1 Lum nat
Sonatrach / IAP 212
Pressure‐solution example in sandstone (natural light)
Zoom 2
Zoom 1
Sonatrach / IAP 213
Zoom 1
Dissolution
Sonatrach / IAP 214
Precipitation
Zoom 2
500 µm
Sonatrach / IAP 215
Mineralogical dissolution example (Natural light)
Potassic feldspar (FK) dissolution
Sonatrach / IAP 216
Diagenesis
 Heterogeneities
Sonatrach / IAP 217
Cementation parameters – 1/2
 An allogenic cementation occur during deposition
 An authigenic cementation grown in situ during diagenesis
 There is rarely sufficient material in the rock to account for all cements present
 Degree of supersaturation of the pore fluid, example in silica

• High level, soluble forms precipitate: opal and chalcedony form thin crusts and
mosaics on grains
• Low level: quartz precipitates (because low solubility) and slowly forms
monocrystalline overgrowths
 Other common cements:

• Carbonates (calcite, dolomite)
• Silicates (quartz, opal, potassic & sodic feldpars)
• Clay minerals (kaolin, illite, chlorite…)

• Sulphates (gypsum, anhydrite…)
• Oxides (haematite…)
Sonatrach / IAP 218
Cementation parameters – 2/2
 From fluids to cement formation:

• Water salinity
• Dissolution of soluble rock
• Groundwater percolation
• Shales expulsion
• Mineral and organic reaction
 Cement precipitation depends on the nucleation
 A slow kinetic or an inhibitor presence can explain the no‐precipitation
Sonatrach / IAP 219
Sources of silica cement
 During early diagenesis:

• Skeletal remains of diatoms and radiolaria
• Quartz dust abraded during transportation
 During late diagenesis:

• Mainly pressure‐solution
Radiolaria
Diatom
Sonatrach / IAP 220
Cementation in sandstone reservoir (Brent)
Uncemented sandstone
Diagenetic front
Cemented sandstone
(calcitic cement)
Sonatrach / IAP 221
Sources of kaolin cement
 Alteration and mineral recombination in porosity
Kaolin cement Quartz Porosity Quartz Kaolin cement
Sonatrach / IAP 222
Diagenesis
 Heterogeneities
Sonatrach / IAP 223
Moldic dissolution
 Initial presence of a shell, rock fragment or grain. Then, micritization by

bacteria. Progression from outside to inside
 Second step, dissolution of cement but not the micrite (more stable). The
shape is preserved. Sparitic precipitation in the cavity © 2013 ‐ IFP Training
Sonatrach / IAP 224
Pseudomorph forms
 Replacement of a preexisting mineral by an other one
From halite (cubic crystal) to a “cubic” calcite
(normally trigonal – hexagonal scalenohedral)
Sonatrach / IAP 225
Recrystallization
 Sometimes, it is difficult to distinguish cementation and recrystallization
 Change in crystal shape / orientation without compositional change
 The orientation of the first
crystal (as seed) govern the
direction in which further
crystals grows
 Major effect of temperature

How to reset all information…
Sonatrach / IAP 226
Diagenesis
 Heterogeneities
Sonatrach / IAP 227
Near‐surface sandstone diagenesis
 Particularly occurs in semi‐arid climates

• Water table very low
• Sediments are oxygenated for long period
• Sparse vegetation (= rapid erosion)
• Immature sediment producing (high amount of unstable minerals like
feldspars, amphiboles…)
 Processes of activation near surface

• Clay infiltration (clay percolation through water)
• Intrastratal mineral dissolution (partial or complete dissolution of instable
minerals)
• Replacement
• Authigenic mineral growth (hydroxydes…)
Sonatrach / IAP 228
Subsurface sandstone diagenesis
 Sandstone horizons correspond to fluid pathways especially for fluids from

compacting mudstones
 Fluids carry dissolved ions (potential cements)
 Clays flatten to form a matrix (=permeability decreasing)
 Effect of the fluids composition, temperature and pressure
Sonatrach / IAP 229
Diagenesis and reservoir quality
 Diagenesis have a strong impact on reservoir quality

 Generally, the quality of clastic reservoirs decrease with diagenesis
by compaction and cementation
 Whereas in carbonate reservoirs, the quality can be also reduced or
improved by physical, chemical or biological processes (dissolution,
dolomitization…)
 The main parameters of reservoir quality affected by diagenesis are
the porosity and the permeability
Sonatrach / IAP 230
Diagenesis
 Heterogeneities
Sonatrach / IAP 231
Reservoir heterogeneities: Summary
 Introduction: heterogeneities in the reservoir

• Homogeneous / heterogeneous reservoirs
• Reservoir heterogeneity concepts
• Classification of reservoir heterogeneities
• Impact of reservoir heterogeneity on hydrocarbon recovery
 Reservoir heterogeneity features

• Scale of reservoir heterogeneities
• Small‐scale observation and analysis
• Large‐scale observation and analysis
Sonatrach / IAP 232
Homogeneous vs. Heterogeneous reservoir
Homogeneous reservoir Heterogeneous reservoir
(Faults, Unconformities, Layers, Facies,
Diagenesis, Fractures, Super K,…)
Heterogeneity: spatial variation of rock physical properties that affect fluid flow
Sonatrach / IAP 233
Reservoir heterogeneity: concepts – 1/2
 To build a consistent and relevant model:

• All variations in the reservoir quality must be analyzed and classified in a
manner that the main heterogeneities main are clearly highlighted
• For a given study, all heterogeneities that can affect fluid flow are
considered as key heterogeneities
Key heterogeneities have to be absolutely described in the geological model
Sonatrach / IAP 234
Reservoir heterogeneity: concepts – 2/2
 Reservoir heterogeneities
• All relevant factors affecting the dynamic behavior of the field
• Small‐ to large‐scale geologic features
• From static reservoir characterization (significant or not)
• From dynamic reservoir characterization (significant)
 Basic principle
• Identify the smallest element that will impact production
Reservoir heterogeneities characterization
calls for the cooperation between all professionals involved in the study
(i.e. from geophysicists to reservoir engineers)
Sonatrach / IAP 235
Classification of heterogeneities in reservoirs – 1/2
Weber classification (1986) Classification
« How heterogeneitiy affect oil recovery »
Heterogeneity
range
A: Structural
Prior to the modeling phase, it is
1 to 3 necessary to perform a synthesis
of heterogeneity types, for each
B: Stratigraphic 1 to 3 item, taking into account their
impact on fluid flow, using the
following scale:
C: Diagenetic 1 to 3
1 ‐ major heterogeneity
D: Depositional 1 to 3 2 ‐ intermediate heterogeneity
3 ‐ negligible heterogeneity
E: Depositional 1 to 3
Classification objective: highlight
most significant heterogeneities.
F: Diagenetic 1 to 3
G: Structural 1 to 3
Sonatrach / IAP 236
Classification of heterogeneities in reservoirs – 2/2
Impact on recovery
Sonatrach / IAP 237
Diagenesis
• Definfition and processes
 Heterogeneities
Sonatrach / IAP 239
Scale of reservoir heterogeneities
Grain
Obervation
Lamination
scales:
Bed
< 1 mm
Formation Field
< 1 cm
Small ...
< 1 m
Relative
Intermediate ... < 1000 m > 1000 m
scales:
Large ... Very large ...
(from Krause and Collins, 1984)
Heterogeneities and investigation tools
do not always have the same scale…
Sonatrach / IAP 240
Small scale heterogeneities
Example of laminations and cross‐beddings
 Micro scale: related to a mixture of
different pore types and geometries
(textural features)
 Macro scale: often related to
laminations and cross‐beddings
(depositional features: energy)
Sonatrach / IAP 241
Large‐scale heterogeneities (1/5)
 Faults
• Juxtaposition of reservoir units and low permeability
units
• Clay smearing (injection of clay into the fault plane)
• Cataclasis: sand grains crushing (breccia)
• Diagenesis (fault‐related): cementation due to fluid
circulation and precipitation creating hydraulic seals
Cataclasis: silicification
Sonatrach / IAP 242
Genetic unit boundaries

→ represent stratigraphic discontinuities (isolated bar, channel…)
Sonatrach / IAP 243
Diagenesis
(power line cable)
DOLOMITE
Dolomitization
front
Bedding
LIMESTONE
0 Scale 5 m
Sonatrach / IAP 244
Both shale baffles and permeability streaks
Lateral extension linked with depositional environment
e.g. Hassi‐Messaoud reservoir (silts)
Sonatrach / IAP 245
Seeping fractures
Sonatrach / IAP 246
Reservoir characterization and modeling
 To build a consistent and relevant model for an integrated study:

• All reservoir heterogeneities must be identified and classified (main
ones highlighted)
• All heterogeneities that can impact fluid flow are considered as major
heterogeneities
• Even the smallest elements that can affect production need to be
identified and modeled
• The geological model must take into account all significant
heterogeneities
• Characterization of reservoir heterogeneities calls for integrated multi‐
disciplinary approach (cooperation and team work)
Sonatrach / IAP 247
Clastic reservoirs
Fundamentals of sequence stratigraphy
Sonatrach / IAP
Fundamentals of sequence
stratigraphy
 Introduction to sequence stratigraphy
• General introduction
• Accommodation definition
• Relative sea level and space available
• Dynamic points
• Sequence development
• Parasequence/genetic sequence
Sonatrach / IAP 250
Sequence stratigraphy: Introduction
 Sequence stratigraphy is based on the application of the systematic subdivision of the

section by well defined surfaces
 These surfaces are used to provide a frame work to the interpretation of the depositional
settings of the sedimentary section
 This interpretation is then used to predict the extent and character of the component
sedimentary facies
 Integrated method with all the exploration tools (geology, geophysics, palynology,
geochemistry…)
• Relation between geological layers in a chronostratigraphic understanding
• Basic sedimentary unit: depositional sequence
 Characteristics of a depositional sequence

• Bounded by their unconformities and their correlative conformities
• Composed by systems tracts
 Each system tract
• Bounded by physical surface
• Composed of elementary « unit » (genetic unit or parasequence)
Sonatrach / IAP 251
stratigraphy
• Dynamic points
Sonatrach / IAP 253
Accommodation definition
 Sediment is deposited in the space
between the seafloor and base level
(sea level or graded stream profile)
which is called accommodation
 The way a basin fills with sediment
and the stratal patterns that result
depend upon how much space is
available for the sediment to fill and
how rapidly new space is added
 Accommodation may vary as both
the upper and lower boundaries of
this space move up or down
Sonatrach / IAP 254
stratigraphy
• Dynamic points
Sonatrach / IAP 255
Relative sea level vs space availability
 Eustacy refers only to the position
of the sea surface with reference
to a fixed datum, such as the
center of the earth, and is
therefore independent from local
factors
 Relative sea level incorporates
local subsidence by referring to
the position of the sea surface
with respect to a datum at or near
the seafloor
 To discern the rate at which new
space is added, both relative
eustacy fluctuation rate combined
with subsidence rate must be
considered
Sonatrach / IAP 256
Accommodation & Equilibrium point
Equilibrium point : Rate of subsidence = Rate of eustatic change
A platform is divided into two parts separated by an equilibrium point
 Basinward of :
• Rate of subsidence
> Rate of eustatic fall
• Creation of a new
space added
• Area of relative sea
level rise
 Landward of :
• Rate of subsidence
< Rate of eustatic fall
• No creation of new space added
• Area of relative sea level fall
Sonatrach / IAP 257
stratigraphy
• Dynamic points
Sonatrach / IAP 259
Specific dynamic points
 Inflection points of the eustatic curve
• Point F: maximum rate of sea level fall F R
− Minimum rate of creation of new space added
• Point R: maximum rate of sea level rise
− Maximum rate of creation of new space added
 Depositional dynamic on the shelf at these
specific inflection points of the eustatic curve
• Point F: minimum deposit of sediment
− Maximum erosional phenomenon Point R
• Point R: transgression and development of
− a condensed section
− Maximum drowning of the basin over the shelf
− Location of the maximum flooding surface:
MFS
Point F
Sonatrach / IAP 260
Theorical sequence: the Exxon “slug”
Sonatrach / IAP 261
stratigraphy
• Dynamic points
Sonatrach / IAP 263
Sequence stratigraphy
1 2
3
4
Sonatrach / IAP 264
Sequence stratigraphy
Sonatrach / IAP 265
Key surfaces in sequence stratigraphy
In Kendall (2004)
Sonatrach / IAP 266
 Sequence are subdivided by

• Maximum Flooding Surfaces (MFS)
• Transgressive Surfaces (TS)
• Sequence Boundaries (SB)
 Arrangement of vertical succession or stacking patterns of unconfined sheets

• Prograde (step seaward)
• Retrograde (step landward)
• Aggrade (build vertically)
 Sheets and unconfined lobes containing

• Non‐amalgamated bodies
 Incised topographic fill

• Amalgamated, multi‐storied bodies (e.g. incised valleys)
• Within unconfined lobes
Sonatrach / IAP 267
Theorical sequence: “Exxon Slug”
Sonatrach / IAP 268
Systems tract synthesis
 Sequence stratigraphy is based on the application of the systematic subdivision of the

section by well defined surfaces
 These surfaces are used to provide a frame work to the interpretation of the depositional
settings of the sedimentary section
 This interpretation is then is used to predict the extent and character of the component
sedimentary facies
Sonatrach / IAP 269
Lowstand‐fan systems tract
 Lowstand fans are deposited during rapid eustatic falls which exceed the rate of
subsidence at the shelf edge
 Sediment bypasses the shelf and is deposited directly on the slope and in the basin in the
form of point‐sourced submarine fans. This figure illustrates geologic, geographic, and
eustatic conditions conducive to the formation of these deposits
 The systems tract is bounded below and above by discontinuities
 Internally, lowstand fans are characterized by mounded facies and may be extensively
sand prone. These mounds are commonly excellent reservoirs
Sonatrach / IAP 270
Lowstand‐wedge systems tract
 The lowstand‐wedge systems tract begins to form during the latter part of a rapid
eustatic fall as lowstand‐fan deposition ends. Deposition is initiated when the rate of
eustatic fall is again equal to subsidence at the shelf edge
 This interval is characterized by resumption of a slow rise of relative sea level at the shelf
edge
 Deltaic deposition is localized in the upper parts of canyons or embayments cut into the
shelf during rapid eustatic falls
 The base of this systems tract is an unconformity. The top grades either into a
transgressive depositional sequence or is a condensed section, if transgressive deposits
are absent or not observed.
Sonatrach / IAP 271
Transgressive systems tract
 When the rate of new shelf space added exceeds the rate of sediment supply,
transgression occurs. The timing of this event depends on sediment supply and rate
of eustatic rise, but it will usually occur on the rising limb of the eustatic curve when
the rate of addition of new shelf space increases rapidly prior to the eustatic rise
inflection point
 During transgression, only pelagic or hemipelagic deposition occurs on the starved
shelf and basin, generating a starved or condensed section there
 Of all the systems tract types, the transgressive systems tract is the most sensitive to
variations of sediment supply, and its occurrence is therefore the most difficult to
predict
Sonatrach / IAP 272
Highstand systems tract
 The highstand systems tract is deposited during the eustatic highstand, defined as the
interval between the eustatic rise and fall inflection points. This interval is characterized
by a slowly decreasing relative rise of sea level as the rate of eustatic change gradually
decreases
 An unconformity defines the upper surface, and a condensed section marks the lower
limits of this systems tract
 Reservoir facies are associated primarily with prograding beach and aggrading fluvial
depositional systems. Organic‐rich facies with source potential may develop on the toes
and delta plains of progradational units
Sonatrach / IAP 273
Shelf‐margin systems tract
 The shelf‐margin systems tract is a regressive stratigraphic unit overlying a highstand
deposit and is usually deposited following the inflection point on a gentle eustatic fall
 This interval is characterized by a progressive increase in the rate of relative rise of sea
level. The shelf margin systems tract is deposited on the outer part of the shelf and is
marked by an abrupt basinward shift of coastal onlap at its base
 The base of this systems tract is an erosional unconformity or its correlative conformity,
whereas the top either grades into a transgressive systems tract or is a condensed
section. The basal unconformity on the shelf is usually marked by paralic/deltaic
sediments overlying fluvial deposits
Sonatrach / IAP 274
stratigraphy
• Dynamic points
Sonatrach / IAP 275
"Facies adjacent to one another in a continuous vertical sequence
also accumulated adjacent to one another laterally"
Sonatrach / IAP 276
Sonatrach / IAP 277
Introduction to sedimentary sequences
Depositional sequence in respect to Walther's law
Sonatrach / IAP 278
Parasequence: depositional processes in system tracts
Progradagradation (Advancing)
Retrogradation (Backstepping)
Parasequence or Genetic units :
• Elementary deposition sequence (building block)
• Thickness : few meters to few tens of meters
• Bounded by isochrons (2 successives times surfaces)
Elementary cycles of variations accomodation

Influenced by allocyclic parameters (external parameter of the basin)
Sonatrach / IAP 279
The genetic sequence
 The genetic sequences are short term
depositional sequences (1 Ma) regrouping
orders of cyclicity lower than the 4th order
 They are limited by two maximum flooding
surfaces or by two condensed intervals, and
there thicknesses vary from a few
decimeters to few meters
 They record a cycle of variation of the
depositional environment, interpreted as
transgression and regression
 The genetic sequences are deducted from
essentially sedimentological but none
geometric observations. They are recognized
by drilling or on outcrops
P. Homewood, P. Mauriaud, F. Lafont 2001
Sonatrach / IAP 280
Sonatrach / IAP 281
Sonatrach / IAP 282
Definition and example
 Chronostratigraphy is the branch of stratigraphy that studies the absolute age of

rock strata
 Chronostratigraphy is based upon deriving geochronological data for rock units,

both directly and by inference
 Objectives of chronostratigraphy:
• Determine the ages
of strata
• Demonstrate the
geographic extend
of strata
• Confirm the
sequence
stratigraphy
interpretations
Sonatrach / IAP 283
Definition and example
 Combination between paleontology and stratigraphy. In oil and gas industry,
biostratigraphy corresponds to the study from rock samples (core and cuttings) of
microfossils (pollens, spores, nannofossils, diatoms and foraminifera)
 The objectives of biostratigraphy are to:

• Determine the
age (relative or
absolute) of strata
• Study the
paleo‐environment
during deposition
and its evolution
• Make correlations
between layers
containing the same
fossil population
Sonatrach / IAP 284
THANK YOU FOR YOUR ATTENTION,
Sonatrach / IAP 285
Sonatrach / IAP 286

03 IFPTraining - RCM - Sem3 - Booklet

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03 IFPTraining - RCM - Sem3 - Booklet

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Formation professionnalisante

Une formation IFP Training pour Sonatrach / IAP

 Basin analysis Slides 9

 Clastic depositional environments and facies Slides 49

 Log responses in clastic sequences Slides 165

 Clastic petrography and diagenesis Slides 193

 Fundamentals of sequence stratigraphy Slides 249

 Elaboration of « exploration Strategy for

 Organic indicators (VR, biomarkers, X‐fluo) Geochemical  Risk and uncertainties

• Subsidence mechanisms (back‐ Deliverables

Onshore and Offshore basins

Lithospheric plate boundaries = seismicity (in red)

 Basins associated with plate divergence

 Basins associated with plate convergence

 Basins associated with shearing (sliding movement)

 Transformation of Organic Matter (O.M.) from dead fauna or flora

 Accumulation & preservation of O.M.

 Modification of depositional conditions

 Transformation of Kerogen into hydrocarbons

Kerogen: non soluble part of O.M. (i.e. lipids)

Maturation: chemical transformation, mainly due to temperature (and pressure)

Animals = maximum 10% of total generated organic biomass

Types of migration: The word “migration” covers all types of displacements of

 Three origins of OM > three different types of Kerogen

 Three steps of OM transformation within source rocks

 Three factors for OM maturation

Source rock Reservoir rock Seal rock / Cap rock

400 300 200 100 Geologic Time

Time of expulsion and migration.

 Fluid flows and related sedimentary processes

 Depositional environments & Clastic reservoirs geometry (from

− Coastal / deltaic systems & reservoirs geometry – Quality

 Siliciclastics are detrital sediments that result from the

 The main mineral components are quartz, feldspars, micas and

 Clastics are classified according to their grain size and shape:

composition, cement and matrix must all be taken into consideration

 Weathering and erosion (of outcropping rocks )

 Transport (of debris + solutions and colloidal particles)

 Fluid flows and related sedimentary processes

 Depositional environments & Clastic reservoirs geometry (from

 Suspended sediment transport (suspension)

 Formed under influence of same hydrodynamic and/or aerodynamic

 We must answer and resolve the following questions:

 Three main factors controlling bedforms in unidirectional currents:

 Bedforms produced by wave action

 Hummocky/swaley cross‐stratification (HCS)

 Visible as negative moulds on layers base (way‐up criteria)

 Fluid flows and related sedimentary processes

 Depositional environments & Clastic reservoirs geometry (from

 Range dimensions (λ, H, L)

 Indicate flow direction

 Sketch dynamic process

 Fluid flows and related sedimentary processes

 Depositional environments & Clastic reservoirs geometry (from

Jeroen Schokker, Wim Westerhoff & Henk Weerts after Heinz & Aigner, 2003

 Fluid flows and related sedimentary processes

 Depositional environments & Clastic reservoirs geometry (from

 Three main types of river (fluvial) systems (according to braided parameters

 Channel pattern is the combination of

 Typical succession of lenticular sorted

 Cones composed of sand to silty facies

 Formed by stacked fining upward thin

 Levees deposits, adjacent to the